第19章

Others，thatallowforalawofnaturethekeepingoffaith，doneverthelessmakeexceptionofcertainpersons；asheretics，andsuchasusenottoperformtheircovenanttoothers；andthisalsoisagainstreason。Forifanyfaultofamanbesufficienttodischargeourcovenantmade，thesameoughtinreasontohavebeensufficienttohavehinderedthemakingofit。

Thenamesofjustandunjustwhentheyareattributedtomen，signifyonething，andwhentheyareattributedtoactions，another。

Whentheyareattributedtomen，theysignifyconformity，orinconformityofmanners，toreason。Butwhentheyareattributedtoactiontheysignifytheconformity，orinconformitytoreason，notofmanners，ormanneroflife，butofparticularactions。Ajustmanthereforeishethattakethallthecarehecanthathisactionsmaybealljust；andanunjustmanishethatneglectethit。Andsuchmenaremoreofteninourlanguagestyledbythenamesofrighteousandunrighteousthanjustandunjustthoughthemeaningbethesame。

Thereforearighteousmandoesnotlosethattitlebyoneorafewunjustactionsthatproceedfromsuddenpassion，ormistakeofthingsorpersons，nordoesanunrighteousmanlosehischaracterforsuchactionsashedoes，orforbearstodo，forfear：becausehiswillisnotframedbythejustice，butbytheapparentbenefitofwhatheistodo。Thatwhichgivestohumanactionstherelishofjusticeisacertainnoblenessorgallantnessofcourage，rarelyfound，bywhichamanscornstobebeholdingforthecontentmentofhislifetofraud，orbreachofpromise。Thisjusticeofthemannersisthatwhichismeantwherejusticeiscalledavirtue；andinjustice，avice。

Butthejusticeofactionsdenominatesmen，notjust，butguiltless：

andtheinjusticeofthesame(whichisalsocalledinjury)givesthembutthenameofguilty。

Again，theinjusticeofmannersisthedispositionoraptitudetodoinjury，andisinjusticebeforeitproceedtoact，andwithoutsupposinganyindividualpersoninjured。Buttheinjusticeofanaction(thatistosay，injury)supposethanindividualpersoninjured；namelyhimtowhomthecovenantwasmade：andthereforemanytimestheinjuryisreceivedbyonemanwhenthedamageredoundethtoanother。Aswhenthemastercommandethhisservanttogivemoneytostranger；ifitbenotdone，theinjuryisdonetothemaster，whomhehadbeforecovenantedtoobey；butthedamageredoundethtothestranger，towhomhehadnoobligation，andthereforecouldnotinjurehim。AndsoalsoinCommonwealthsprivatemenmayremittooneanothertheirdebts，butnotrobberiesorotherviolences，wherebytheyareendamaged；becausethedetainingofdebtisaninjurytothemselves，butrobberyandviolenceareinjuriestothepersonoftheCommonwealth。

Whatsoeverisdonetoaman，conformabletohisownwillsignifiedtothedoer，isnotinjurytohim。Forifhethatdoethithathnotpassedawayhisoriginalrighttodowhathepleasebysomeantecedentcovenant，thereisnobreachofcovenant，andthereforenoinjurydonehim。Andifhehave，thenhiswilltohaveitdone，beingsignified，isareleaseofthatcovenant，andsoagainthereisnoinjurydonehim。

Justiceofactionsisbywritersdividedintocommutativeanddistributive：andtheformertheysayconsistethinproportionarithmetical；thelatterinproportiongeometrical。Commutative，therefore，theyplaceintheequalityofvalueofthethingscontractedfor；anddistributive，inthedistributionofequalbenefittomenofequalmerit。Asifitwereinjusticetoselldearerthanwebuy，ortogivemoretoamanthanhemerits。Thevalueofallthingscontractedforismeasuredbytheappetiteofthecontractors，andthereforethejustvalueisthatwhichtheybecontentedtogive。Andmerit(besidesthatwhichisbycovenant，wheretheperformanceononepartmeriteththeperformanceoftheotherpart，andfallsunderjusticecommutative，notdistributive)isnotduebyjustice，butisrewardedofgraceonly。Andthereforethisdistinction，inthesensewhereinitusethtobeexpounded，isnotright。Tospeakproperly，commutativejusticeisthejusticeofacontractor；thatis，aperformanceofcovenantinbuyingandselling，hiringandlettingtohire，lendingandborrowing，exchanging，bartering，andotheractsofcontract。

