第18章

Whenhedemandedthatagreatershareofinfluenceshouldbegiventothepeople，healwaystookforgrantedthattheirpowerwouldbeusedtodiminishtheactivityofthesovereignpower；thattherewouldbelessgovernmentandthereforelessjobbery，lessinterferencewithfreespeechandfreeaction，andsmallerperquisitestobebestowedinreturnforthenecessaryservices。

Thepeoplewouldusetheirauthoritytotiethehandsoftherulers，andlimitthemstrictlytotheirproperandnarrowfunctions。

Theabsence，again，oftheideaofastateinanyothersenseimpliesanothertendency。The’idea’wasnotrequired，Englishmenwereconcernedratherwithdetailsthanwithfirstprinciples。Satisfied，inageneralway，withtheirconstitution，theydidnotwanttobebotheredwiththeories。

Abstractandabsolutedoctrinesofright，whenimportedfromFrance，fellflatupontheaverageEnglishman。Hewaseagerenoughtodiscusstheutilityofthisorthatpartofthemachinery，butwithoutinquiringintofirstprinciplesofmechanism。Theargumentfrom’utility’dealswithconcretefacts，andpresupposesanacceptanceofsomecommoncriterionoftheuseful。Theconstantdiscussionofpoliticalmattersinparliamentandthepressimpliedatacitacceptanceonallhandsofconstitutionalmethods。Practicalmen，askingwhetherthisorthatpolicyshallbeadoptedinviewofactualevents，nomorewanttogobacktorightreasonand’lawsofnature’thanasurveyortoinvestigatethenatureofgeometricaldemonstration。Veryimportantquestionswereraisedastotherightsofthepress，forexample，orthesystemofrepresentation。Buteverybodyagreedthattherepresentativesystemandfreedomofspeechweregoodthings；andarguedtheimmediatequestionsoffact。Theorder，onlyestablishedbyexperienceandtradition，wasaccepted，subjecttocriticismofdetail，andmenturnedimpatientlyfromabstractargument，andlefttheinquiryinto’socialcontracts’tophilosophers，thatis，tosillypeopleinlibraries。Politicswereproperlyamatterofbusiness，tobediscussedinabusiness-likespirit。Inthissense，’individualism’iscongenialto’empiricism，’becauseitstartsfromfactsandparticularinterests，andresentstheintrusionoffirstprinciples。Thecharacteristicindividualism，again，suggestsoneotherremark。Individualenergyandsenseofresponsibilityaregoodasevenextremesocialistsmayadmit——iftheydonotexcludeasenseofdutiestoothers。Itmaybeaquestionhowfarthestimulationofindividualenterpriseandthevigorousspiritofindustrialcompetitionreallyledtoadisregardoftheinterestsoftheweaker。Butitwouldbeacompletemisunderstandingofthetimeifweinferredthatitmeantadeclineofhumanefeeling。Undoubtedlygreatevilshadgrownup，andsomecontinuedtogrowwhichweretoleratedbytheindifference，orevenstimulatedbytheselfishaims，ofthedominantclasses。But，inthefirstplace，manyofthemostactiveprophetsoftheindividualistspiritwereacting，andactingsincerely，inthenameofhumanity。Theywereattackingasystemwhichtheyheld，andtoagreatextent，Ibelieve，heldrightly，tobeespeciallyinjurioustotheweakestclasses。Possiblytheyexpectedtoomuchfromthesimpleremovalofrestrictions；butcertainlytheydenouncedtherestrictionsasunjusttoall，notsimplyashindrancestothewealthoftherich。AdamSmith’spositionisintelligible：itwas，hethought，aproofofaprovidentialorderthateachman，byhelpinghimself，unintentionallyhelpedhisneighbours。

Themoralsensebaseduponsympathywasthereforenotopposedto，butjustified，theeconomicprinciplesthateachmanshouldfirstattendtohisowninterest。

Theunintentionalco-operationwouldthusbecomeconsciousandcompatiblewiththeestablishedorder。And，inthenextplace，sofarfromtherebeingawantofhumanefeeling，themostmarkedcharacteristicoftheeighteenthcenturywaspreciselythegrowthofhumanity。Inthenextgeneration，theeighteenthcenturycametobedenouncedascold，heartless，faithless，andsoforth。Theestablishedmodeofwritinghistoryispartlyresponsibleforthisperversion。Menspeakasthoughsomegreatman，whofirstcalledattentiontoanevil，wasasupernaturalbeingwhohadsuddenlydroppedintotheworldfromanothersphere。Hiscondemnationofevilisthereforetakentobeaproofthatthetimemustbeevil。Anycenturyisbadifweassumeallthegoodmentoheexceptions。Butthegreatmanisreallyalsotheproductofhistime。Heisthemouthpieceofitsprevailingsentiments，andonlythefirsttoseeclearlywhatmanyarebeginningtoperceiveobscurely。Theemergenceoftheprophetisaproofofthegrowingdemandofhishearersforsoundteaching。Becauseheisinadvanceofmengenerally，heseesexistingabusesmoreclearly，andwetakehisevidenceagainsthiscontemporariesasconclusive。

