下载辰思小说免费APP
Inthesamemanner，asmoneyisthesignandrepresentativeofathing，everythingisasignandrepresentativeofmoney；andthestateisinaprosperousconditionwhenontheonehandmoneyperfectlyrepresentsallthings，andontheotherallthingsperfectlyrepresentmoney，andarereciprocallythesignofeachother；thatis，whentheyhavesucharelativevaluethatwemayhavetheoneassoonaswehavetheother。
Thisneverhappensinanyotherthanamoderategovernment，nordoesitalwayshappenthere；forexample，ifthelawsfavourthedishonestdebtor，hiseffectsarenolongerarepresentativeorsignofmoney。
Withregardtoadespoticgovernment，itwouldbeaprodigydidthingsthererepresenttheirsign。Tyrannyanddistrustmakeeveryoneburytheirspecie；[3]thingsthereforearenottheretherepresentativeofmoney。
Legislatorshavesometimeshadtheartnotonlytomakethingsintheirownnaturetherepresentativeofspecie，buttoconvertthemevenintospecie，likethecurrentcoin。C？sar，whenhewasdictator，permitteddebtorstogivetheirlandsinpaymenttotheircreditors，atthepricetheywereworthbeforethecivilwar。[4]Tiberiusorderedthatthosewhodesiredspecieshouldhaveitfromthepublictreasuryonbindingovertheirlandtodoublethevalue[5]UnderC？sarthelandswerethemoneywhichpaidalldebts；underTiberiustenthousandsestercesinlandbecameascurrentmoneyequaltofivethousandsestercesinsilver。TheMagnaChartaofEnglandprovidesagainsttheseizingofthelandsorrevenuesofadebtor，whenhismovableorpersonalgoodsaresufficienttopay，andheiswillingtogivethemuptohiscreditors；thusallthegoodsofanEnglishmanrepresentmoney。
ThelawsoftheGermansconstitutedmoneyasatisfactionfortheinjuriesthatwerecommitted，andforthesufferingsduetoguilt。Butastherewasbutverylittlespecieinthecountry，theyagainconstitutedthismoneytobepaidingoodsorchattels。ThiswefindappointedinaSaxonlaw，withcertainregulationssuitabletotheeaseandconvenienceoftheseveralranksofpeople。Atfirstthelawdeclaredthevalueofasouincattle；[6]thesouoftwotremisesansweredtoanoxoftwelvemonths，ortoaewewithherlamb；thatofthreetremiseswasworthanoxofsixteenmonths。Withthesepeoplemoneybecamecattle，goods，andmerchandise，andtheseagainbecamemoney。
Moneyisnotonlyasignofthings；itisalsoasignandrepresentativeofmoney，asweshallseeinthechapteronexchange。
3。OfidealMoney。Thereisbothrealandidealmoney。Civilisednationsgenerallymakeuseofidealmoneyonly，becausetheyhaveconvertedtheirrealmoneyintoideal。Atfirsttheirrealmoneywassomemetalofacertainweightandstandard，butsoondishonestyorwantmadethemretrenchapartofthemetalfromeverypieceofmoney，towhichtheyleftthesamename；forexample，fromalivreatapoundweighttheytookhalfthesilver，andstillcontinuedtocallitalivre；thepiecewhichwasthetwentiethpartofapoundofsilvertheycontinuedtocallasou，thoughitisnomorethetwentiethpartofthispoundofsilver。
Bythismethodthelivreisanideallivre，andthesouanidealsou。
Thusoftheothersubdivisions；andsofarmaythisbecarriedthatwhatwecallalivreshallbeonlyasmallpartoftheoriginallivreorpound，whichrendersitstillmoreideal。Itmayevenhappenthatwehavenopieceofmoneyoftheprecisevalueofalivre，noranypieceexactlywithasou，thenthelivreandthesouwillbepurelyideal。
Theymaygivetoanypieceofmoneythedenominationofasmanylivresandasmanysousastheyplease，thevariationmaybecontinual，becauseitisaseasytogiveanothernametoathingasitisdifficulttochangethethingitself。
Totakeawaythesourceofthisabuse，itwouldbeanexcellentlawforallcountrieswhoaredesirousofmakingcommerceflourishtoordainthatnonebutrealmoneyshouldbecurrent，andtopreventanymethodsfrombeingtakentorenderitideal。
Nothingoughttobesoexemptfromvariationasthatwhichisthecommonmeasureofall。Tradeisinitsownnatureextremelyuncertain；anditisagreateviltoaddanewuncertaintytothatwhichisfoundedonthenatureofthething。
4。OftheQuantityofGoldandSilver。Whilecivilisednationsarethemistressesoftheworld，goldandsilver，whethertheydrawitfromamongthemselves，orfetchitfromthemines，mustincreaseeveryday。
