第20章

Inthisking’slastillness，thephysicianswouldnotventuretosayhewasindanger；andsurelytheyactedveryright。[31]

11。OfThoughts。MarsyasdreamedthathehadcutDionysius’sthroat。[32]

Dionysiusputhimtodeath，pretendingthathewouldneverhavedreamedofsuchathingbynightifhehadnotthoughtofitbyday。Thiswasamosttyrannicalaction：forthoughithadbeenthesubjectofhisthoughts，yethehadmadenoattempt[33]towardsit。Thelawsdonottakeuponthemtopunishanyotherthanovertacts。

12。OfindiscreetSpeeches。Nothingrendersthecrimeofhightreasonmorearbitrarythandeclaringpeopleguiltyofitforindiscreetspeeches。Speechissosubjecttointerpretation；thereissogreatadifferencebetweenindiscretionandmalice；andfrequentlysolittleisthereofthelatterinthefreedomofexpression，thatthelawcanhardlysubjectpeopletoacapitalpunishmentforwordsunlessitexpresslydeclareswhatwordstheyare。[34]

Wordsdonotconstituteanovertact；theyremainonlyinidea。Whenconsideredbythemselves，theyhavegenerallynodeterminatesignification；forthisdependsonthetoneinwhichtheyareuttered。

Itoftenhappensthatinrepeatingthesamewordstheyhavenotthesamemeaning；thisdependsontheirconnectionwithotherthings，andsometimesmoreissignifiedbysilencethanbyanyexpressionwhatever。

Sincetherecanbenothingsoequivocalandambiguousasallthis，howisitpossibletoconvertitintoacrimeofhightreason？Whereverthislawisestablished，thereisanendnotonlyofliberty，butevenofitsveryshadow。

InthemanifestoofthelateCzarinaagainstthefamilyoftheD’Olgoruckys，[35]oneoftheseprincesiscondemnedtodeathforhavingutteredsomeindecentwordsconcerningherperson：another，forhavingmaliciouslyinterpretedherimperiallaws，andforhavingoffendedhersacredpersonbydisrespectfulexpressions。

NotthatIpretendtodiminishthejustindignationofthepublicagainstthosewhopresumetostainthegloryoftheirsovereign；whatI

meanisthat，ifdespoticprincesarewillingtomoderatetheirpower，amilderchastisementwouldbemoreproperonthoseoccasionsthanthechargeofhightreason——athingalwaysterribleeventoinnocenceitself。[36]

Overtactsdonothappeneveryday；theyareexposedtotheeyeofthepublic；andafalsechargewithregardtomattersoffactmaybeeasilydetected。Wordscarriedintoactionassumethenatureofthataction。

Thusamanwhogoesintoapublicmarket—placetoincitethesubjecttorevoltincurstheguiltofhightreason，becausethewordsarejoinedtotheaction，andpartakeofitsnature。Itisnotthewordsthatarepunished，butanactioninwhichwordsareemployed。Theydonotbecomecriminal，butwhentheyareannexedtoacriminalaction：everythingisconfoundedifwordsareconstruedintoacapitalcrime，insteadofconsideringthemonlyasamarkofthatcrime。

TheEmperorsTheodosius，Arcadius，andHonoriuswrotethustoRufinus，whowaspr？fectuspr？torio："Thoughamanshouldhappentospeakamissofourpersonorgovernment，wedonotintendtopunishhim：[37]ifhehasspokenthroughlevity，wemustdespisehim；ifthroughfolly，wemustpityhim；andifhewrongsus，wemustforgivehim。Therefore，leavingthingsastheyare，youaretoinformusaccordingly，thatwemaybeabletojudgeofwordsbypersons，andthatwemaydulyconsiderwhetherweoughttopunishoroverlookthem。"

13。OfWritings。Inwritingsthereissomethingmorepermanentthaninwords，butwhentheyareinnowaypreparativetohightreasontheycannotamounttothatcharge。