Butthefactthattheylistenedshowshowwidelythesamesensibilitytoevilwasalreadydiffused。Infact，asIthink，thehumanespiritoftheeighteenthcentury，duetothevastvarietyofcauseswhichwecallsocialprogressorevolutionnottotheteachingofanyindividual——waspermeatingthewholecivilisedworld，andshoweditselfinthephilosophicmovementaswellasintheteachingofthereligiousleaders，whotookthephilosopherstobetheirenemies。Ihavebrieflynoticedthevariousphilanthropicmovementswhichwerecharacteristicoftheperiod。Someofthemmayindicatethegrowthofnewevils；others，thatevilswhichhadoncebeenregardedwithindifferencewerenowattractingattentionandexcitingindignation。Buteventhegrowthofnewevilsdoesnotshowgeneralindifferencesomuchastheincapacityoftheexistingsystemtodealwithnewconditions。Itmay，Ithink，besafelysaidthatagrowingphilanthropywascharacteristicofthewholeperiod，andinparticularanimatedtheUtilitarianmovement，asIshallhavetoshowindetail。ModernwritershaveoftenspokenoftheWesleyanpropagandaandthecontemporary’evangelicalrevival’asthemostimportantmovementsofthetime。Theyareapttospeak，inconformitywiththeviewjustdescribed，asthoughWesleyorsomeofhiscontemporarieshadoriginatedorcreatedthebetterspirit。Withoutaskingwhatwasgoodorbadinsomeaspectsofthesemovements，IfullybelievethatWesleywasessentiallyamoralreformer，andthathedeservescorrespondingrespect。Butinsteadofholdingthathiscontemporarieswerebadpeople，awakenedbyastimulusfromwithout，Iholdthatthemovement，sofarasreallyindicatingmoralimprovement，mustbesetdowntothecreditofthecenturyitself。Itwasonemanifestationofageneralprogress，ofwhichBenthamwasanotheroutcome。ThoughBenthammighthavethoughtWesleyafanaticorperhapsahypocrite，andWesleywouldcertainlyhaveconsideredthatBentham’sheartwasmuchinneedofachange，theywerereallyalliesasmuchasantagonists，andbothmarkagreatandbeneficialchange。

NOTES：

1。SeeDictionaryofNationalBiography。

2。Works，i，255。

3。SeeSirG。Nicholl’sHistoryofthePoor-law，1854。AneweditionwithlifebyH。G。Willink，appearedin1898。

4。History，i，175。

5。M’Culloch’snotetoWealthofNations，p。65。M’Cullochinhisappendixmakessomesensibleremarksupontheabsenceofanyproperlyconstitutedparochial’tribunal’。

6。WealthofNations，bk，i，ch。x。

7。SeepassagequotedinEden’sHistory，i，347。

8。ThomasFirmin(1632-1677)，aphilanthropist，whoseSocianianismdidnotexcludehimfromthefriendshipofsuchliberalbishopsasTillotsonandFowler，startedaworkhousein1676。

9。Nicholls(1898)，ii，14。

10。Ibid。，(1898)，ii，123。

11。Report，p。67。

12。WilliamHay，forexample，carriedresolutionsintheHouseofCommonsin1735，butfailedtocarryabillwhichhadthisobject。SeeEden’sHistory，i，396。Cooperin1763proposedtomakethehundredtheunit——Nicholls’sHistory，i，58。FieldingproposesasimilarchangeinLondon。DeanTucker，speaksoftheevilofthelimitedareainthisManifoldCoursesoftheIncreaseofthePoor(1760)。

13。Nicholls，ii，88。

14。Parl。Hist。xxxii，710。

15。AfullabstractisgiveninEden’sHistory，iii，ccclxiii，etc。

16。Benthamobserves(Works，viii，448)thatthecowwillrequirethethreeacrestokeepit。

17。Cobbett’sPoliticalWorks，vi，64。

18。IneedonlynoteherethatthefirsteditionofMalthus’sEssayappearedin1798，theyearafterEden’spublication。

19。Eden’sHistory，i，583。

20。Ibid。，i，587。

21。Maseres，anexcellentWhig，agoodmathematician，andarespectedlawyer，isperhapsbestknowatpresentfromhisportraitinCharlesLamb’sOldBenchers。

22。Itmaybenoticedasananticipationofmodernschemesthatin1792

Paineproposedasystemof’oldagepensions’，forwhichthenecessaryfundsweretobeeasilyobtainedwhenuniversalpeacehadabolishedallmilitarycharges。SeeStateTrials，xxv。175。

23。Aitkin’sCountryRoundManchester。

24。Bounce’sHistoryoftheCorporationofBirmingham(1878)。

25。HistoryofBirmingham(2ndedition)，p。327。

26。Thefirstedition，1795，thesixth，fromwhichIquote，in1800。InBentham’sWorks，x，330，itissaidthatin1798，7500copiesofthisbookhadbeensold。

27。In1814ColquohounpublishedanelaborateaccountoftheResourcesoftheBritishEmpire，showingsimilarquaities。