第8章

CHAPTERII

THEINDUSTRIALSPIRIT

I。TheManufacturesThehistoryofEnglandduringtheeighteenthcenturyshowsacuriouscontrastbetweenthepoliticalstagnancyandthegreatindustrialactivity。Thegreatconstitutionalquestionsseemedtobesettled；andthestatesmen，occupiedmainlyinsharingpowerandplace，tookaveryshortsightedview(notforthefirsttimeinhistory)ofthegreatproblemsthatwerebeginningtopresentthemselves。TheBritishempireintheEastwasnotwonbyatoweringambitionsomuchasforceduponareluctantcommercialcompanybythenecessitiesofitsposition。TheEnglishracebecamedominantinAmerica；butthepoliticalconnectionwasbrokenoffmainlybecauseEnglishstatesmencouldonlyregarditfromtheshopkeepingpointofview。WhenanewworldbegantoariseattheAntipodes，ourrulerssawanopportunitynotforplantingnewoffshootsofEuropeancivilisation，butforriddingthemselvesofthesocialrubbishnolongeracceptedinAmerica。Withpurblindenergy，andeyesdoggedlyfixeduponthegroundattheirfeet，theracehadsomehowpressedforwardstoillustratetheolddoctrinethatamannevergoessofaraswhenhedoesnotknowwhitherheisgoing。Whilethinkingofearninganhonestpennybyextendingthetrade，our’monied-men’werelayingthefoundationofvaststructurestobedevelopedbytheirdescendants。

Politicians，again，hadlittletodowiththegreat’industrialrevolution’

whichmarkedthelasthalfofthecentury。Themainfactsarenowafamiliartopicofeconomichistorians；norneedIspeakofthemindetail。Thoughagriculturewasstillthemainindustry，andthelandownersalmostmonopolisedpoliticalpower，anevergrowingproportionofthepeoplewasbeingcollectedintowns；theartisanswerecongregatinginlargefactories；andthegreatcloudofcoal-smoke，whichhasneverdwindled，wasalreadybeginningtodarkenourskies。Thechangecorrespondstothedifferencebetweenafullydevelopedorganismpossessedofacentralbrain，withanelaboratenervoussystem，andsomelowerforminwhichthevitalprocessesarestillcarriedonbyanumberofseparateganglia。Theconcentrationofthepopulationinthegreatindustrialcentresimpliedtheimprovementofthemeansofcommerce；

neworganisationofindustryprovidedwithacorrespondingapparatusofmachinery；

andthesystematicexploitationofthestored-upforcesofnature。Eachsetofchangeswasatoncecauseandeffect，andeachwascarriedonseparately，althoughinrelationtotheother。Brindley，Arkwright，andWattmaybetakenastypicalrepresentativesofthethreeoperations。Canals，spinning-jennies，andsteam-engineswerechangingthewholesocialorder。

Thedevelopmentofmeansofcommunicationhadbeenslowtillthelasthalfofthecentury。TheroadshadbeenlittlechangedsincetheyhadbeenfirstlaiddownaspartofthegreatnetworkwhichboundtheRomanempiretogether。Turnpikeacts，sanctioningtheconstructionofnewroads，becamenumerous。Palmer’sapplicationofthestage-coachestothecarriageofthemailsmarkedanepochin1784；andDeQuincey’sprosepoem，’TheMail-coach，’