AndyetAugustusandTiberiussubjectedsatiricalwriterstothesamepunishmentasforhavingviolatedthelawofmaiestas。Augustus，[38]

becauseofsomelibelsthathadbeenwrittenagainstpersonsofthefirstquality；Tiberius，becauseofthosewhichhesuspectedtohavebeenwrittenagainsthimself。NothingwasmorefataltoRomanliberty。

CremutiusCorduswasaccusedofhavingcalledCassiusinhisannalsthelastoftheRomans。[39]

Satiricalwritingsarehardlyknownindespoticgovernments，wheredejectionofmindontheonehand，andignoranceontheother，affordneitherabilitiesnorwilltowrite。Indemocraciestheyarenothindered，fortheverysamereasonwhichcausesthemtobeprohibitedinmonarchies；beinggenerallylevelledagainstmenofpowerandauthority，theyflatterthemalignancyofthepeople，whoarethegoverningparty。

Inmonarchiestheyareforbidden，butratherasasubjectofcivilanimadversionthanasacapitalcrime。Theymayamusethegeneralmalevolence，pleasethemalcontents，diminishtheenvyagainstpublicemployments，givethepeoplepatiencetosuffer，andmakethemlaughattheirsufferings。

Butnogovernmentissoaversetosatiricalwritingsasthearistocratic。Therethemagistratesarepettysovereigns，butnotgreatenoughtodespiseaffronts。Ifinamonarchyasatiricalstrokeisdesignedagainsttheprince，heisplacedonsuchaneminencethatitdoesnotreachhim；butanaristocraticlordispiercedtotheveryheart。Hencethedecemvirs，whoformedanaristocracy，punishedsatiricalwritingswithdeath。[40]

14。BreachofModestyinpunishingCrimes。Therearerulesofmodestyobservedbyalmosteverynationintheworld；nowitwouldbeveryabsurdtoinfringetheserulesinthepunishmentofcrimes，theprincipalviewofwhichoughtalwaystobetheestablishmentoforder。

WasittheintentofthoseOrientalnationswhoexposedwomentoelephantstrainedupforanabominablekindofpunishment——wasit，I

say，theirintenttoestablishonelawbythebreachofanother？

ByanancientcustomoftheRomansitwasnotpermittedtoputgirlstodeathtilltheywereripeformarriage。Tiberiusfoundanexpedientofhavingthemdebauchedbytheexecutionerbeforetheywerebroughttotheplaceofpunishment：[41]thatbloodyandsubtletyrantdestroyedthemoralsofthepeopletopreservetheircustoms。

WhenthemagistratesofJapancausedwomentobeexposednakedinthemarket—places，andobligedthemtogouponallfourslikebeasts，modestywasshocked：[42]butwhentheywantedtocompelamother——whentheywantedtoforceason——Icannotproceed；evenNatureherselfisstruckwithhorror。[43]

15。OftheEnfranchisementofSlavesinordertoaccusetheirMaster。

Augustusmadealawthattheslavesofthosewhoconspiredagainsthispersonshouldbesoldtothepublic，thattheymightdeposeagainsttheirmaster。[44]Nothingoughttobeneglectedwhichmaycontributetothediscoveryofaheinouscrime；itisnatural，therefore，thatinagovernmentwherethereareslavestheyshouldbeallowedtoinform；buttheyoughtnottobeadmittedaswitnesses。

VindexdiscoveredtheconspiracythathadbeenformedinfavourofTarquin；buthewasnotadmittedawitnessagainstthechildrenofBrutus。Itwasrighttogivelibertytoapersonwhohadrenderedsogreataservicetohiscountry；butitwasnotgivenhimwithaviewofenablinghimtorenderthisservice。

HencetheEmperorTacitusordainedthatslavesshouldnotbeadmittedaswitnessesagainsttheirmasters，eveninthecaseofhightreason：[45]alawwhichwasnotinsertedinJustinian’scompilation。

16。OfCalumnywithregardtotheCrimeofHighTreason。TodojusticetotheC？sars，theywerenotthefirstdevisersofthehorridlawswhichtheyenacted。ItwasSulla[46]thattaughtthemthatcalumniatorsoughtnottobepunished；buttheabusewassooncarriedtosuchexcessastorewardthem。[47]

