第4章

Byunsystematicandspasmodiclegislationthecriminallawbecamesosavageastoshockeverymanofcommonhumanity。Itwastemperedbythegrowthoftechnicalrules，whichgavemanychancesofescapetothecriminal；andbypracticalrevoltagainstitsexcesses，whichledtotheremissionofthegreatmajorityofcapitalsentences。(9*)Thelegislatorswereclumsy，notintentionallycruel；andthelaws，thoughsanguinaryinreality，weremoresanguinaryintheorythaninpractice。Nothing，Ontheotherhand，ismoreconspicuousthanthespiritoffairplaytothecriminal，whichstruckforeignobservers。(10*)Itwasdeeplyrootedinthewholesystem。TheEnglishjudgewasnotanofficialagentofaninquisitorialsystem，butanimpartialarbitratorbetweentheprisonerandtheprosecutor。Inpoliticalcasesespeciallyamarkedchangewasbroughtaboutbytherevolutionof1688。IfourancestorstalkedsomenOnsenseabouttrialbyjury，thesystemcertainlyinsuredthatthepersonsaccusedoflibelorseditionshouldhaveafairtrial，andveryoftensomethingmore。JudgesoftheJeffreystypehadbecomeinconceivable，thoughimpartialitymightdisappearincaseswheretheprejudicesofjurieswereactivelyaroused。Englishmenmightfairlyboastoftheirimmunityfromthearbitrarymethodsofcontinentalrulers；andtheirunhesitatingconfidenceinthefairnessofthesystembecamesoingrainedastobetakenasamatterofcourse，andscarcelyreceivedduecreditfromlatercriticsofthesystem。

Thecountry-gentleman，again，wasnotonlythelegislatorbutamostimportantfigureinthejudicialandadministrativesystem。Asjusticeofthepeace，hewastherepresentativeoflawandordertohiscountryneighbours。Theprefaceof1785tothefifteentheditionofBurn’sJusticeofthePeace，publishedoriginallyin1755，mentionsthatintheintervalbetweenthesedates，somethreehundredstatuteshadbeenpassedaffectingthedutiesofjustices，whilehalfasmanyhadbeenrepealedormodified。Thejusticewasofcourse，asarule，asuperficiallawyer，andhadtobepromptedbyhisclerk，thetworepresentingonasmallscalethegeneralrelationbetweenthelawyersandtherulingclass。Burntellsthejusticeforhiscomfortthatthejudgeswilltakealenientviewofanyerrorsintowhichhisignorancemayhaveledhim。Thedischargeofsuchdutiesbyanindependentgentlemanwasthoughttobesodesirableandsocreditabletohimthathiswantofefficiencymustberegardedwithconsideration。Nor，thoughthejusticeshavebeenafavouritebuttforsatirists，doesitappearthatthesystemworkedbadly。WhenitbecamenecessarytoappointpaidmagistratesinLondon，andthepay，accordingtotheprevalentsystem，wasprovidedbyfees，thenewofficialsbecameknownas’tradingjustices，’andtheirsalaries，asFieldingtellsus，weresomeofthe’dirtiestmoneyuponearth。’Thejusticesmightperhapsbeharduponapoacher(as，indeed，thegamelawsbecameoneofthegreatscandalsofthesystem)，orliabletobemisledbyashrewdattorney；buttheywereonthewholeregardedasthenaturalandcreditablerepresentativesoflegalauthorityinthecountry。

Thejustices，again，dischargedfunctionswhichwouldelsewherebelongtoanadministrativehierarchy。Gneistobservesthatthepowerofthejusticesofthepeacerepresentsthecentreofgravityofthewholeadministrativesystem。(11*)TheirdutieshadbecomesomultifariousandperplexedthatBurncouldonlyarrangethemunderalphabeticalheads。Gneistworksoutasystematicaccount，fillingmanypagesofelaboratedetail，andshowinghowlargeaparttheyplayedinthewholesocialstructure。Anintensejealousyofcentralpowerwasonecorrelativecharacteristic。Blackstoneremarksinhismoreliberalhumourthatthenumberofnewofficesheldatpleasurehadgreatlyextendedtheinfluenceofthecrown。Thisreferstothecustom-houseofficers，exciseofficers，stampdistributorsandpostmasters。Butifthetax-gathererrepresentedthestate，herepresentedalsopartofthepatronageatthedisposalofpoliticians。Avoterwasofteninsearchoftheplaceofa’tidewaiter’；

and，asweknow，thegreatestpoetofthedaycouldonlyberewardedbymakinghimanexciseman。Anyextensionofasystemwhichmultipliedpublicofficeswasregardedwithsuspicion。Walpole，thestrongestministerofthecentury，hadbeenforcedtoanignominiousretreatwhenheproposedtoextendtheexcise。ThecryarosethathemeanttoenslavethecountryandextendtheinfluenceofthecrownoverallthecorporationsinEngland。Thecountry-gentlemanhadlittlereasontofearthatgovernmentwoulddiminishhisimportancebytamperingwithhisfunctions。Thejusticesofthepeacewerecalledupontotakeagreatandincreasingshareintheadministrationofthepoor-law。

