第9章

OurforeignpolicyduringthecenturyWasinthelongrunchieflydeterminedbytheinterestsofourtrade，howevermuchthetrademightattimesbehamperedbyill-conceivedregulations。ItisremarkablethatAdamSmith(3*)arguesthat，althoughthecapitalistisacuterthatthecountry-gentleman，hisacutenessischieflydisplayedbyknowinghisowninterestsbetter。Thoseinterests，hethinks，donotcoincidesomuchastheinterestsofthecountry-gentlemanwiththegeneralinterestsofthecountry。Consequentlythecountry-gentleman，thoughlessintelligent，ismorelikelytofavouranationalandliberalpolicy。Themerchant，infact，wasnotafree-traderbecausehehadreadAdamSmithorconsciouslyadoptedSmith’sprinciples，butbecauseorinsofarasparticularrestrictionsinterferedwithhim。ArthurYoungcomplainsbitterlyofthemanufacturerswhosupportedtheprohibitiontoexportEnglishwool，andsoprotectedtheirownclassattheexpenseofagriculturists。

Wedgwood，thoughagoodliberalandasupporterofPitt’sFrenchtreatyin1786，joinedinprotestingagainsttheproposalforfree-tradewithIreland。

TheIrish，hethought，mightrivalhispotteries。Thus，thoughasamatteroffactthegrowingclassofmanufacturersandmerchantswereinclinedinthemaintoliberalprinciples，itwaslessfromadhesiontoanygeneraldoctrinethanfromthefactthattheexistingrestrictionsandprejudicesgenerallyconflictedwiththeirplaininterests。

Anothercharacteristicisremarkable。Thoughthegrowthofmanufacturesandcommercemeantthegrowthofgreattowns，itdidnotmeanthegrowthofmunicipalinstitutions。Onthecontrary，asIshallpresentlyhavetonotice，themunicipalitiesweresinkingtotheirlowestebb。Manufactures，inthefirstinstance，spreadalongthestreamsintocountrydistricts：andtothegreatmanufacturer，workingforhisownhand，hisneighbourswerecompetitorsasmuchasallies。Thegreattowns，however，whichweregrowingup，showedthegeneraltendenciesoftheclass。Theywerecentresnotonlyofmanufacturingbutofintellectualprogress。ThepopulationofBirmingham，containingthefamousSohoworksofBoultonandWatt，hadincreasedbetween1740and1780from24，000to74，000inhabitants。Watt’spartnerBoultonstartedthe’LunarSociety’atBirmingham。(4*)ItsmostprominentmemberwasErasmusDarwin，famousthenforpoetrywhichischieflyrememberedbytheparodyintheAnti-Jacobin；andnowmorefamousastheadvocateofatheoryofevolutioneclipsedbytheteachingofhismorefamousgrandson，and，inanycase，amanofremarkableintellectualpower。AmongthosewhojoinedintheproceedingswasEdgeworth，whoin1768wasspeculatinguponmovingcarriagesbysteam，andThomasDay，whoseSandfordandMertonhelpedtospreadinEnglandtheeducationaltheoriesofRousseau。Priestley，whosettledatBirminghamin1780，becameamember，andwashelpedinhisinvestigationsbyWatt’scounselsandWedgwood’specuniaryhelp。AmongoccasionalvisitorswereSmeaton，SirJosephBanks，Solander，andHerschelofscientificcelebrity；whiletheliterarymagnate，DrParr，wholivedbetweenWarwickandBirmingham，occasionallyjoinedthecircle。Wedgwood，thoughtoofarofftobeamember，wasintimatewithDarwinandassociatedinvariousenterpriseswithBoulton。Wedgwood’scongenialpartner，ThomasBentley(1731-1780)，hadbeeninbusinessatManchesterandatLiverpool。HehadtakenpartinfoundingtheWarrington’Academy，’

thedissentingseminary(afterwardsmovedtoManchester)ofwhichPriestleywastutor(1761-1767)，andhadlectureduponartattheacademyfoundedatLiverpoolin1773。AnothermemberoftheacademywasWilliamRoscoe(1753-1831)，whoseliterarytastewasshownbyhislivesofLorenzodeMediciandLeoX，andwhodistinguishedhimselfbyopposingtheslavetrade，thentheinfamyofhisnativetown。AlliedwithhiminthismovementwereWilliamRathboneandJamesCurrie(1756-1805)thebiographerofBurns，afriendofDarwinandanintelligentphysician。AtManchesterThomasPerceval(1740-1804)foundedthe’LiteraryandPhilosophicalSociety，in1780。HewasapupiloftheWarringtonAcademy，whichheafterwardsjoinedonremovingtoManchester，andheformedtheschemeafterwardsrealisedbyOwensCollege。Hewasanearlyadvocateofsanitarymeasuresandfactorylegislation，andamanofscientificreputation。