Anddistributivejustice，thejusticeofanarbitrator；thatistosay，theactofdefiningwhatisjust。Wherein，beingtrustedbythemthatmakehimarbitrator，ifheperformhistrust，heissaidtodistributetoeverymanhisown：andthisisindeedjustdistribution，andmaybecalled，thoughimproperly，distributivejustice，butmoreproperlyequity，whichalsoisalawofnature，asshallbeshownindueplace。

Asjusticedependethonantecedentcovenant；sodoesgratitudedependonantecedentgrace；thatistosay，antecedentfreegift；

andisthefourthlawofnature，whichmaybeconceivedinthisform：thatamanwhichreceivethbenefitfromanotherofmeregraceendeavourthathewhichgivethithavenoreasonablecausetorepenthimofhisgoodwill。Fornomangivethbutwithintentionofgoodtohimself，becausegiftisvoluntary；andofallvoluntaryacts，theobjectistoeverymanhisowngood；ofwhichifmenseetheyshallbefrustrated，therewillbenobeginningofbenevolenceortrust，norconsequentlyofmutualhelp，norofreconciliationofonemantoanother；andthereforetheyaretoremainstillintheconditionofwar，whichiscontrarytothefirstandfundamentallawofnaturewhichcommandethmentoseekpeace。Thebreachofthislawiscalledingratitude，andhaththesamerelationtogracethatinjusticehathtoobligationbycovenant。

Afifthlawofnatureiscomplaisance；thatistosay，thateverymanstrivetoaccommodatehimselftotherest。Fortheunderstandingwhereofwemayconsiderthatthereisinmen’saptnesstosocietyadiversityofnature，risingfromtheirdiversityofaffections，notunliketothatweseeinstonesbroughttogetherforbuildingofanedifice。Forasthatstonewhichbytheasperityandirregularityoffiguretakesmoreroomfromothersthanitselffills，andforhardnesscannotbeeasilymadeplain，andtherebyhindereththebuilding，isbythebuilderscastawayasunprofitableandtroublesome：soalso，amanthatbyasperityofnaturewillstrivetoretainthosethingswhichtohimselfaresuperfluous，andtoothersnecessary，andforthestubbornnessofhispassionscannotbecorrected，istobeleftorcastoutofsocietyascumbersomethereunto。Forseeingeveryman，notonlybyright，butalsobynecessityofnature，issupposedtoendeavourallhecantoobtainthatwhichisnecessaryforhisconservation，hethatshallopposehimselfagainstitforthingssuperfluousisguiltyofthewarthatthereuponistofollow，andthereforedoththatwhichiscontrarytothefundamentallawofnature，whichcommandethtoseekpeace。Theobserversofthislawmaybecalledsociable，(theLatinscallthemcommodi)；thecontrary，stubborn，insociable，forward，intractable。

Asixthlawofnatureisthis：thatuponcautionofthefuturetime，amanoughttopardontheoffencespastofthemthat，repenting，desireit。Forpardonisnothingbutgrantingofpeace；whichthoughgrantedtothemthatpersevereintheirhostility，benotpeace，butfear；yetnotgrantedtothemthatgivecautionofthefuturetimeissignofanaversiontopeace，andthereforecontrarytothelawofnature。

Aseventhis：thatinrevenges(thatis，retributionofevilforevil)，menlooknotatthegreatnessoftheevilpast，butthegreatnessofthegoodtofollow。Wherebyweareforbiddentoinflictpunishmentwithanyotherdesignthanforcorrectionoftheoffender，ordirectionofothers。Forthislawisconsequenttothenextbeforeit，thatcommandethpardonuponsecurityofthefuturetime。Besides，revengewithoutrespecttotheexampleandprofittocomeisatriumph，orgloryinginthehurtofanother，tendingtonoend(fortheendisalwayssomewhattocome)；andgloryingtonoendisvain-glory，andcontrarytoreason；andtohurtwithoutreasontendethtotheintroductionofwar，whichisagainstthelawofnature，andiscommonlystyledbythenameofcruelty。

