第4章

Bythisimpositionofnames，someoflarger，someofstrictersignification，weturnthereckoningoftheconsequencesofthingsimaginedinthemindintoareckoningoftheconsequencesofappellations。Forexample，amanthathathnouseofspeechatall，(suchasisbornandremainsperfectlydeafanddumb)，ifhesetbeforehiseyesatriangle，andbyittworightangles(suchasarethecornersofasquarefigure)，hemaybymeditationcompareandfindthatthethreeanglesofthattriangleareequaltothosetworightanglesthatstandbyit。Butifanothertrianglebeshownhimdifferentinshapefromtheformer，hecannotknowwithoutanewlabourwhetherthethreeanglesofthatalsobeequaltothesame。Buthethathaththeuseofwords，whenheobservesthatsuchequalitywasconsequent，nottothelengthofthesides，nortoanyotherparticularthinginhistriangle；butonlytothis，thatthesideswerestraight，andtheanglesthree，andthatthatwasall，forwhichhenameditatriangle；willboldlyconcludeuniversallythatsuchequalityofanglesisinalltriangleswhatsoever，andregisterhisinventioninthesegeneralterms：Everytrianglehathitsthreeanglesequaltotworightangles。Andthustheconsequencefoundinoneparticularcomestoberegisteredandrememberedasauniversalrule；anddischargesourmentalreckoningoftimeandplace，anddeliversusfromalllabourofthemind，savingthefirst；andmakesthatwhichwasfoundtruehere，andnow，tobetrueinalltimesandplaces。

Buttheuseofwordsinregisteringourthoughtsisinnothingsoevidentasinnumbering。Anaturalfoolthatcouldneverlearnbyhearttheorderofnumeralwords，asone，two，andthree，mayobserveeverystrokeoftheclock，andnodtoit，orsayone，one，one，butcanneverknowwhathouritstrikes。Anditseemstherewasatimewhenthosenamesofnumberwerenotinuse；andmenwerefaintoapplytheirfingersofoneorbothhandstothosethingstheydesiredtokeepaccountof；andthatthenceitproceededthatnowournumeralwordsarebutten，inanynation，andinsomebutfive，andthentheybeginagain。Andhethatcantellten，ifherecitethemoutoforder，willlosehimself，andnotknowwhenhehasdone：muchlesswillhebeabletoadd，andsubtract，andperformallotheroperationsofarithmetic。Sothatwithoutwordsthereisnopossibilityofreckoningofnumbers；muchlessofmagnitudes，ofswiftness，offorce，andotherthings，thereckoningswhereofarenecessarytothebeingorwell-beingofmankind。

Whentwonamesarejoinedtogetherintoaconsequence，oraffirmation，asthus，Amanisalivingcreature；orthus，Ifhebeaman，heisalivingcreature；ifthelatternamelivingcreaturesignifyallthattheformernamemansignifieth，thentheaffirmation，orconsequence，istrue；otherwisefalse。Fortrueandfalseareattributesofspeech，notofthings。Andwherespeechisnot，thereisneithertruthnorfalsehood。Errortheremaybe，aswhenweexpectthatwhichshallnotbe，orsuspectwhathasnotbeen；butinneithercasecanamanbechargedwithuntruth。

Seeingthenthattruthconsistethintherightorderingofnamesinouraffirmations，amanthatseekethprecisetruthhadneedtorememberwhateverynameheusesstandsfor，andtoplaceitaccordingly；orelsehewillfindhimselfentangledinwords，asabirdinlimetwigs；themorehestruggles，themorebelimed。Andthereforeingeometry(whichistheonlysciencethatithathpleasedGodhithertotobestowonmankind)，menbeginatsettlingthesignificationsoftheirwords；whichsettlingofsignifications，theycalldefinitions，andplacetheminthebeginningoftheirreckoning。