17。OftherevealingofConspiracies。"Ifthybrother，thesonofthymother，orthyson，orthydaughter，orthewifeofthybosom，orthyfriend，whichisasthineownsoul，enticetheesecretly，saying，’Letusgoandserveothergods，’thoushaltsurelykillhim，thoushaltstonehim。"[48]ThislawofDeuteronomycannotbeacivillawamongmostofthenationsknowntous，becauseitwouldpavethewayforallmannerofwickedness。

Nolesssevereisthelawofseveralcountrieswhichcommandsthesubjects，onpainofdeath，todiscloseconspiraciesinwhichtheyarenotevensomuchasconcerned。Whensuchalawisestablishedinamonarchicalgovernment，itisveryproperitshouldbeundersomerestrictions。

Itoughtnottobeappliedinitsfullseveritysavetothestrongestcasesofhightreason。Inthosecountriesitisoftheutmostimportancenottoconfoundthedifferentdegreesofthiscrime。InJapan，wherethelawssubverteveryideaofhumanreason，thecrimeofconcealmentisappliedeventothemostordinarycases。

Acertainrelation[49]makesmentionoftwoyoungladieswhowereshutupforlifeinaboxthicksetwithpointednails，oneforhavinghadaloveintrigue，andtheotherfornotdisclosingit。

18。HowdangerousitisinRepublicstobetoosevereinpunishingtheCrimeofHighTreason。Assoonasarepublichascompassedthedestructionofthosewhowantedtosubvertit，thereshouldbeanendofterrors，punishments，andevenofrewards。

Greatpunishments，andconsequentlygreatchanges，cannottakeplacewithoutinvestingsomecitizenswithanexorbitantpower。Itis，therefore，moreadvisableinthiscasetoexceedinlenitythaninseverity；tobanishbutfew，ratherthanmany；andtoleavethemtheirestates，insteadofmakingavastnumberofconfiscations。Underpretenceofavengingtherepublic’scause，theavengerswouldestablishtyranny。Thebusinessisnottodestroytherebel，buttherebellion。

Theyoughttoreturnasquicklyaspossibleintotheusualtrackofgovernment，inwhicheveryoneisprotectedbythelaws，andnooneinjured。

TheGreekssetnoboundstothevengeancetheytookupontyrants，orofthosetheysuspectedoftyranny；theyputtheirchildrentodeath，[50]

nay，sometimesfiveoftheirnearestrelatives；[51]andtheyproscribedaninfinitenumberoffamilies。Bysuchmeanstheirrepublicssufferedthemostviolentshocks：exiles，orthereturnoftheexiled，werealwaysepochsthatindicatedachangeoftheconstitution。

TheRomanshadmoresense。WhenCassiuswasputtodeathforhavingaimedattyranny，thequestionwasproposedwhetherhischildrenshouldundergothesamefate：buttheywerepreserved。"They，"saysDionysiusHalicarnassus，[52]"whowantedtochangethislawattheendoftheMarsianandcivilwars，andtoexcludefrompublicofficesthechildrenofthosewhohadbeenproscribedbySulla，areverymuchtoblame。"

WefindinthewarsofMariusandSullatowhatexcesstheRomanshadgraduallycarriedtheirbarbarity。Suchscenesofcrueltyitwashopedwouldneverberevived。Butunderthetriumvirstheycommittedgreateractsofoppression，thoughwithsomeappearanceoflenity；anditisprovokingtoseewhatsophismstheymadeuseoftocovertheirinhumanity。Appianhasgivenus[53]theformulaoftheproscriptions。

Onewouldimaginetheyhadnootheraimthanthegoodoftherepublic，withsuchcalmnessdotheyexpressthemselves；suchadvantagesdotheypointouttothestate；suchexpediencydotheyshowinthemeanstheyadopt；suchsecuritydotheypromisetotheopulent；suchtranquillitytothepoor；soapprehensivedotheyseemofendangeringthelivesofthecitizens；sodesirousofappeasingthesoldiers；suchfelicity，infine，dotheypresagetothecommonwealth。

