第14章

Therewere5000public-houses，and50，000womensupported，whollyorpartly，byprostitution。Therevenuesraisedbycrimeamounted，ashecalculates，toanannualsumof£；2，000，000。Therewerewholeclassesofprofessionalthieves，moreorlessorganisedingangs，whichactedinsupportofeachother。Thereweregangsontheriver，whoboardedshipsatnight，orlayinwaitroundthewarehouses。Thegovernmentdockyardsweresystematicallyplundered，andthesamearticleoftensoldfourtimesovertotheofficials。

TheabsenceofpatrolsgaveamplechancetothehighwaymenthenpeculiartoEngland。Theircareers，commemoratedintheNewgateCalendar，hadacertainflavourofRobinHoodromance，andtheirrankswererecruitedfromdissipatedapprenticesandtradesmenindifficulty。ThefieldsroundLondonweresoconstantlyplunderedthattherentwasmateriallylowered。Halfthehackneycoachmen，hesays，(29*)wereinleaguewiththieves。Thenumberofreceivinghousesforstolengoodshadincreasedintwentyyearsfrom300to3000。(30*)

Coiningwasaflourishingtrade，andaccordingtoColquhounemployedseveralthousandpersons。(31*)Gamblinghadtakenafreshstartabout1777and1778；(32*)

andthekeepersoftableshadalwaysmoneyenoughatcommandtomakeconvictionsalmostimpossible。Frenchrefugeesattherevolutionhadintroducedrougeetnoir；andColquhounestimatesthesumsyearlylostingambling-housesatover£；7，000，000。ThegamblersmightperhapsappealnotonlytothepracticesoftheirbettersinthedaysofFox，buttothepubliclotteries。

Colquhounhadvariouscorrespondents，whodonotventuretoproposetheabolitionofasystemwhichsanctionedthepractice，butwhohopetodiminishthefacilityforsupplementarybettingontheresultsoftheofficialdrawing。

ThewarhadtendedtoincreasethenumberoflooseanddesperatemarauderswhoswarmedinthevastlabyrinthofLondonstreets。WhenweconsiDerthenatureofthepolicebywhichtheseevilsweretobechecked，andthecriminallawwhichtheyadministered，thewonderislessthatthereweresometimesdesperateriots(asin1780)thanthatLondonshouldhavebeeneverabletoresistamob。Colquhoun，thoughapatrioticBriton，hastoadmitthattheFrenchdespotshadatlastcreatedanefficientpolice。(33*)Theemperor，JosephII，hesays，inquiredforanAustriancriminalsupposedtohaveescapedtoParis。Youwillfindhim，repliedtheheadoftheFrenchpolice，atNo。

93ofsuchastreetinViennaonthesecond-floorroomlookinguponsuchachurch；andtherehewas。InEnglandacriminalcouldhidehimselfinaherdofhislike，occasionallydisturbedbytheinroadofa’BowStreetrunner，’

theemissaryofthe’tradingjustices，’formerlyrepresentedbythetwoFieldings。

Anactof1792createdsevennewoffices，tooneofwhichColquhounhadbeenappointed。Theyhadonehundredandeighty-ninepaidofficersunderthem。(34*)

Therewerealsoaboutonethousandconstables。Theseweresmalltradesmenorartisansuponwhomthedutywasimposedwithoutremunerationforayearbytheirparish，thatis，byoneofseventyindependentbodies。A’Tyburnticket，’giveninrewardforobtainingtheconvictionofacriminalexemptedamanfromthedischargeofsuchoffices，andcouldbeboughtforfrom£；15

to£；25。Therewerealsotwothousandwatchmenreceivingfrom81/2d。

upto2s。anight。ThesewerethetruesuccessorsofDogberry；ofteninfirmoragedpersonsappointedtokeepthemoutoftheworkhouse。Themanagementofthisdistractedforcethusdependeduponamiscellaneoussetofbodies；

thepaidmagistrates，theofficialsofthecity，thejusticesofthepeaceforMiddlesex，andtheseventyindependentparishes。