Theywereconcernedinallmanneroffinancialdetails；theyregulatedsuchpoliceasexisted；theylookedaftertheoldlawsbywhichthetradeswerestillrestricted；and，intheoryatleast，couldfixtherateofwages。Parliamentdidnotoverride，butonlygavethenecessarysanctiontotheiractivity。

IfwelookedthroughthejournalsoftheHouseofCommonsduringtheAmericanWar，forexample，weshouldgettheimpressionthatthewholebusinessofthelegislaturewastoarrangeadministrativedetails。Ifawastewastobeenclosed，acanalorahigh-roadtobeconstructed，therewasnopublicdepartmenttobeconsulted。Thegentryoftheneighbourhoodjoinedtoobtainaprivateactofparliamentwhichgavethenecessarypowerstothepersonsinterested。Nogeneralenclosureactcouldbepassed，thoughoftensuggested。

Itwouldimplyacentralcommission，whichwouldonly，aswassuggested，giverisetojobberyandtakepoweroutofthenaturalhands。Parliamentwasomnipotent；itcouldregulatetheaffairsoftheempireorofaparish；

alterthemostessentiallawsoractasacourtofjustice；settlethecrownorarrangeforadivorceorforthealterationofaprivateestate。Butitobjectedtodelegateauthorityeventoasubordinatebody，whichmighttendtobecomeindependent。Thus，ifitwasthecentralpowerandsourceofalllegalauthority，itmightalsoberegardedasakindoffederalleague，representingthewillsofanumberofpartiallyindependentpersons。Thegentrycouldmeetthereandobtainthesanctionoftheiralliesforanymeasurerequiredintheirownlittlesphereofinfluence。Buttheyhadaninstinctiveaversiontotheformationofanyorganisedbodyrepresentingthestate。Theneighbourhoodwhichwantedaroadgotpowerstomakeit，andwouldconcuringivingpowerstoothers。Butifthestateweretobeintrustedtomakeroads，ministerswouldhavemoreplacestogive，androadsmightbemadewhichtheydidnotwant。TheEnglishroadshadlongbeeninfamous，butneitherwasmoneywasted，asinFrance，onroadswheretherewasnotraffic。(12*)Thuswehavethecombinationofanabsolutecentralisationoflegislativepowerwithanutterabsenceofadministrativecentralisation。Theunitsmeetinginparliamentformedasupremeassembly；buttheydidnotsinktheirownindividuality。

Theyonlymettodistributethevariousfunctionsamongthemselves。

TheEnglishparishwithitssquire，itsparson，itslawyeranditslabouringpopulationwasaminiatureoftheBritishConstitutioningeneral。Thesquire’seldestsoncouldsucceedtohisposition；asecondsonmightbecomeageneraloranadmiral；athirdwouldtakethefamilyliving；afourth，perhaps，seekhisfortuneatthebar。Thisimpliesaconceptionofotherpoliticalconditionswhichcuriouslyillustratesomecontemporaryconceptions。

IV。THEARMYANDNAVY

Weareoftenamusedbythepersistencyofthecryagainsta’standingarmy’inEngland。Itdidnotfairlydieoutuntiltherevolutionarywars。

Blackstoneregardsitasasingularlyfortunatecircumstance’thatanybranchofthelegislaturemightannuallyputanendtothelegalexistenceofthearmybyrefusingtoconcurinthecontinuance’ofthemutinyact。Astandingarmywasobviouslynecessary；butbymakingbelieveveryhard，wecouldshutoureyestothefacts，andpretendthatitwasamerelytemporaryarrangement。(13*)

Thedoctrinehadoncehadaveryintelligiblemeaning。IfJamesIIhadpossessedadisciplinedarmyofthecontinentalpattern，withMarlboroughatitshead，MarlboroughwouldhardlyhavebeenconvertedbytheprinceofOrange。Butloyalasthegentryhadbeenattherestoration，theyhadtakenverygoodcarethattheStuartsshouldnothaveintheirhandsuchaweaponashadbeenpossessedbyCromwell。WhenthePuritanarmywasdisbanded，theyhadproceededtoregulatethemilitia。Theofficerswereappointedbythelords-lieutenantsofcounties，andhadtopossessapropertyqualification；themenraisedbyballotintheirowndistricts；andtheirnumbersandlengthoftrainingregulatedbyActofParliament。Theold’train-bands’weresuppressed，exceptinthecityofLondon，andthustherecognisedmilitaryforceofthecountrywasabodyessentiallydependentuponthecountrygentry。Themilitiawasregardedwithfavourasthe’oldconstitutionalforce’whichcouldnotbeusedtothreatenourliberties。ItwasremodelledduringtheSevenYears’

Warandembodiedduringthatandallourlaterwars。Itwas，however，ineffectivebyitsverynature。Anaristocracywhichchosetocarryonwarsmusthaveaprofessionalarmyinfact，howevercarefulitmightbetopretendthatitwasaprovisionforapassingnecessity。Thepretencehadseriousconsequences。

