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afacultynotconstructedoutofindependentpainsandpleasures——andthesystembecomesaviciouscircle。ConscienceonanyreallyUtilitarianschememustbeaderivative，notanultimate，faculty。If，asMillseemstosay，theomissionisablunder，Bentham’sUtilitarianismatleastmustbeanerroneoussystem。
Wehavenowourlistbothofpainsandpleasuresandofthegeneralmodesofvariationbywhichtheirvalueistobemeasured。Wemustalsoallowforthevaryingsensibilitiesofdifferentpersons。Benthamaccordinglygivesalistofthirty-two’circumstancesinfluencingsensibility。’(39*)Humanbeingsdifferinconstitution，character，education，sex，race，andsoforth，andintheirdegreesofsensibilitytoallthevariousclassesofpainsandpleasures；theconsiderationofthesevarietiesisofthehighestutilityforthepurposesofthejudgeandthelegislator。(40*)The’sanctions’willoperatedifferentlyindifferentcases。Ablowwillhavedifferenteffectsuponthesickanduponthehealthy；thesamefineimposedupontherichandthepoorwillcauseverydifferentpains；andalawwhichisbeneficentinEuropemaybeascourgeinAmerica。
Wehavethusour’pathology’ortheoryofthepassivesensibilitiesofman。Weknowwhatarethe’springsofaction，’howtheyvaryingeneral，andhowtheyvaryfromonemantoanother。Wecanthereforepasstothedynamics。(41*)
Wehavedescribedthemachineryinrest，andcannowconsideritinmotion。
Weproceedasbeforebyfirstconsideringactioningeneral：whichleadstoconsiderationofthe’intention’andthe’motive’impliedbyanyconsciousaction：andhenceoftherelationofthesetothe’springsofaction’asalreadydescribed。Thediscussionisminuteandelaborate；andBenthamimprovesashecomesnearertotheactualproblemsoflegislationandfurtherfromtheostensiblebasesofpsychology。Theanalysisofconduct，andofthesanctionsbywhichconductismodified，involvesaviewofmoralsandoftherelationsbetweenthespheresofmoralityandlegislationwhichisofcriticalimportanceforthewholeUtilitariancreed。’Morallaws’anda’Positivelaw’bothaffecthumanaction。Howdotheydiffer?Bentham’streatmentoftheproblemshows，Ithink，aclearerappreciationofsomedifficultiesthanmightbeinferredfromhislaterutterances。Inanycase，itbringsintoclearreliefamoraldoctrinewhichdeeplyaffectedhissuccessors。
III。THESANCTIONS
Letusfirsttakehisdefinitionsofthefundamentalconceptions。Allactionofreasonablebeingsimpliestheexpectationofconsequences。Theagent’s’intention’isdefinedbytheconsequencesactuallycontemplated。
Thecauseofactionisthehopeoftheconsequentpleasuresorthedreadoftheconsequentpains。Thisanticipatedpleasureorpainconstitutesthe’internalmotive’(aphraseusedbyBenthamtoexcludethe’externalmotive’
oreventwhichcausestheanticipation)。(42*)Themotive，or’internalmotive，’
istheanticipationofpaintobeavoidedorpleasuretobegained。Actionsaregoodorbadsimplyandsolelyastheyareonthewhole’productiveofabalanceofpleasureorpain。’Theproblemofthelegislatorishowtoregulateactionssoastoinclinethebalancetotherightside。Hisweaponsare’sanctions’
whichmodify’motives。’Whatmotives，then，shouldbestrengthenedorchecked?
Herewemustbeguidedbyaprinciplewhichis，infact，thelogicalresultofthedoctrinesalreadylaiddown。Weareboundtoapplyour’felicificcalculus’withabsoluteimpartiality。Wemustthereforeassignequalvaluetoallmotives。’Nomotives，’hesays，(43*)are’constantlygoodorconstantlybad。’Pleasureisitselfagood；painitselfanevil：nay，theyare’theonlygoodandtheonlyevil。’Thisistrueofeverysortofpainandpleasure，evenofthepainsandpleasuresofillwill。Thepleasuresof’malevolence’
areplacedinhis’table’bythesideof
