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atfourpercentamonth,[59]andobtainedforthatpurposetwoSenatusConsulta;intheformerofwhichitwasexpresslymentionedthatthisloanshouldnotbeconsideredasanevasionofthelaw,[60]andthatthegovernorofSicilyshoulddetermineaccordingtothestipulationsmentionedinthebondoftheSalaminians。
AslendinguponinterestwasforbiddenbytheGabinianlawbetweenprovincialsandRomancitizens,andthelatteratthattimehadallthemoneyoftheglobeintheirhands,therewasanecessityfortemptingthemwiththebaitofextravagantinterest,totheendthattheavariciousmightthuslosesightofthedangeroflosingtheirmoney。
AndastheyweremenofgreatpowerinRome,whoawedthemagistratesandoverruledthelaws,theywereemboldenedtolend,andtoextortgreatusury。HencetheprovincesweresuccessivelyravagedbyeveryonewhohadanycreditinRome:andaseachgovernor,atenteringuponhisprovince,publishedhisedict[61]whereinhefixedtherateofinterestinwhatmannerhepleased,thelegislatureplayedintothehandsofavarice,andthelatterservedthemeanpurposesofthelegislator。
Butthepublicbusinessmustbecarriedon;andwhereveratotalinactionobtains,thestateisundone。Onsomeoccasionsthetowns,thecorporatebodiesandsocieties,aswellasprivatepeople,wereunderthenecessityofborrowing——anecessitybuttoourgent,wereitonlytorepairtheravagesofarmies,therapacityofmagistrates,theextortionsofcollectors,andthecorruptpracticesdailyintroduced;
forneverwasthereatoneperiodsomuchpovertyandopulence。Thesenate,beingpossessedoftheexecutivepower,granted,throughnecessity,andoftentimesthroughfavour,apermissionofborrowingfromRomancitizens,soastoenactdecreesforthatparticularpurpose。Buteventhesedecreeswerediscreditedbythelaw;fortheymightgiveoccasiontothepeople’sinsistinguponnewratesofinterest,whichwouldaugmentthedangeroflosingthecapital,whiletheymadeafurtherextensionofusury。[62]Ishalleverrepeatit,thatmankindaregovernednotbyextremes,butbyprinciplesofmoderation。
Hepaysleast,saysUlpian,whopayslatest。[63]Thisdecidesthequestionwhetherinterestbelawful;thatis,whetherthecreditorcanselltime,andthedebtorbuyit。
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1。ThesaltmadeuseofforthispurposeinAbyssiniahasthisdefect,thatitiscontinuallywastingaway。
2。Herodotus,Bk。i,tellsusthattheLydiansfoundouttheartofcoiningmoney;theGreekslearneditfromthem:theAtheniancoinhadtheimpressionoftheirancientox。IhaveseenoneofthosepiecesintheEarlofPembroke’scabinet。
3。ItisanancientcustominAlgiersforthefatherofafamilytohaveatreasureconcealedintheearth。——LaugierdeTassis,HistoryoftheKingdomofAlgiers。
4。C?sar,DeBelloCiv。,iii。
5。Tacitus,Annals,vi。17。
6。TheLawsoftheSaxons,18。
7。Seechapter12ofthisbook。
8。Supposingamarkofeightouncesofsilvertobeworthforty—ninelivres,andcoppertwentysolsperpound。
9。HistoryoftheCivilWarsoftheSpaniardsintheWestIndies。
10。InFrance,Law’sprojectwascalledbythisname。
11。Socrates,HistoryoftheChurch,ii。17。
12。Thereismuchspecieinaplacewhenthereismorespeciethanpaper;thereislittle,whenthereismorepaperthanspecie。
13。Withtheexpensesofcarriageandinsurancededucted。
14。In1744。
15。Seebookxx。23。
16。Pliny,NaturalHistory,xxxiii,art。13。
17。Ibid。
18。Theyreceivedtenouncesofcopperfortwenty。
19。Theyreceivedsixteenouncesofcopperfortwenty。
20。Pliny,xxxiii,art。5。
21。Freinshemius,dec。2,v。
22。Ibid。Theystruckalso,saysthesameauthor,halfdenarii,calledquinarii;andquarters,calledsesterces。