Onthecontrary，itdiminisheswhenbarbarousnationsprevail。WeknowhowgreatwasthescarcityofthesemetalswhentheGothsandVandalsontheoneside，andontheothertheSaracensandTartars，brokeinlikeatorrentonthecivilisedworld。
5。ThesameSubjectcontinued。ThebulliondrawnfromtheAmericanmines，importedintoEurope，andthencesenttotheEast，hasgreatlypromotedthenavigationoftheEuropeannations；foritismerchandisewhichEuropereceivesinexchangefromAmerica，andwhichshesendsinexchangetotheIndies。Aprodigiousquantityofgoldandsilveristhereforeanadvantage，whenweconsiderthesemetalsasmerchandise；
butitisotherwisewhenweconsiderthemasasign，becausetheirabundancegivesanalloytotheirqualityasasign，whichischieflyfoundedontheirscarcity。
BeforethefirstPunicwar，[7]copperwastosilveras960to1；[8]itisatpresentnearlyas731/2to1。Whentheproportionshallbeasitwasformerly，silverwillbetterperformitsofficeasasign。
6。TheReasonwhyInterestwasloweredone—halfaftertheConquestoftheIndies。Garcilassoinformsus[9]thatinSpainaftertheconquestoftheIndiestheinterest，whichwasattenpercent，felltofive。Thiswasanecessaryconsequence。AgreatquantityofspeciebeingallofasuddenbroughtintoEurope，muchfewerpersonshadneedofmoney。Thepriceofallthingsincreased，whilethevalueofmoneydiminished；theproportionwasthenbroken，andalltheolddebtsweredischarged。WemayrecollectthetimeoftheSystem，[10]wheneverythingwasatahighpriceexceptspecie。ThosewhohadmoneyaftertheconquestoftheIndieswereobligedtolowerthepriceorhireoftheirmerchandise，thatis，inotherwords，theirinterest。
Fromthistimetheywereunabletobringinteresttoitsancientstandard，becausethequantityofspeciebroughttoEuropehasbeenannuallyincreasing。Besides，asthepublicfundsofsomestates，foundedonrichesprocuredbycommerce，gavebutaverysmallinterest，itbecamenecessaryforthecontractsofindividualstoberegulatedbythese。Inshort，thecourseofexchangehavingrenderedtheconveyingofspeciefromonecountrytoanotherremarkablyeasy，moneycannotbescarceinaplacewheretheymaybesoreadilysuppliedwithitbythosewhohaveitinplenty。
7。HowthePriceofThingsisfixedintheVariationoftheSignofRiches。Moneyisthepriceofmerchandiseormanufactures。Buthowshallwefixthisprice？or，inotherwords，bywhatpieceofmoneyiseverythingtoberepresented？
Ifwecomparethemassofgoldandsilverinthewholeworldwiththequantityofmerchandisethereincontained，itiscertainthateverycommodityormerchandiseinparticularmaybecomparedtoacertainportionoftheentiremassofgoldandsilver。Asthetotaloftheoneistothetotaloftheother，sopartoftheonewillbetopartoftheother。Letussupposethatthereisonlyonecommodityormerchandiseintheworld，oronlyonetobepurchased，andthatthisisdivisiblelikemoney；apartofthismerchandisewillanswertoapartofthemassofgoldandsilver；thehalfofthetotaloftheonetothehalfofthetotaloftheother；thetenth，thehundredth，thethousandthpartoftheone，tothetenth，thehundredth，thethousandthpartoftheother。Butasthatwhichconstitutespropertyamongmankindisnotallatonceintrade，andasthemetalsormoneywhicharethesignofpropertyarenotallintradeatthesametime，thepriceisfixedinthecompoundratioofthetotalofthingswiththetotalofsigns，andthatofthetotalofthingsintradewiththetotalofsignsintradealso；andasthethingswhicharenotintradeto—daymaybeintradeto—morrow，andthesignsnotnowintrademayenterintotradeatthesametime，theestablishmentofthepriceofthingsfundamentallydependsontheproportionofthetotalofthingstothetotalofsigns。
Thustheprinceorthemagistratecannomoreascertainthevalueofmerchandisethanhecanestablishbyadecreethattherelation1hasto10isequaltothatof1to20。Julian’sloweringthepriceofprovisionsatAntiochwasthecauseofamostterriblefamine。[11]
8。ThesameSubjectcontinued。TheNegroesonthecoastofAfricahaveasignofvaluewithoutmoney。Itisasignmerelyideal，foundedonthedegreeofesteemwhichtheyfixintheirmindsforallmerchandise，inproportiontotheneedtheyhaveofit。Acertaincommodityormerchandiseisworththreema—coutes；another，sixmacoutes；another，tenmacoutes；thatis，asiftheysaidsimplythree，six，andten。Thepriceisformedbyacomparisonofallmerchandisewitheachother。Theyhavethereforenoparticularmoney