RomewasdrenchedinbloodwhenLepidustriumphedoverSpain：yet，byanunparalleledabsurdity，heorderedpublicrejoicingsinthatcity，uponpainofproscription。

19。InwhatMannertheUseofLibertyissuspendedinaRepublic。Incountrieswherelibertyismostesteemed，therearelawsbywhichasinglepersonisdeprivedofit，inordertopreserveitforthewholecommunity。SuchareinEnglandwhattheycallBillsofAttainder。[54]

TheseareinrelationtothoseAthenianlawsbywhichaprivatepersonwascondemned，[55]providedtheyweremadebytheunanimoussuffrageofsixthousandcitizens。TheyareinrelationalsotothoselawswhichweremadeatRomeagainstprivatecitizens，andwerecalledprivileges。[56]Thesewereneverpassedexceptinthegreatmeetingsofthepeople。Butinwhatmannersoevertheywereenacted，Cicerowasforhavingthemabolished，becausetheforceofalawconsistsinitsbeingmadeforthewholecommunity。[57]Imustown，notwithstanding，thatthepracticeofthefreestnationthateverexistedinducesmetothinkthattherearecasesinwhichaveilshouldbedrawnforawhileoverliberty，asitwascustomarytocoverthestatuesofthegods。

20。OfLawsfavourabletotheLibertyoftheSubjectinaRepublic。Inpopulargovernmentsitoftenhappensthataccusationsarecarriedoninpublic，andeverymanisallowedtoaccusewhomsoeverhepleases。Thisrendereditnecessarytoestablishproperlaws，inordertoprotecttheinnocenceofthesubject。AtAthens，ifanaccuserhadnotthefifthpartofthevotesonhisside，hewasobligedtopayafineofathousanddrachms。？schines，whoaccusedCtesiphon，wascondemnedtopaythisfine。[58]AtRome，afalseaccuserwasbrandedwithinfamy[59]bymarkingtheletterKonhisforehead。Guardswerealsoappointedtowatchtheaccuser，inordertopreventhiscorruptingeitherthejudgesorthewitnesses。[60]

IhavealreadytakennoticeofthatAthenianandRomanlawbywhichthepartyaccusedwasallowedtowithdrawbeforejudgmentwaspronounced。

21。OftheCrueltyofLawsinrespecttoDebtorsinaRepublic。Greatisthesuperioritywhichonefellow—subjecthasalreadyoveranother，bylendinghimmoney，whichthelatterborrowsinordertospend，and，ofcourse，hasnolongerinhispossession。Whatmustbetheconsequenceifthelawsofarepublicmakeafurtheradditiontothisservitudeandsubjection？

AtAthensandRome[61]itwasatfirstpermittedtosellsuchdebtorsaswereinsolvent。SolonredressedthisabuseatAthens[62]byordainingthatnoman’sbodyshouldanswerforhiscivildebts。Butthedecemvirs[63]didnotreformthesamecustomatRome；andthoughtheyhadSolon’sregulationbeforetheireyes，yettheydidnotchoosetofollowit。ThisisnottheonlypassageofthelawoftheTwelveTablesinwhichthedecemvirsshowtheirdesignofcheckingthespiritofdemocracy。

OftendidthosecruellawsagainstdebtorsthrowtheRomanrepublicintodanger。Amancoveredwithwoundsmadehisescapefromhiscreditor’shouseandappearedintheforum。[64]Thepeopleweremovedwiththisspectacle，andothercitizenswhomtheircreditorsdurstnolongerconfinebrokeloosefromtheirdungeons。Theyhadpromisesmadethem，whichwereallbroken。Thepeopleuponthis，havingwithdrawntotheSacredMount，obtained，notanabrogationofthoselaws，butamagistratetodefendthem。Thustheyquittedastateofanarchy，butweresoonindangeroffallingintotyranny。Manlius，torenderhimselfpopular，wasgoingtosetthosecitizensatlibertywhobytheirinhumancreditors[65]hadbeenreducedtoslavery。Manlius’sdesignswereprevented，butwithoutremedyingtheevil。Particularlawsfacilitatedtodebtorsthemeansofpaying；[66]andintheyearofRome428theconsulsproposedalaw[67]whichdeprivedcreditorsofthepowerofconfiningtheirdebtorsintheirownhouses。[68]Ausurer，bynamePapirius，attemptedtocorruptthechastityofayoungmannamedPublius，whomhekeptinirons。Sextus’scrimegavetoRomeitspoliticalliberty；thatofPapiriusgaveitalsothecivil。