Andbecauseallsignsofhatred，orcontempt，provoketofight；

insomuchasmostmenchooserathertohazardtheirlifethannottoberevenged，wemayintheeighthplace，foralawofnature，setdownthisprecept：thatnomanbydeed，word，countenance，orgesture，declarehatredorcontemptofanother。Thebreachofwhichlawiscommonlycalledcontumely。

Thequestionwhoisthebettermanhasnoplaceintheconditionofmerenature，where(ashasbeenshownbefore)allmenareequal。

Theinequalitythatnowishasbeenintroducedbythelawscivil。I

knowthatAristotleinthefirstbookofhisPolitics，forafoundationofhisdoctrine，makethmenbynature，somemoreworthytocommand，meaningthewisersort，suchashethoughthimselftobeforhisphilosophy；otherstoserve，meaningthosethathadstrongbodies，butwerenotphilosophersashe；asmasterandservantwerenotintroducedbyconsentofmen，butbydifferenceofwit：whichisnotonlyagainstreason，butalsoagainstexperience。Forthereareveryfewsofoolishthathadnotrathergovernthemselvesthanbegovernedbyothers：norwhenthewise，intheirownconceit，contendbyforcewiththemwhodistrusttheirownwisdom，dotheyalways，oroften，oralmostatanytime，getthevictory。Ifnaturethereforehavemademenequal，thatequalityistobeacknowledged：orifnaturehavemademenunequal，yetbecausementhatthinkthemselvesequalwillnotenterintoconditionsofpeace，butuponequalterms，suchequalitymustbeadmitted。Andthereforefortheninthlawofnature，Iputthis：thateverymanacknowledgeanotherforhisequalbynature。Thebreachofthispreceptispride。

Onthislawdependethanother：thatattheentranceintoconditionsofpeace，nomanrequiretoreservetohimselfanyrightwhichheisnotcontentshouldhereservedtoeveryoneoftherest。

Asitisnecessaryforallmenthatseekpeacetolaydowncertainrightsofnature；thatistosay，nottohavelibertytodoalltheylist，soisitnecessaryforman’slifetoretainsome：asrighttogoverntheirownbodies；enjoyair，water，motion，waystogofromplacetoplace；andallthingselsewithoutwhichamancannotlive，ornotlivewell。Ifinthiscase，atthemakingofpeace，menrequireforthemselvesthatwhichtheywouldnothavetobegrantedtoothers，theydocontrarytotheprecedentlawthatcommandeththeacknowledgementofnaturalequality，andthereforealsoagainstthelawofnature。Theobserversofthislawarethosewecallmodest，andthebreakersarrogantmen。TheGreekscalltheviolationofthislawpleonexia；thatis，adesireofmorethantheirshare。

Also，ifamanhetrustedtojudgebetweenmanandman，itisapreceptofthelawofnaturethathedealequallybetweenthem。Forwithoutthat，thecontroversiesofmencannotbedeterminedbutbywar。Hethereforethatispartialinjudgement，dothwhatinhimliestodetermenfromtheuseofjudgesandarbitrators，andconsequently，againstthefundamentallawofnature，isthecauseofwar。

Theobservanceofthislaw，fromtheequaldistributiontoeachmanofthatwhichinreasonbelongedtohim，iscalledequity，and(asIhavesaidbefore)distributivejustice：theviolation，acceptionofpersons，prosopolepsia。

Andfromthisfollowethanotherlaw：thatsuchthingsascannothedividedbeenjoyedincommon，ifitcanbe；andifthequantityofthethingpermit，withoutstint；otherwiseproportionablytothenumberofthemthathaveright。Forotherwisethedistributionisunequal，andcontrarytoequity。