Bythisitappearshownecessaryitisforanymanthataspirestotrueknowledgetoexaminethedefinitionsofformerauthors；andeithertocorrectthem，wheretheyarenegligentlysetdown，ortomakethemhimself。Fortheerrorsofdefinitionsmultiplythemselves，accordingasthereckoningproceeds，andleadmenintoabsurdities，whichatlasttheysee，butcannotavoid，withoutreckoninganewfromthebeginning；inwhichliesthefoundationoftheirerrors。Fromwhenceithappensthattheywhichtrusttobooksdoastheythatcastupmanylittlesumsintoagreater，withoutconsideringwhetherthoselittlesumswererightlycastupornot；andatlastfindingtheerrorvisible，andnotmistrustingtheirfirstgrounds，knownotwhichwaytoclearthemselves，spendtimeinflutteringovertheirbooks；asbirdsthatenteringbythechimney，andfindingthemselvesenclosedinachamber，flutteratthefalselightofaglasswindow，forwantofwittoconsiderwhichwaytheycamein。Sothatintherightdefinitionofnamesliesthefirstuseofspeech；whichistheacquisitionofscience：andinwrong，ornodefinitions，liesthefirstabuse；fromwhichproceedallfalseandsenselesstenets；whichmakethosementhattaketheirinstructionfromtheauthorityofbooks，andnotfromtheirownmeditation，tobeasmuchbelowtheconditionofignorantmenasmenenduedwithtruescienceareaboveit。Forbetweentruescienceanderroneousdoctrines，ignoranceisinthemiddle。Naturalsenseandimaginationarenotsubjecttoabsurdity。Natureitselfcannoterr：andasmenaboundincopiousnessoflanguage；sotheybecomemorewise，ormoremad，thanordinary。Norisitpossiblewithoutlettersforanymantobecomeeitherexcellentlywiseor(unlesshismemorybehurtbydisease，orillconstitutionoforgans)excellentlyfoolish。Forwordsarewisemen’scounters；theydobutreckonbythem：buttheyarethemoneyoffools，thatvaluethembytheauthorityofanAristotle，aCicero，oraThomas，oranyotherdoctorwhatsoever，ifbutaman。

Subjecttonamesiswhatsoevercanenterintoorbeconsideredinanaccount，andbeaddedonetoanothertomakeasum，orsubtractedonefromanotherandleavearemainder。TheLatinscalledaccountsofmoneyrationes，andaccounting，ratiocinatio：andthatwhichweinbillsorbooksofaccountcallitems，theycallednomina；thatis，names：andthenceitseemstoproceedthattheyextendedthewordratiotothefacultyofreckoninginallotherthings。TheGreekshavebutoneword，logos，forbothspeechandreason；notthattheythoughttherewasnospeechwithoutreason，butnoreasoningwithoutspeech；andtheactofreasoningtheycalledsyllogism；whichsignifiethsummingupoftheconsequencesofonesayingtoanother。

Andbecausethesamethingsmayenterintoaccountfordiverseaccidents，theirnamesare(toshowthatdiversity)diverselywrestedanddiversified。Thisdiversityofnamesmaybereducedtofourgeneralheads。

First，athingmayenterintoaccountformatter，orbody；asliving，sensible，rational，hot，cold，moved，quiet；withallwhichnamesthewordmatter，orbody，isunderstood；allsuchbeingnamesofmatter。

Secondly，itmayenterintoaccount，orbeconsidered，forsomeaccidentorqualitywhichweconceivetobeinit；asforbeingmoved，forbeingsolong，forbeinghot，etc。；andthen，ofthenameofthethingitself，byalittlechangeorwresting，wemakeanameforthataccidentwhichweconsider；andforlivingputintotheaccountlife；formoved，motion；forhot，heat；forlong，length，andthelike：andallsuchnamesarethenamesoftheaccidentsandpropertiesbywhichonematterandbodyisdistinguishedfromanother。Thesearecallednamesabstract，becausesevered，notfrommatter，butfromtheaccountofmatter。

Thirdly，webringintoaccountthepropertiesofourownbodies，wherebywemakesuchdistinction：aswhenanythingisseenbyus，wereckonnotthethingitself，butthesight，thecolour，theideaofitinthefancy；andwhenanythingisheard，wereckonitnot，butthehearingorsoundonly，whichisourfancyorconceptionofitbytheear：andsucharenamesoffancies。