Suchwasthefateofthiscity，thatnewcrimesconfirmedthelibertywhichthoseofamoreancientdatehadprocuredit。Appius’sattemptuponVirginiaflungthepeopleagainintothathorroragainsttyrantswithwhichthemisfortuneofLucretiahadfirstinspiredthem。

Thirty—sevenyearsafter[69]thecrimeoftheinfamousPapirius，anactionofthelikecriminalnature[70]wasthecauseofthepeople’sretiringtotheJaniculum，[71]andofgivingnewvigourtothelawmadeforthesafetyofdebtors。

Sincethattimecreditorswereoftenerprosecutedbydebtorsforhavingviolatedthelawsagainstusurythanthelatterweresuedforrefusingtopaythem。

22。OfThingsthatstrikeatLibertyinMonarchies。Libertyoftenhasbeenweakenedinmonarchiesbyathingoftheleastuseintheworldtotheprince：thisisthenamingofcommissionerstotryaprivateperson。

Theprincehimselfderivessoverylittleadvantagefromthosecommissionersthatitisnotworthwhiletochangefortheirsakethecommoncourseofthings。Heismorallysurethathehasmoreofthespiritofprobityandjusticethanhiscommissioners，whothinkthemselvessufficientlyjustifiedbyhisnominationandorders，byavagueinterestofstate，andevenbytheirveryapprehensions。

UponthearraigningofapeerunderHenryVIIIitwascustomarytotryhimbyacommitteeoftheHouseofLords：bywhichmeansheputtodeathasmanypeersashepleased。

23。OfSpiesinMonarchies。ShouldIbeaskedwhetherthereisanynecessityforspiesinmonarchies，myanswerwouldbethattheusualpracticeofgoodprincesisnottoemploythem。Whenamanobeysthelaws，hehasdischargedhisdutytohisprince。Heoughtatleasttohavehisownhouseforanasylum，andtherestofhisconductshouldbeexemptfrominquiry。Thetradeofaspymightperhapsbetolerable，wereitpractisedbyhonestmen；butthenecessaryinfamyofthepersonissufficienttomakeusjudgeoftheinfamyofthething。Aprinceoughttoacttowardshissubjectswithcandour，frankness，andconfidence。

Hethathassomuchdisquiet，suspicion，andfearisanactorembarrassedinplayinghispart。Whenhefindsthatthelawsaregenerallyobservedandrespected，hemayjudgehimselfsafe。Thebehaviourofthepublicanswersforthatofeveryindividual。Lethimnotbeafraid：hecannotimaginehownaturalitisforhispeopletolovehim。Andhowshouldtheydootherwisethanlovehim，sinceheisthesourceofalmostallbountiesandfavours；punishmentsbeinggenerallychargedtotheaccountofthelaws？Henevershowshimselftohispeoplebutwithaserenecountenance；theyhaveevenashareofhisglory，andtheyareprotectedbyhispower。Aproofofhisbeingbelovedisthathissubjectshaveconfidenceinhim：whattheministerrefuses，theyimaginetheprincewouldhavegranted。Evenunderpubliccalamitiestheydonotaccusehisperson；theyareapttocomplainofhisbeingmisinformed，orbesetbycorruptmen。"Didtheprincebutknow，"saythepeople；thesewordsareakindofinvocation，andaproofoftheconfidencetheyhaveinhisperson。

24。OfAnonymousLetters。TheTartarsareobligedtoputtheirnamestotheirarrows，thatthearmmaybeknownwhichshootsthem。WhenPhilipofMacedonwaswoundedatthesiegeofacertaintown，thesewordswerefoundonthejavelin，"AsterhasgiventhismortalwoundtoPhilip。"[72]