showshowtheunprecedentedspeedofPalmer’scoaches，thenspreadingthenewsofthefirstbattlesinthePeninsula，hadcausedthemtotyranniseovertheopium-eater’sdreams。Theyweredischargingatonceapoliticalandanindustrialfunction。MeanwhiletheBridgewatercanal，constructedbetween1759and1761，wasthefirstlinkinagreatnetworkwhich，bythetimeoftheFrenchrevolution，connectedtheseaportsandthegreatcentresofindustry。Thegreatinventionsofmachineryweresimultaneouslyenablingmanufacturerstotakeadvantageofthenewmeansofcommunication。Thecottonmanufacturesprangupsoonafter1780withenormousrapidity。Aidedbytheapplicationofsteam(firstappliedtoacottonmillin1785)itpassedthewoollentrade，thetraditionalfavouriteoflegislators，andbecamethemostimportantbranchofBritishtrade。Theirontradehadmadeacorrespondingstart。Whilethesteam-engine，onwhichWatthadmadethefirstgreatimprovementin1765，wastransformingthemanufacturingsystem，andpreparingtheadventofthesteamshipandrailroad，GreatBritainhadbecometheleadingmanufacturingandcommercialcountryintheworld。Theagriculturalinterestwaslosingitspre-eminence；andhugetownswithvastaggregationsofartisanpopulationwerebeginningtospringupwithunprecedentedrapidity。ThechangewasanillustrationuponagiganticscaleofthedoctrinesexpoundedintheWealthofNations。Divisionoflabourwasbeingappliedtothingsmoreimportantthanpin-making，involvingaredistributionoffunctionsnotasbetweenmencoveredbythesameroof，butbetweenwholeclassesofsociety；betweenthemakersofnewmeansofcommunicationandthemanufacturersofeverykindofmaterial。Thewholeindustrialcommunitymightberegardedasonegreatorganism。Yettheorganisationwasformedbyamultitudeofindependentagencieswithoutanyconcertedplan。Itwasthusavastillustrationofthedoctrinethateachmanbypursuinghisowninterestspromotedtheinterestsofthewhole，andthatgovernmentinterferencewassimplyahindrance。Theprogressofimprovement，saysAdamSmith，dependsupon’theuniform，constant，anduninterruptedeffortofeverymantobetterhiscondition，’whichoftensucceedsinspiteoftheerrorsofgovernment，asnatureoftenovercomestheblundersofdoctors。Itis，asheinfers，’thehighestimpertinenceandpresumptionforkingsandministerstopretendtowatchovertheeconomyofprivatepeople’

bysumptuarylawsandtaxesuponimports。(1*)TotheEnglishmanufacturerorengineergovernmentappearedasanecessaryevil。Itallowedtheengineertomakeroadsandcanals，afteratroublesomeandexpensiveprocessofapplication。

Itgrantedpatentstothemanufacturer，butthepatentswereasourceofperpetualworryandlitigation。TheChancelloroftheExchequermightlookwithcomplacencyuponthedevelopmentofanewbranchoftrade；butitwasbecausehewaslyinginwaittocomedownuponitwithanewtaxorsystemofduties。

Themenwhowerethechiefinstrumentsofthepro。cesswere’self-made’；

theywerethetypicalexamplesofMrSmiles’svirtueofself-help；theyowednothingtogovernmentortotheuniversitieswhichpassedfortheorgansofnationalculture。Theleadingengineersbeganasordinarymechanics。JohnMetcalf(1717-1810)，otherwise’blindJackofKnaresborough，’wasasonofpoorparents。Hehadlosthissightbysmallpoxattheageofsix，and，inspiteofhismisfortune，becameadaringrider，wrestler，soldier，andcarrier，andmademanyroadsinthenorthofEngland，executingsurveysandconstructingtheworkshimself。JamesBrindley(1716-1772)，sonofamidlandcollier，barelyabletoreadorwrite，workingoutplansbyprocesseswhichhecouldnotexplain，andlyinginbedtilltheytookshapeinhisbrain，aroughmechanic，labouringfortriflingweeklywages，createdthecanalswhichmainlyenabledManchesterandLiverpooltomakeanunprecedentedleapinprosperity。

Thetwogreatengineers，ThomasTelford(1757-1834)，famousfortheCaledoniancanalandtheMenaibridge；andJohnRennie(1761-1821)，drainerofLincolnshirefens，andbuilderofWaterloobridgeandthePlymouthbreakwater，rosefromtheranks。TelfordinheritedanddisplayedinadifferentdirectiontheenergiesofEskdaleborderers，whoseachievementsinthedaysofcattle-stealingweretobemadefamousbyScott：RenniewasthesonofanEastLothianfarmer。

Bothofthemlearnedtheirtradebyactualemploymentasmechanics。Theinventorsofmachinerybelongedmainlytothelowermiddleclasses。Kaywasasmallmanufacturer；Hargreavesahand-loomweaver。Cromptonthesonofasmallfarmer；andArkwrightacountrybarber。Watt，sonofaGreenockcarpenter，camefromthesturdyScottishstock，ultimatelyofcovenantingancestry，fromwhichsomanyeminentmenhavesprung。

Thenewsocialclass，inwhichsuchmenweretheleaders，heldcorrespondingprinciples。Theyowedwhateversuccesstheywontotheirownrighthands。