Othermembersofthesocietywere：JohnFerriar(1761-1815)，bestknownbyhisIllustrationsofSterne，butalsoamanofliteraryandscientificreputation；

thegreatchemist，JohnDalton(1766-1844)，whocontributedmanypaperstoitstransactions；and，forashorttime，theSocialistRobertOwen，thenarisingmanufacturer。AtNorwich，thenimportantasamanufacturingcentre，wasasimilarcircle。WilliamTaylor，aneminentUnitariandivine，whodiedattheWarringtonAcademyin1761，hadlivedatNorwich。OneofhisdaughtersmarriedDavidMartineauandbecamethemotherofHarrietMartineau，whohasdescribedtheNorwichofherearlyyears。JohnTaylor，grandsonofWilliam，wasfatherofMrsAustin，wifeofthejurist。Hewasamanofliterarytastes，andhiswifewasknownastheMadameRolandofNorwich。MrsOpie(1765-1853)

wasdaughterofJamesAlderson，aphysicianofNorwich，andpassedmostofherlifethere。WilliamTaylor(1761-1836)，anotherNorwichmanufacturer，wasamongtheearliestEnglishstudentsofGermanliterature。Norwichhadafterwardstheuniquedistinctionofbeingthehomeofaprovincialschoolofartists。JohnCrome(1788-1821)，sonofapoorweaver，andJohnSellCotman(1782-1842)wereitsleaders；theyformedakindofprovincialacademy，andexhibitedpictureswhichhavebeenmoreappreciatedsincetheirdeath。AtBristol，towardstheendofthecentury，weresimilarindicationsofintellectualactivity。ColeridgeandSoutheyfoundthereasocietyreadytolistentotheirearlylectures，andbothadmiredThomasBeddoes(1760-1808)，aphysician，achemist，astudentofGerman，animitatorofDarwininpoetry，andanassailantofPittinpamphlets。HehadmarriedoneofEdgeworth’sdaughters。WiththehelpandadviceofWedgwoodandWatt，hefoundedthe’PneumaticInstitute’

atCliftonin1798，andobtainedthehelpofHumphryDavy，whotheremadesomeofhisfirstdiscoveries。DavywassoontransportedtotheRoyalInstitution，foundedatthesuggestionofCountRumfordin1799，whichrepresentedthegrowthofapopularinterestinthescientificdiscoveries。

Thegeneraltoneoftheselittlesocietiesrepresents，ofcourse，thetendencyoftheupperstratumoftheindustrialclasses。Intheirowneyestheynaturallyrepresentedtheprogressiveelementofsociety。TheywereWhigs——for’radicalism’wasnotyetinvented——butWhigsoftheleftwing；

acceptingthearistocraticprecedency，butlookingaskanceatthearistocraticprejudices。Theywererationalists，too，inprinciple，butagainwithinlimits：

openlyavowingthedoctrineswhichintheEstablishedchurchhadstilltobeshelteredbyostensibleconformitytothetraditionaldogmas。ManyofthemprofessedtheUnitarianismtowhichtheolddissentingbodiesinclined。

’Unitarianism，’saidshrewdoldErasmusDarwin，’isafeather-bedforadyingChristian。’ButatpresentsuchmenasPriestleyandPricewereonlysofarontheroadtoathoroughrationalismastodenouncethecorruptionsofChristianity，astheydenouncedabusesinpolitics，withoutanticipatingarevolutionarychangeinchurchandstate。Priestley，forexample，combined’materialism’

and’determinism’withChristianityandabeliefinmiracles，andcontrovertedHorsleyupononesideandPaineontheother。

II。THEAGRICULTURISTS

Thegeneralspiritrepresentedbysuchmovementswasbynomeansconfinedtothecommercialormanufacturingclasses；anditsmostcharacteristicembodimentistobefoundinthewritingsofaleadingagriculturist。