Fourthly，webringintoaccount，consider，andgivenames，tonamesthemselves，andtospeeches：for，general，universal，special，equivocal，arenamesofnames。Andaffirmation，interrogation，commandment，narration，syllogism，sermon，oration，andmanyothersucharenamesofspeeches。Andthisisallthevarietyofnamespositive；whichareputtomarksomewhatwhichisinnature，ormaybefeignedbythemindofman，asbodiesthatare，ormaybeconceivedtobe；orofbodies，thepropertiesthatare，ormaybefeignedtobe；orwordsandspeech。

Therebealsoothernames，callednegative；whicharenotestosignifythatawordisnotthenameofthethinginquestion；asthesewords：nothing，noman，infinite，indocible，threewantfour，andthelike；whichareneverthelessofuseinreckoning，orincorrectingofreckoning，andcalltomindourpastcogitations，thoughtheybenotnamesofanything；becausetheymakeusrefusetoadmitofnamesnotrightlyused。

Allothernamesarebutinsignificantsounds；andthoseoftwosorts。One，whentheyarenew，andyettheirmeaningnotexplainedbydefinition；whereoftherehavebeenabundancecoinedbySchoolmenandpuzzledphilosophers。

Another，whenmenmakeanameoftwonames，whosesignificationsarecontradictoryandinconsistent；asthisname，anincorporealbody，or，whichisallone，anincorporealsubstance，andagreatnumbermore。

Forwhensoeveranyaffirmationisfalse，thetwonamesofwhichitiscomposed，puttogetherandmadeone，signifynothingatall。Forexample，ifitbeafalseaffirmationtosayaquadrangleisround，thewordroundquadranglesignifiesnothing，butisameresound。Solikewiseifitbefalsetosaythatvirtuecanbepoured，orblownupanddown，thewordsinpouredvirtue，inblownvirtue，areasabsurdandinsignificantasaroundquadrangle。AndthereforeyoushallhardlymeetwithasenselessandinsignificantwordthatisnotmadeupofsomeLatinorGreeknames。FrenchmanseldomhearsourSaviourcalledbythenameofParole，butbythenameofVerbeoften；yetVerbeandParolediffernomorebutthatoneisLatin，theotherFrench。

Whenaman，uponthehearingofanyspeech，haththosethoughtswhichthewordsofthatspeech，andtheirconnexion，wereordainedandconstitutedtosignify，thenheissaidtounderstandit：

understandingbeingnothingelsebutconceptioncausedbyspeech。

Andthereforeifspeechbepeculiartoman，asforoughtIknowitis，thenisunderstandingpeculiartohimalso。Andthereforeofabsurdandfalseaffirmations，incasetheybeuniversal，therecanbenounderstanding；thoughmanythinktheyunderstandthen，whentheydobutrepeatthewordssoftly，orconthemintheirmind。

Whatkindsofspeechessignifytheappetites，aversions，andpassionsofman’smind，andoftheiruseandabuse，IshallspeakwhenIhavespokenofthepassions。

Thenamesofsuchthingsasaffectus，thatis，whichpleaseanddispleaseus，becauseallmenbenotalikeaffectedwiththesamething，northesamemanatalltimes，areinthecommondiscoursesofmenofinconstantsignification。Forseeingallnamesareimposedtosignifyourconceptions，andallouraffectionsarebutconceptions；whenweconceivethesamethingsdifferently，wecanhardlyavoiddifferentnamingofthem。Forthoughthenatureofthatweconceivebethesame；yetthediversityofourreceptionofit，inrespectofdifferentconstitutionsofbodyandprejudicesofopinion，giveseverythingatinctureofourdifferentpassions。Andthereforeinreasoning，amanmusttakeheedofwords；which，besidesthesignificationofwhatweimagineoftheirnature，haveasignificationalsoofthenature，disposition，andinterestofthespeaker；suchasarethenamesofvirtuesandvices：foronemancallethwisdomwhatanothercallethfear；andonecrueltywhatanotherjustice；oneprodigalitywhatanothermagnanimity；andonegravitywhatanotherstupidity，etc。Andthereforesuchnamescanneverbetruegroundsofanyratiocination。Nomorecanmetaphorsandtropesofspeech：butthesearelessdangerousbecausetheyprofesstheirinconstancy，whichtheotherdonot。