第13章

Theguardians，itwasassumed，couldalwaysfind’work，’andtheyweretorelievetheable-bodiedwithoutapplyingtheworkhousetest。Theact，readilyadopted，thusbecamealandmarkinthegrowthoflaxity。(13*)

Attheendofthecenturyarapiddevelopmentofpauperismhadtakenplace。

Theexpense，asEdenhadtocomplain，haddoubledintwentyyears。Thistookplacesimultaneouslywiththegreatdevelopmentofmanufactures。Itisnotperhapssurprising，thoughitmaybemelancholy，thatincreaseofwealthshallbeaccompaniedbyincreaseofpauperism。Wheretherearemanyrichmen，therewillbeabetterfieldforthievesandbeggars。Alifeofdependencebecomeseasierthoughitneednotnecessarilybeadopted。Whatevermayhavebeentherelationofthetwophenomena，thesocialrevolutionmadetheoldsocialarrangementsmoreinadequate。greataggregationsofworkmenwereformedintowns，whichwerestillonlyvillagesinalegalsense。Fluctuationsoftrade，duetowarorspeculation，broughtdistresstotheimprovident；andtheoldassumptionthateverymanhadaproperplaceinasmallcircle，wherehisneighboursknewallabouthim，wasfurtherthaneverfrombeingverified。

Onepainfulresultwasalreadybeginningtoshowitself。Neglectedchildreningreattownshadalreadyexcitedcompassion。ThomasCoram(1668?-1751)

hadbeenshockedbythesightofdyingchildrenexposedinthestreetsofLondon，andsucceededinestablishingtheFoundlingHospital(foundedin1742)。In1762，JonasHanway(1712-1786)obtainedalawforboardingoutchildrenbornwithinthebillsofmortality。Thedemandforchildren’slabour，producedbythefactories，seemednaturallyenoughtoofferabetterchanceforextendingsuchcharities。Unfortunatelyamongthepeoplewhotookadvantageofitwereparishofficials，eagertogetchildrenofftheirhands，andmanufacturersconcernedonlytomakemoneyoutofchildishlabour。Hencearosetheshamefulsystemforwhichremedies(asIshallhavetonotice)hadtobesoughtinalatergeneration。

Meanwhiletheoutbreakoftherevolutionarywarhadmadethequestionurgent。WhenManchestertradesuffered，asEdentellsusinhisreports，manyworkmenenlistedinthearmy，andlefttheirchildrentobesupportedbytheparish。Badseasonsfollowedin1794and1795，andtherewasgreatdistressintheagriculturaldistricts。Thegoverningclassesbecamealarmed。

InDecember1795Whitbreadintroducedabillprovidingthatthejusticesofthepeaceshouldfixaminimumrateofwages。Uponamotionforthesecondreading，Pittmadethefamousspeech(12thDecember)includingtheoften-quotedstatementthatwhenamanhadafamily，reliefshouldbe’amatterofrightandhonour，insteadofagroundofopprobriumandcontempt。’(14*)PitthadinthesamespeechshownhisreadingofAdamSmithbydwellinguponthegeneralobjectionstostateinterferencewithwages，andhadarguedthatmorewastobegainedbyremovingtherestrictionsuponthefreemovementoflabour。