Iftheywhoaccuseapersondiditmerelytoservethepublic，theywouldnotcarrytheircomplainttotheprince，whomaybeeasilyprejudiced，buttothemagistrates，whohaverulesthatareformidableonlytocalumniators。Butiftheyareunwillingtoleavethelawsopenbetweenthemandtheaccused，itisapresumptiontheyhavereasontobeafraidofthem；andtheleastpunishmenttheyoughttosufferisnottobecredited。Nonotice，therefore，shouldeverbetakenofthoseletters，exceptincasesthatadmitnotofthedelaysoftheordinarycourseofjustice，andinwhichtheprince’swelfareisconcerned。Thenitmaybeimaginedthattheaccuserhasmadeaneffort，whichhasuntiedhistongue。Butinothercasesoneoughttosay，withtheEmperorConstantius："Wecannotsuspectapersonwhohaswantedanaccuser，whilsthedidnotwantanenemy。"[73]

25。OftheMannerofgoverninginMonarchies。Theroyalauthorityisaspringthatoughttomovewiththegreatestfreedomandease。TheChineseboastofoneoftheiremperorswhogoverned，theysay，liketheheavens，thatis，byhisexample。

Therearesomecasesinwhichasovereignoughttoexertthefullextentofhispower；andothersinwhichheshouldreduceitwithinnarrowerlimits。Thesublimityofadministrationconsistsinknowingtheproperdegreeofpowerwhichshouldbeexertedondifferentoccasions。

Thewholefelicityofmonarchiesconsistsintheopinionwhichthesubjectsentertainofthelenityofthegovernment。Aweakministeriseverreadytoremindusofourslavery。Butgranting，even，thatweareslaves，heshouldendeavourtoconcealourmiseryfromus。Allhecansayorwriteisthattheprinceisuneasy，thatheissurprised，andthathewillredressallgrievances。Thereisacertaineaseincommanding；theprinceoughtonlytoencourage，andletthelawsmenace。[74]

26。ThatinaMonarchythePrinceoughttobeofeasyAccess。Theutilityofthismaximwillappearfromtheinconvenienceattendingthecontrarypractice。"TheCzarPeterI，"saystheSieurPerry，[75]"haspublishedanewedict，bywhichheforbidsanyofhissubjectstoofferhimapetitiontillafterhavingpresentedittotwoofhisofficers。Incaseofrefusalofjusticetheymaypresenthimathird，butuponpainofdeathiftheyareinthewrong。AfterthisnooneeverpresumedtoofferapetitiontotheCzar。"

27。OftheMannersofaMonarch。Themannersofaprincecontributeasmuchasthelawsthemselvestoliberty；likethesehemaytransformmenintobrutes，andbrutesintomen。Ifheprefersfreeandgenerousspirits，hewillhavesubjects；ifhelikesbase，dastardlysouls，hewillhaveslaves。Wouldheknowthegreatartofruling，lethimcallhonourandvirtuetoattendhisperson；andlethimencouragepersonalmerit。Hemayevensometimescastaneyeontalentsandabilities。Lethimnotbeafraidofthoserivalswhoarecalledmenofmerit；heistheirequalwhenoncehelovesthem。Lethimgaintheheartsofhispeople，withoutsubduingtheirspirits。Lethimrenderhimselfpopular；

heoughttobepleasedwiththeaffectionsofthelowestofhissubjects，fortheytooaremen。Thecommonpeoplerequiresoverylittlecondescension，thatitisfittheyshouldbehumoured；theinfinitedistancebetweenthesovereignandthemwillsurelypreventthemfromgivinghimanyuneasiness。Lethimbeexorabletosupplication，andresoluteagainstdemands；lethimbesensible，infine，thathispeoplehavehisrefusals，whilehiscourtiersenjoyhisfavours。

28。OftheRegardwhichMonarchsowetotheirSubjects。Princesoughttobeextremelycircumspectwithregardtoraillery。Itpleaseswithmoderation，becauseitisanintroductiontofamiliarity；butasatiricalrailleryislessexcusableinthemthaninthemeanestoftheirsubjects，foritistheyalonethatgiveamortalwound。