Theyweresturdyworkers，witheyesfixeduponsuccessinlife，andsuccessgenerallyofcoursemeasuredbyamoneycriterion。Manyofthemshowedintellectualtastes，andtookanhonourableviewoftheirsocialfunctions。Wattshowedhisabilityinscientificinquiriesoutsideofthepurelyindustrialapplication；

JosiahWedgwood，inwhoseearlydaystheStaffordshirepottershadledakindofgipsylife，settlingdownhereandtheretocarryontheirtrade，hadnotonlyfoundedagreatindustry，butwasamanofartistictaste，apatronofart，andaloverofscience。Telford，theEskdaleshepherd，wasamanofliterarytaste，andwasespeciallyfriendlywiththetypicalmanofletters，Southey。Others，ofcourse，wereofalowertype。Arkwrightcombinedthetalentsofaninventorwiththoseofamanofbusiness。Hewasaman，saysBaines(thehistorianofthecottontrade)，whowassuretocomeoutofanenterprisewithprofit，whatevertheresulttohispartners。Hemadeagreatfortune，andfoundedacountyfamily。Othersroseinthesamedirection。

ThePeels，forexample，representedalineofyeomen。OnePeelfoundedacottonbusiness；hissonbecameabaronetandaninfluentialmemberofparliament；

andhisgrandsonwenttoOxford，andbecamethegreatleaderoftheConservativepartY，althoughlikeWalpole，heowedhispowertoakindofknowledgeinwhichhisadoptedclassweregenerallydeficient。

Theclasswhichoweditsgrowingimportancetotheachievementsofsuchmenwasnaturallyimbuedwiththeirspirit。Itsgrowthmeantthedevelopmentofaclasswhichundertheoldorderhadbeenstrictlysubordinatetotherulingclass，andnaturallyregardeditwithamingledfeelingofrespectandjealousy。TheBritishmerchantfelthissuperiorityinbusinesstotheaveragecountry-gentleman；hegotnodirectshareofthepensionsandsinecureswhichsoprofoundlyaffectedtheworkingofthepoliticalmachinery，andyethishighestambitionwastorisetobehimselfamemberoftheclass，andtofoundafamilywhichmightflourishintheupperatmosphere。Theindustrialclasseswereinclinedtofavourpoliticalprogresswithinlimits。Theyweredissentersbecausethechurchwasessentiallypartofthearistocracy；andtheywerereadiesttodenouncetheabusesfromwhichtheydidnotprofit。

TheagitatorswhosupportedWilkes，solidaldermenandrichmerchants，representedtheviewwhichwaspopularinLondonandothergreatcities。TheywerethebackboneoftheWhigpartywhenitbegantodemandaseriousreform。Theirradicalism，however，wasnotthoroughlydemocratic。Manyofthemaspiredtobecomemembersoftherulingclass，andashopkeeperdoesnotquarreltoothoroughlywithhiscustomers。Thepoliticsofindividualswereofcoursedeterminedbyaccidents。Someofthemmightretainthesympathyoftheclassfromwhichtheysprang，andothersmightadoptanevenextremeversionoftheopinionsoftheclasstowhichtheydesiredtorise。But，inanycase，thedivergenceofinterestbetweenthecapitalistsandthelabourerswasalreadymakingitselffelt。Theself-mademan，itissaid，isgenerallythehardestmaster。Heapprovesofthestringentsystemofcompetition，ofwhichheishimselfaproduct。Itclearlyenablesthebestmantowin，forishenothimselfthebestman?Theclasswhichwasthegreatseatofmovementhadnaturallytomeetalltheprejudiceswhicharerousedbychange。ThefarmersnearLondon，asAdamSmithtellsus，(2*)petitionedagainstanextensionofturnpikeroads，whichwouldenablemoredistantfarmerstocompeteintheirmarket。Butthefarmerswerenottheonlyprejudicedpersons。Allthegreatinventorsofmachinery，KayandArkwrightandWatt，hadconstantlytostruggleagainsttheoldworkmenwhoweredisplacedbytheirinventions。

Although，therefore，theclassmightbeWhiggish，itdidnotsharethestrongestrevolutionarypassions。Thegenuinerevolutionistswereratherthemenwhodestroyedthemanufacturer’smachines，andwerelearningtoregardhimasanaturalenemy。Themanufacturerhadhisownreasonsforsupportinggovernment。