第19章

28。Police，p。310。

29。Police，p。105。

30。Ibid。，p。13。

31。Ibid。，p。211。

32。Ibid。，p。136。

33。Police，p。523。

34。Ibid。，p。397。

35。Police，p。60。

36。Ibid。，p。481。

37。Ibid。，p。7。

38。Ibid。，p。298。

39。Police，p。99。

40。Bentham’sWorks，x，329seq。

41。Ibid。，v。335。

42。Bentham’sWorks，iv，3，121。

43。Cobbet’sStateTrials，xvii，297-626。

44。Police，p。340。

45。Wilberforcestartedonthisplana’societyforenforcingtheking’sproclamation’in1786，whichwassupplementedbythesocietyfor’theSuppresionofVice’in1802。Idon’tsupposethatvicewasmuchsuppressed。SydneySmithridiculeditsperformanceintheEdinburghfor1809。Thearticleisinhisworks。Amoreinterestingsocietywasthatfor’betteringtheconditionofthepoor，’startedbySirThomasBernardandWilberforcein1796。

46。BiographiaLiteraria(1847)，ii。327。

47。HistoryoftheRise，ProgressandAccomplishmentoftheAbolitionoftheSlave-tradebytheBritishParliament(1808)。Secondenlargededition1839。ThechartwasonecauseoftheoffencetakenbyWilberforce’ssons。

48。Cf。SirJ。Stephen’sEcclesiasticalBiography(TheEvanglicalSuccession)。

49。SeepassagescollectedinBirkbeckHill’sBoswell，ii，478-80，andcf。iii，200-204。BoswellwasattractedbyClarkson，butfinallymadeuphismindthattheabolitionoftheslave-tradewould’shutthegatesofmercyonmankind。’

50。SeetheaccountofG。SharpinSirJ。Stephen’sEcclesiasticalBiography(ChaphamSect)。

51。Cobbett’sStateTrials，xx，1-82。

52。TheSocietydeterminedin1760’todisown’anyFriendconcernedintheslave-trade。

53。MrConway，inhisLifeofPaine，attributes，Ithink，alittlemoretohisherothanisconsistentwithdueregardtohispredecessors；but，inanycase，hetookanearlypartinthemovement。

54。SeeuponthissubjectMrJephson’sinterestingbookonThePlatform。

55。France，p。206(20thJuly1789)。

56。SeetheLifeofHorneTooke，byAlexanderStephens(2vols。8vo。1813)。

JohnHorneaddedthenameTookein1782。

57。Parl。Hist。xxi。751

58。Thehistoryofthesesocietiesmaybefoundinthetrialsreportedinthetwenty-third，twenty-fourth，andtwenty-fifthvolumesofCobbett’sStateTrials，andinthereportsofthesecretcommitteesinthethirty-firstandthirty-fourthvolumesoftheParl。History。TherearematerialsinPlace’spapersintheBritishMuseumwhichhavebeenusedinE。Smith’sEnglishJacobins。

59。Parl。Hist。xxix，130001341。

60。Parl。Hist。xxiv，574-655。

61。MrWallas’sLifeofPlace，p。25n。

62。StateTrials，xxiv，575。

63。Ibid。xxv。330。

64。Ibid。xxv。390。

65。Paul’sGodwin，i，147。

66。Stephen，li，48，477。

67。Ibid。ii，34-41，323，478-481。

68。Ibid。ii。483。

69。Bentham’sWorks，x，404。

70。HewasmemberforOldSarum，180102；buthiscareerendedbyadeclaratoryactdisqualifyingforaseatmenwhohadreceivedholyorders。

71。Bentham’sWorks，x。404；LiveofMackintosh，i，52；Paul’sGodwin，i，71；Coleridge’sTableTalk，8thMay1830and16thAugust1833。

72。Stephens，ii，316，334，438。

CHAPTERIV

PHILOSOPHY

I。JohnHorneTookeIhavesofardweltuponthesocialandpoliticalenvironmentoftheearlyUtilitarianmovement；andhavetriedalsotopointoutsomeofthespeculativetendenciesfosteredbytheposition。Ifitbeaskedwhatphilosophicaldoctrineswereexplicitlytaught，theanswermustbeaveryshortone。Englishphilosophybarelyexisted。Parrwassupposedtoknowsomethingaboutmetaphysics——

apparentlybecausehecouldwritegoodLatin。Buttheinferencewashasty。

Ofonebook，however，whichhadarealinfluence，Imustsaysomething，forthoughitcontainedlittledefinitephilosophy，itshowedwhatkindofphilosophywascongenialtothecommon-senseofthetime。Thesturdyradical，HorneTooke，hadbeenledtothestudyofphilologybyacharacteristicincident。

Thelegalquestionhadarisenwhetherthewords，’She，knowingthatCrookehadbeenindictedforforgery，’didsoandso，containedanavermentthatCrookehadbeenindicted。TookearguedinalettertoDunning(1*)thattheydid；becausetheywereequivalenttothephrase，’Crookehadbeenindictedforforgery：she，knowingthat，’didsoandso。Thisraisesthequestion。