Heundertooktoproduceacomprehensivemeasure；andanelaboratebillof130clauseswaspreparedin1796。(15*)Theratesweretobeusedtosupplementinadequatewages；’schoolsofindustry’weretobeformedforthesupportofsuperabundantchildren；loansmightbemadetothepoorforthepurchaseofacow；(16*)andthepossessionofpropertywasnottodisqualifyforthereceivingrelief。Inshort，thebillseemstohavebeen(17*)modelofmisappliedbenevolence。ThedetailswerekeenlycriticisedbyBentham，andthebillnevercametothebirth。Othertopicswerepressingenoughatthistimetoaccountforthefailureofameasuresovastinitsscope。Meanwhilesomethinghadtobedone。On6thMay1795theBerkshiremagistrateshadpassedcertainresolutionscalledfromtheirplaceofmeeting，the’SpeenhamlandActofParliament。’Theyprovidedthattherateofwagesofalabourershouldbeincreasedinproportiontothepriceofcornandtothenumberofhisfamily——arulewhich，asEdenobserves，tendedtodiscourageeconomyoffoodintimesofscarcity。Theyalsosanctionedthedisastrousprincipleofpayingpartofthewagesoutofrates。Anactpassedin1796repealedtheoldrestrictionsuponout-doorrelief；andthus，duringthehardtimesthatweretofollow，thepoor-lawswereadaptedtoproducethestateofthingsinwhich，asCobbettsays(in1821)’everylabourerwhohaschildrenisnowregularlyandconstantlyapauper。’(18*)Theresultrepresentsacuriouscompromise。Thelandowners，whetherfrombenevolenceorfearofrevolution，desiredtomeettheterribledistressofthetimes。Unfortunatelytheirspasmodicinterferencewasguidedbynofixedprinciples，andacteduponaclassofinstitutionsnotorganiseduponanydefinitesystem。Thegeneraleffectseemstohavebeenthattheratepayers，nolongerallowedto’depopulate，’soughttoturnthecompulsorystreamofcharitypartlyintotheirownpockets。Iftheywereforcedtosupportpaupers，theycouldcontrivetosavethepaymentofwages。Theycouldusethelabouroftherate-supportedpauperinsteadofemployingindependentworkmen。Theevilsthusproducedledbeforelongtomostimportantdiscussions。(19*)

Theordinaryviewofthepoor-lawwasinverted。Theprominentevilwastherecklessincreaseofadegradedpopulationinsteadoftherestrictionofpopulation。Eden’sownviewissufficientlyindicativeofthelightinwhichthefactsshowedthemselvestointelligenteconomists。AsadiscipleofAdamSmith，heacceptstherathervaguedoctrineofhismasteraboutthe’balance’

betweenlabourandcapital。Iflabourexceedscapital，hesays，thelabourermuststarve’inspiteofallpoliticalregulations。’(20*)Hethereforelookswithdisfavouruponthewholepoor-lawsystem。Itistoodeeplyrootedtobeabolished，buthethinksthattheamounttoberaisedshouldnotbepermittedtoexceedthesumleviedonanaverageofpreviousyears。TheonlycertainresultofPitt’smeasurewouldbeavastexpenditureuponadoubtfulexperiment：

andonemainpurposeofhispublicationwastopointouttheobjectionstotheplan。Hedesireswhatseemedatthattimetobealmosthopeless，anationalsystemofeducation；buthismaindoctrineisthewisdomofrelianceuponindividualeffort。Thetruthofthemaxim’pastropgouverner，’hesays，(21*)

hasneverbeenbetterillustratedthanbythecontrastbetweenfriendlysocietiesandthepoor-laws。Friendlysocietieshadbeenknown，thoughtheywerestillonahumblescale，fromthebeginningofthecentury，andhadtendedtodiminishpauperisminspiteofthepoor-laws。Edengivesmanyaccountsofthem。TheyseemtohavesuggestedaschemeproposedbytheworthyFrancisMaseres1(1731-1824)

in1772fortheestablishmentoflifeannuities。AbilltogiveeffecttothisschemepassedtheHouseofCommonsin1773withthesupportofBurkeandSavile，butwasthrownoutintheHouseofLords。In1786JohnAcland(died1796)，aDevonshireclergymanandjusticeofthepeace，proposedaschemeforunitingthewholenationintoakindoffriendlysocietyforthesupportofthepoorwhenoutofworkandinoldage。ItwascriticisedbyJohnHowlett(1731-1804)，aclergymanwhowrotemuchuponthepoor-laws。

Heattributesthegrowthofpauperismtotheriseofprices，andcalculatesthatoutofanincreasedexpenditureof£；700，000，£；219，000hadbeenraisedbytherich，andtheremainder’squeezedoutoftheflesh，blood，andbonesofthepoor。’AnactforestablishingAcland’scrudeschemefailednextyearinparliament。(22*)Themeritofthesocieties，accordingtoEden，wastheirtendencytostimulateself-help；andhowtopreservethatmerit，whilemakingthemcompulsory，wasadifficultproblem。Ihavesaidenoughtomarkacriticalandcharacteristicchangeofopinion。Onesourceofevilpointedoutbycontemporarieshadbeentheabsenceofanycentralpowerwhichcouldregulateandsystematisetheactionofthepettylocalbodies。Theverypossibilityofsuchorganisation，however，seemstohavebeensimplyinconceivable。Whenthelocalbodiesbecamelavishinsteadofover-frugal，theoneremedysuggestedwastoabolishthesystemaltogether。