Thelawwasasdefectiveastheadministration。Colqulhounrepresentsthephilanthropicimpulseoftheday，andnotices(35*)thatin1787JosephIIhadabolishedcapitalpunishment。HischiefauthorityformoremercifulmethodsisBeccaria；anditisworthremarking，forreasonswhichwillappearhereafter，thathedoesnotinthisconnectionrefertoBentham，althoughhespeaksenthusiastically(36*)ofBentham’smodelprison，thePanopticon。

Colquhounshowshowstrangelytheseverityofthelawwascombinedwithitsextremecapriciousness。HequotesBacon(37*)forthestatementthatthelawwasa’heterogeneousmassconcoctedtoooftenonthespurofthemoment，’

andgivessufficientproofsofitstruth。Hedesires，forexample，alawtopunishreceiversofstolengoods，andsaysthattherewereexcellentlawsinexistence。Unfortunatelyonelawappliedexclusivelytothecaseofpewter-pots，andanotherexclusivelytothepreciousmetals；neithercouldbeusedasagainstreceiversofhorsesorbanknotes。(38*)Soamanindictedunderanactagainststealingfromshipsonnavigableriversescaped，becausethebargefromwhichhestolehappenedtobeaground。Gangscouldaffordtocorruptwitnessesortopayknavishlawyersskilledinapplyingthesevagariesoflegislation。Juriesalsodislikedconvictingwhenthepenaltyforcoiningsix-pencewasthesameasthepenaltyforkillingamother。Itfollowed，asheshowsbystatistics，thathalfthepersonscommittedfortrialescapedbypettychicaneryorcorruption，orthereluctanceofjuriestoconvictforcapitaloffences。Onlyaboutone-fifthofthecapitalsentenceswereexecuted；andmanywerepardonedonconditionofenlistingtoimprovethemoralsofthearmy。Thecriminals，whowereneitherhangednorallowedtoescape，weresenttoprisons，whichwereschoolsofvice。AftertheindependenceoftheAmericancolonies，thesystemoftransportationtoAustraliahadbegun(in1787)；buttheexpensewasenormous，andprisonerswerehuddledtogetherinthehulksatWoolwichandPortsmouth，whichhadbeenusedasatemporaryexpedient。Thencetheywereconstantlydischarged，toreturntotheiroldpractices。Aman，saysColquhoun，(39*)woulddeserveastatuewhoshouldcarryoutaplanforhelpingdischargedprisoners。Tomeettheseevils，Colquhounproposesvariousremedies，suchasametropolitanpolice，apublicprosecutor，orevenacodificationorrevisionoftheCriminalCode，whichheseesislikelytobedelayed。Healsosuggested，inapamphletof1799，akindofcharityorganisationsocietytopreventthewasteoffunds。Manyotherpamphletsofsimilartendenciesshowhisactivezealinpromotingvariousreforms。

ColquhounwasinclosecorrespondencewithBenthamfromtheyear1798，(40*)

andBenthamhelpedhimbydrawingtheThamesPoliceAct，passedin1800，togiveeffecttosomeofthesuggestionsintheTreatise。(41*)

AnothersetofabuseshasaspecialconnectionwithBentham’sactivity。

Benthamhadbeenledin1778toattendtotheprisonquestionbyreadingHoward’sbookonPrisons；andhereferstothe’venerablefriendwhohadlivedanapostleanddiedamartyr。’(42*)ThecareerofJohnHoward(1726-1790)

isfamiliar。ThesonofaLondontradesman，hehadinheritedanestateinBedfordshire。Thereheerectedmodelcottagesandvillageschools；and，onbecomingsheriffofthecountyin1773，wasledtoattendtoabusesintheprisons。Twoactsofparliamentwerepassedin1774toremedysomeoftheevilsexposed，andhepursuedtheinquiryathomeandabroad。HisresultsaregiveninhisStateofthePrisonsinEnglandandWales(1779，fourthedition，1792)，andhisAccountofthePrincipalLazarettosinEurope(1789)。

Theprisoners，hesays，hadlittlefood，sometimesapennyloafaday，andsometimesnothing；nowater，nofreshair，nosewers，andnobedding。Thestenchwasappalling，andgaolfeverkilledmorethandiedonthegallows。