23。Aneighth,accordingtoBud?us;accordingtootherauthors,aseventh。
24。Pliny,NaturalHistory,xxxiii,art。13。
25。Ibid。
26。SeeFatherJoubert,ScienceofMedals,p。59,Paris,1739。
27。ExtractofVirtuesandVices。
28。SeeSavote,partII,12,andLeJournaldesSavantsofthe28thofJuly,1681,onadiscoveryoffiftythousandmedals。
29。SeeSavote,ibid。
30。Ibid。
31。Chapter21。
32。England。
33。Wedonotspeakhereofgoldandsilverconsideredasamerchandise。
34。Tacitus,Annals,vi。16。
35。UsuryandinterestamongtheRomanssignifiedthesamething。
36。SeeDionysiusHalicarnassus,whohasdescribeditsowell。
37。Usur?semisses,trientes,quadrantes。Seetheseveraltitlesofthedigestsandcodesonusury,andespeciallyLeg。17,withthenote,ff。
deusuris。
38。SeeAppius’sspeechonthissubject,inDionysiusHalicarnassus,v。
39。Annals,vi。16。
40。IntheyearofRome388。——Livy,vi。25。
41。Unciariausura。——Ibid。,vii。16。
42。Annals,vi。16。
43。UndertheconsulateofL。ManliusTorquatusandC。Plautius,accordingtoLivy,vii。27。ThisisthelawmentionedbyTacitus,Annals,vi。
44。Semiunciariausura。
45。AsTacitussays。Annals,vi。
46。ThislawwaspassedattheinstanceofM。Genucius,tribuneofthepeople。——Livy,vii,towardstheend。
47。Verterijammorefoenusreceptumerat。——Appian。OntheCivilWar,i。
48。Permisiteoslegibusagere。——Ibid。;andtheEpitomeofLivy,lxiv。
49。IntheyearofRome663。
50。Bookxi。19。
51。LetterstoAtticus,v。21。
52。Livy,xxxv。7。
53。Ibid。
54。Intheyear561ofRome。——SeeLivy,xxv。7。
55。Annals,vi。16。
56。Intheyear615ofRome。
57。SeeLetterstoAtticus,iv。15,16。
58。Ibid。,vi。i。
59。Pompeyhavinglent600talentstoKingAriobarzanes,madethatprincepayhimthirtyAttictalentseverythirtydays。——Ibid。,v。21,vi。1。
60。UtnequeSalaminiis,nequecuieisdedisset,fraudiesset。——Ibid。
61。Cicero’sedictfixedittoonepercentamonth,withinterestuponinterestattheexpirationoftheyear。Withregardtothefarmersoftherepublic,heengagedthemtograntarespitetotheirdebtors;ifthelatterdidnotpayatthetimefixed,heawardedtheinterestmentionedinthebond。——Ibid。,vi。1。
62。SeewhatLucretiussays,inthe21stlettertoAtticus,v。TherewasevenageneralSenatusConsultum,tofixtherateofinterestatonepercentpermonth。Seethesameletter。
63。Leg。12,ff。deverb。signif。
BookXXIII。OfLawsintheRelationTheyBeartotheNumberofInhabitants1。OfMenandAnimalswithrespecttotheMultiplicationoftheirSpecies。
Delightofhumankind,[1]andgodsabove;
ParentofRome,propitiousQueenofLove;
Forwhentherisingspringadornsthemead,Andanewsceneofnaturestandsdisplay’d;
Whenteemingbuds,andcheerfulgreensappear,Andwesterngalesunlockthelazyyear;
Thejoyousbirdsthywelcomefirstexpress,Whosenativesongsthygenialfireconfess:
Thensavagebeastsboundo’ertheirslightedfood,Struckwiththydarts,andtempttheragingflood:
Allnatureisthygift,earth,air,andsea;
Ofallthatbreathesthevariousprogeny,Stungwithdelight,isgoadedonbythee。
O’erbarrenmountains,o’ertheflow’ryplain,Theleafyforest,andtheliquidmain,Extendsthyuncontroll’dandboundlessreign。
Thro’allthelivingregionsthoudostmove,Andscatter’stwherethougo’stthekindlyseedsoflove。
Thefemalesofbruteshaveanalmostconstantfecundity。Butinthehumanspecies,themannerofthinking,thecharacter,thepassions,thehumour,thecaprice,theideaofpreservingbeauty,thepainofchild—bearing,andthefatigueofatoonumerousfamily,obstructpropagationinathousanddifferentways。
2。OfMarriage。Thenaturalobligationofthefathertoprovideforhischildrenhasestablishedmarriage,whichmakesknownthepersonwhooughttofulfilthisobligation。Thepeople[2]mentionedbyPomponiusMela[3]hadnootherwayofdiscovering