Sincethearmywasnottohaveinterestsseparatefromthepeople，therewasnoreasonforbuildingbarracks。Themenmightbebilletedonpublicans，orplacedundercanvas，whiletheywerewanted。Whenthegreatwarcameuponus，largesumshadtobespenttomakeupforthepreviousneglect。Fox，on22ndFebruary1793，protestedduringalivelydebateuponthissubjectthatsoundconstitutionalprinciplescondemnedbarracks，becausetomixthearmywiththepeoplewasthe’bestsecurityagainstthedangerofastandingarmy。’(14*)

Infactalargepartofthearmywasameretemporaryforce。In1762，towardstheendoftheSevenYears’War，wehadabout100，000meninpay；

andafterthepeace，theforcewasreducedtounder20，000。Similarchangestookplaceineverywar。Therulingclasstookadvantageoftheposition。

AnarmymightbehiredfromGermanyfortheoccasion。Newregimentsweregenerallyraisedbysomegreatmanwhogavecommissionstohisownrelationsanddependants。WhenthePretenderwasinScotland，forexample，fifteenregimentswereraisedbypatrioticnobles，whogavethecommissions，andstipulatedthatalthoughtheyweretobeemployedonlyinsuppressingtherising，theofficersshouldhavepermanentrank。(15*)So，aswasshowninMrsClarke’scase，apatentforraisingaregimentmightbeasourceofprofittotheundertaker，whoagainmightgetitbybribingthemistressofaroyalduke。Theofficershad，accordingtothegenerallyprevalentsystem，amodifiedpropertyintheircommissions；andthesystemofsalewasnotabolishedtillourowndays。Wemaythereforesaythattherulingclass，ontheonehand，objectedtoastandingarmy，and，ontheother，sincesuchanarmywasanecessity，farmeditfromthecountryandwereadmittedtohaveacertaindegreeofprivatepropertyintheconcern。Theprejudiceagainstanypermanentestablishmentmadeitnecessarytofilltheranksonoccasionbyallmannerofquestionableexpedients。Bountieswereofferedtoattractthevagrantswhohunglooseuponsociety。Smugglers，poachers，andthelikewereallowedtochoosebetweenmilitaryserviceandtransportation。Thegeneraleffectwastoprovideanarmyofblackguardscommandedbygentlemen。Thearmynodoubthaditsmeritsaswellasitsdefects。ThecontinentalarmieswhichitmetwerecollectedbyequallydemoralisingmethodsuntiltheFrenchrevolutionledtoasystematicconscription。ThebadsideissuggestedbyNapier’sfamousphrase，the’coldshadeofouraristocracy’；whileNapiergivesfactsenoughtoproveboththebrutalitytoooftenshownbytheprivatesoldierandthedoggedcouragewhichistakentobecharacteristicevenoftheEnglishblackguard。

Byothers，——bysuchmenasthedukeofWellingtonandLordPalmerston，forexample，typesofthetruearistocrat——thesystemwasdefended(16*)

asbringingmenofgoodfamilyintothearmyandsoprovidingit，asthedukethought，withthebestsetofofficersinEurope。Nodoubttheyandtheroyaldukeswhocommandedthemwereapttobegrosslyignorantoftheirbusiness；butitmaybeadmittedbyahistorianthattheyoftenshowedthequalitiesofwhichWellingtonwashimselfatype。TheEnglishofficerwasagentlemanbeforehewasasoldier，andconsideredthemilitaryvirtuestobeapartofhisnaturalendowment。Butitwasundoubtedlyapartofhistraditionalcodeofhonourtodohisdutymanfullyandtodoitratherasamanifestationofhisownspiritthanfromanydesireforrewardsordecorations。

Thesamequalityisrepresentedmorestrikinglybythenavy。TheEnglishadmiralrepresentsthemostattractiveandstirringtypeofheroisminourhistory。Nelsonandthe’bandofbrothers’whoservedwithhim，thesimpleandhigh-mindedsailorswhosummedupthewholedutyofmanindoingtheirbesttocrushtheenemiesoftheircountry，areamongthefinestexamplesofsingle-souleddevotiontothecallsofpatriotism。Thenavy，indeed，haditsuglysidenolessthanthearmy。TherewascorruptionatGreenwich(17*)

andinthedockyards，andparliamentaryintriguewasaroadtoprofessionalsuccess。VoltairenotesthequeercontrastbetweentheEnglishboastofpersonallibertyandthepracticeoffillingupthecrewsbypressgangs。Thedisciplinewasoftenbarbarous，andthewrongsofthecommonsailorfoundsufficientexpressioninthemutinyattheNore。Agrievance，however，whichpresseduponasingleclasswasmaintainedfromthenecessityofthecaseandtheinertnessoftheadministrativesystem。Thenavydidnotexcitethesamejealousyasthearmy；andtheofficersweremoreprofessionallyskilfulthantheirbrethren。Thenationalqualitiescomeout，oftenintheirhighestform，intheraceofgreatseamenuponwhomthesecurityoftheislandpoweressentiallydepended。

V。THECHURCH