Whatisthemeaningof’that’?Tooketookupthestudy，thinking，ashesays，thatitwouldthrowlightuponsomephilosophicalquestions。HelearnedsomeAnglo-SaxonandGothictotesthistheoryand，ofcourse，confirmedit。(2*)

Thebookshowsingenuity，shrewdness，andindustry，andTookedeservescreditforseeingthenecessityofapplyingareallyhistoricalmethodtohisproblem，thoughhisresultswerenecessarilycrudeintheprescientificstageofphilology。

Thebookismainlyalongstringofetymologies，whichreadersofdifferenttasteshavefoundintolerablydulloranamusingcollectionofcuriosities。

Tookeheld，andsurelywithreason，thataninvestigationoflanguage，thegreatinstrumentofthought，mayhelptothrowlightupontheprocessofthinking。HeprofessestobeadiscipleofLockeinphilosophyasinpolitics。

Locke，hesaid，(3*)madealuckymistakeincallinghisbookanessayuponhumanunderstanding；forhethusattractedmanywhowouldhavebeenrepelledhadhecalleditwhatitreallywas，’atreatiseuponwordsandlanguage。’

AccordingtoTooke，infact，(4*)whatwecall’operationsofmind’areonly’operationsoflanguage。’Themindcontemplatesnothingbut’impressions，’

thatis，’sensationsorfeelings，’whichLockecalled’ideas。’Lockemistookcompositionoftermsforcompositionofideas。Tocompoundideasisimpossible。

Wecanonlyuseonetermasasignofmanyideas。Locke，again，supposedthataffirminganddenyingwereoperationsofthemind，whereastheyareonlyartificesoflanguage。(5*)

Themind，then，canonlycontemplate，separatelyortogether，aggregatesof’ideas，’ultimateatoms，incapableofbeingpartedordissolved。Thereare，therefore，onlytwoclassesofwords，nounsandverbs；allothers，prepositions，conjunctions，andsoforth，beingabbreviations，akindofmentalshorthandtosavethetroubleofenumeratingtheseparateitems。Tooke，inshort，isathorough-goingnominalist。Therealities，accordingtohim，aresticks，stones，andmaterialobjects，orthe’ideas’which’represent’them。Theycanbestucktogetherortakenapart，butallthewordswhichexpressrelations，categories，andthelike，areinthemselvesmeaningless。Thespecialobjectsofhisscornare’Hermes’Harris，andMonboddo，whohadtriedtodefendAristotleagainstLocke。Monboddohadassertedthat’everykindofrelation’isapure’ideaoftheintellect’nottobeapprehendedbysense。(6*)Ifso，accordingtoTooke，itwouldbeanonentity。

Thisdoctrinegivesashortcuttotheabolitionofmetaphysics。Theword’metaphysics，’saysTooke，(7*)isnonsense。Allmetaphysicalcontroversiesare’foundedonthegrossestignoranceofwordsandthenatureofspeech。’

Thegreatestpartofhissecondvolumeisconcernedwithetymologiesintendedtoprovethatan’abstractidea’isamereword。Abstractwords，hesays，(8*)

aregenerally’participleswithoutasubstantiveandthereforeinconstructionusedassubstantives。’Fromamisunderstandingofthishasarisen’metaphysicaljargon’and’falsemorality。’Inillustrationhegivesasingularlistofwords，including’fate，chance，heaven，hell，providence，prudence，innocence，substance，fiend，angel，apostle，spirit，true，false，desert，merit，faith，etc。，allofwhicharemereparticiplespoeticallyembodiedandsubstantiatedbythosewhousethem。’Acoupleofspecificapplications，oftenquotedbylaterwriters，willsufficientlyindicatehisdrift。

Suchwords，heremarks，(9*)as’right’and’just’meansimplythatwhichisorderedorcommanded。Thechapterisheaded’rightsofman，’andTooke’sinterlocutornaturallyobservesthatthisisasingularresultforademocrat。

Man，itwouldseem，hasnorightsexcepttherightscreatedbythelaw。Tookeadmitstheinferencetobecorrect，butrepliesthatthedemocratindisobeyinghumanlawmaybeobeyingthelawofGod，andisobeyingthelawofGodwhenheobeysthelawofnature。TheinterlocutordoesnotinquirewhatTookecouldmeanbythe’lawofnature。’WecanguesswhatTookewouldhavesaidtoPaineintheWimbledongarden。Infact，however，Tookeishere，aselsewhere，followingHobbes，though，itseems，unconsciously。Anotherfamousetymologyisthatof’truth’from’troweth。’(10*)Truthiswhateachmanthinks。Thereisnosuchthing，therefore，as’eternal，immutable，everlastingtruth，unlessmankind，suchastheyareatpresent，beeternal，immutable，everlasting。’

Twopersonsmaycontradicteachotherandyeteachmaybespeakingwhatistrueforhim。Truthmaybeaviceaswellasavirtue；foronmanyoccasionsitiswrongtospeakthetruth。