II。THEPOLICE

Thesystemof’self-government’showeditsweaksideinthisdirection。

Itmeantthatanimportantfunctionwasintrustedtosmallbodies，quiteincompetentofactingupongeneralprinciples，andperfectlycapableofpettyjobbing，whenunrestrainedbyanyeffectivesupervision。Inanotherdirectionthesametendencywasevenmorestrikinglyillustrated。Municipalinstitutionswerealmostattheirlowestpointofdecay。ManchesterandBirminghamweretwoofthelargestandmostrapidlygrowingtowns。BytheendofthecenturyManchesterhadapopulationof90，000andBirminghamof70，000。Bothwereruled，asfarastheywereruled，bytheremnantsofoldmanorialinstitutions。

Aikin(23*)observesthat’Manchester(in1795)remainsanopentown；destitute(probablytoitsadvantage)ofacorporation，andunrepresentedinparliament。’

Itwasgovernedbya’borough-reeve’andtwoconstableselectedannuallyatthecourt-leet。WilliamHutton，thequainthistorianofBirmingham，tellsusin1783thatthetownwasstilllegallyavillage，withahighandlowbailiff，a’highandlowtaster，’two’affeerers，’andtwo’leather-sealers。’

In1752ithadbeenprovidedwitha’courtofrequests’，fortherecoveryofsmalldebts，andin1769withabodyofcommissionerstoprovideforlightingthetown。Thiswasthesystembywhich，withsomemodifications，BirminghamwasgovernedtillaftertheReformBill。(24*)Huttonboasts(25*)thatnotownwasbettergovernedorhadfewerofficers。’Atownwithoutacharter，’

hesays，’isatownwithoutashackle。’Perhapshechangedhisopinionswhenhiswarehouseswereburntin1791，andthetownwasatthemercyofthemobtillaregimentof’lighthorse’couldbecalledin。AikinandHutton，however，reflectthegeneralopinionatatimewhenthetowncorporationshadbecomecloseandcorruptbodies，andwerechiefly’shackles’upontheenergyofactivemembersofthecommunity。Imustleavetheexplanationofthisdecaytohistorians。Iwillonlyobservethatwhatwouldneedexplanationwouldseemtoberathertheabsencethanthepresenceofcorruption。TheEnglishboroughwasnotstimulatedbyanypressurefromacentralgovernment；norwasitasemi-independentbodyinwhicheverycitizenhadthestrongestmotivesforcombiningtosupportitsindependenceagainstneighbouringtownsorinvadingnobles。Thelowerclasseswereignorant，andprobablywouldberatherhostilethanfavourabletoanysuchmodestinterferencewithdirtanddisorderaswouldcommendthemselvestotheofficials。Naturally，powerwaslefttothelittlecliquesofprosperoustradesmen，whoformedclosecorporations，andspenttherevenuesuponfeastsorsquanderedthembycorruptpractices。Here，asinthepoor-law，theinsufficiencyoftheadministrativebodysuggeststocontemporaries，notitsreform，butitssuperfluity。

ThemoststrikingaccountofsomeofthenaturalresultsisinColquhoun’s(26*)

TreatiseonthePoliceoftheMetropolis。PatrickColquhoun(1745-1820)，anenergeticScot，wasbornatDumbartonin1745，hadbeeninbusinessatGlasgow，wherehewasprovostin1782and1783，andin1789settledinLondon。

In1792heobtainedthroughDundasanappointmenttooneofthenewpolicemagistraciescreatedbyanactofthatyear。Hetookanactivepartinmanyschemesofsocialreform；andhisbookgivesanaccountoftheinvestigationsbywhichhisschemesweresuggestedandjustified。Itmustbesaid，however，parenthetically，thathisstatisticsscarcelychallengeimplicitconfidence。

LikeSinclairandEden，hesawtheimportanceofobtainingfactsandfigures，buthisstatementsaresuspiciouslypreciseandelaborate。(27*)Thebroadfactsareclearenough。

Londonwas，hesays，threemilesbroadandtwenty-fiveincircumference。

Thepopulationin1801was641，000。Itwasthelargesttown，andapparentlythemostchaoticcollectionofdwellingsinthecivilisedworld。Therewere，asColquhounasserts(28*)inanoften-quotedpassage，20，000peopleinit，whogotupeverymorningwithoutknowinghowtheywouldgetthroughtheday。