Debtorsandfelons，men，womenandchildren，werehuddledtogether；oftenwithlunatics，whowereshownbythegaolersformoney。’Garnish’wasextorted；

thegaolerskeptdrinking-taps；gamblingflourished：andprisonerswereoftencruellyironed，andkeptforlongperiodsbeforetrial。AtHulltheassizeshadonlybeenheldonceinsevenyears，andafterwardsonceinthree。ItisacomforttofindthatthewholenumberofprisonersinEnglandandWalesamounted，in1780，toabout4400，1078ofwhomweredebtors，798felons，and917pettyoffenders。Anactpassedin1779providedfortheerectionoftwopenitentiaries。Howardwastobeasupervisor。Thefailuretocarryoutthisactled，asweshallsee，tooneofBentham’smostcharacteristicundertakings。Onepeculiaritymustbenoted。Howardfoundprisonsonthecontinentwherethetreatmentwasbadandtorturestilloccasionallypractised；

buthenowherefoundthingssobadasinEngland。InHollandtheprisonsweresoneatandcleanastomakeitdifficulttobelievethattheywereprisons：andtheywereusedasmodelsforthelegislationof1779。OnecauseofthisunenviabledistinctionofEnglishprisonshadbeenindicatedbyanearlierinvestigation。GeneralOglethorpe(1696-1785)hadbeenstartedinhisphilanthropiccareerbyobtainingacommitteeoftheHouseofCommonsin1729toinquireintothestateofthegaols。ThefoundationofthecolonyofGeorgiaasanoutletforthepopulationwasoneresultoftheinquiry。

Itled，inthefirstplace，however，toatrialofpersonsaccusedofatrociouscrueltiesattheFleetprison。(43*)Thetrialwasabortive。ItappearedinthecourseoftheproceedingsthattheFleetprisonwasa’freehold。’ApatentforrebuildingithadbeengrantedtoSirJeremyWhichcotunderCharlesII，andhadbeensoldtooneHiggins，whoresoldittootherpersonsfor£；5000。

Theproprietorsmadetheirinvestmentpaybycruelill-treatmentoftheprisoners，oppressingthepoorandlettingoffpartsoftheprisontodealersindrink。

ThiswasthegeneralplanintheprisonsexaminedbyHoward，andhelpstoaccountforthegrossabuses。Itisonemoreapplicationofthegeneralsystem。

Asthepatronwasownerofaliving，andtheofficerofhiscommission，thekeeperofaprisonwasownerofhisestablishment。Theparalysisofadministrationwhichprevailedthroughoutthecountrymadeitnaturaltofarmoutpauperstothemasterofaworkhouse，andprisonerstotheproprietorofagaol。

ThestateofprisonersmaybeinferrednotonlyfromHoward’sauthenticrecordbutfromthefictionsofFielding，SmollettandGoldsmith；andthelastechoesofthesamecomplaintsmaybefoundinPickwickandLittleDorrit。TheMarshalseadescribedinthelastwasalsoaproprietaryconcern。WeshallhereafterseehowBenthamproposedtotreattheevilsrevealedbyOglethorpeandHoward，III。EDUCATION

AnothertopictreatedbyColquhounmarkstheinitialstageofcontroversieswhichweresoontogrowwarm。ColquhounboastsofthenumberofcharitiesforwhichLondonwasalreadyconspicuous。Agrowingfacilityforformingassociationsofallkinds，political，religious，scientific，andcharitable，isanobviouscharacteristicofmodernprogress。Whereinearliertimesacollegeorahospitalhadtobeendowedbyafounderandinvestedbycharterwithcorporatepersonality，itisnownecessaryonlytocallameeting，formacommittee，andappealforsubscriptions。Societiesofvariouskindshadsprungupduringthecentury。Artists，menofscience，agriculturists，andmenofliterarytastes，hadfoundedinnumerableacademiesand’philosophicalinstitutes。’ThegreatLondonhospitals，dependentuponvoluntarysubscriptions，hadbeenfoundedduringthefirsthalfofthecentury。Colquhouncountstheannualrevenueofvariouscharitableinstitutionsat£；445，000，besideswhichtheendowmentsproduced£；150，000，andthepoor-rates£；255，000。(44*)