ArthurYoung，(5*)bornin1741，wasthesonofaclergyman，whohadalsoasmallancestralpropertyatBradfield，nearBurySt。Edmunds。Accidentsledtohisbecomingafarmeratanearlyage。Heshowedmorezealthandiscretion，andaftertryingthreethousandexperimentsonhisfarm，hewasgladtopay£；100toanothertenanttotakehisfarmoffhishands。Thisexperienceasapracticalagriculturist，farfromdiscouraginghim，qualifiedhiminhisownopiniontospeakwithauthority，andhebecameadevotedmissionaryofthegospelofagriculturalimprovement。Theenthusiasmwithwhichheadmiredmoresuccessfullabourersinthecause，andtheindignationwithwhichheregardsthesluggishandretrograde，arecharming。Hiskindliness，hiskeeninterestintheprosperityofallmen，richorpoor，hisardentbeliefinprogress，combinedwithhisquicknessofobservation，giveacharmtothewritingswhichembodyhisexperience。ToursinEnglandandatemporaryland-agencyinIrelandsuppliedhimwithmaterialsforbookswhichmadehimknownbothinEnglandandontheContinent。In1779hereturnedtoBradfield，wherehesoonafterwardscameintopossessionofhispaternalestate，whichbecamehispermanenthome。In1784hetriedtoextendhispropagandabybringingouttheAnnalsofAgriculture——amonthlypublication，ofwhichforty-fivehalf-yearlyvolumesappeared。Hehadmanyablecontributorsandhimselfwrotemanyinterestingarticles，butthepecuniaryresultsweremainlynegative。

In1791hiscirculationwasonly350copies。(6*)MeanwhilehisacquaintancewiththeducdeLiancourtledtotoursinFrancefrom1788to1790。HisTravelsinFrance，firstpublishedin1792，hasbecomeaclassic。In1793YoungwasmadesecretarytotheBoardofAgriculture，ofwhichIshallspeakpresently。

HebecameknowninLondonsocietyaswellasinagriculturalcircles。Hewasahandsomeandattractiveman，acharmingcompanion，andwidelyrecognisedasanagriculturalauthority。TheempressofRussiasenthimasnuff-box；

’FarmerGeorge’presentedamerinoram；hewaselectedmemberoflearnedsocieties；hevisitedBurkeatBeaconsfield，PittatHolmwood，andwasafriendofWilberforceandofJeremyBentham。

Younghadmanydomestictroubles。Hismarriagewasnotcongenial；thelossofatenderlyloveddaughterin1797permanentlysaddenedhim；hebecameblind，andinhislateryearssoughtcomfortinreligiousmeditationandinpreachingtohispoorerneighbours。Hedied20thApril1820。Heleftbehindhimagigantichistoryofagriculture，fillingtenfoliovolumesofmanuscript，which，thoughreducedtosixbyanenthusiasticdiscipleafterhisdeath，haveneverfoundtheirwaytopublication。

TheTravelsinFrance，Young’sbestbook，owesonemerittotheadviceofajudiciousfriend，whoremarkedthattheprevioustourshadsufferedfromtheabsenceofthepersonaldetailswhichinterestthecommonreader。

TheinsertionofthesemakesYoung’saccountofhisFrenchtoursoneofthemostcharmingaswellasmostinstructivebooksofthekind。Itgivesthevividimpressionmadeuponakeenandkindlyobserverinalltheirfreshness。

Hesensiblyretainedtheexpressionsofopinionmadeatthetime。’Imayremarkatpresent，’hesays，(7*)’thatalthoughIwastotallymistakeninmyprediction，yet，onarevision，IthinkIwasrightinit。’Itwasright，hemeans，uponthedatathenknowntohim，andheleavestheunfulfilledpredictionasitwas。Thebookisfrequentlycitedinjustificationoftherevolution，anditmaybefairlyurgedthathisauthorityisofthemoreweight，becausehedoesnotstartfromanysympathywithrevolutionaryprinciples。

YoungwasinPariswhentheoathwastakenatthetennis-court；andmakeshisreflectionsuponthebeautyoftheBritishConstitution，andthefollyofvisionaryreforms，inaspiritwhichmighthavesatisfiedBurke。Hewasthereforenotaltogetherinconsistentwhen，aftertheoutrages，hecondemnedtherevolution，howevermuchthefactswhichhedescribesmaytendtoexplaintheinevitablenessofthecatastrophe。Atanyrate，hisviewsareworthnoticebytheindicationswhichtheygiveofthementalattituDeofatypicalEnglishobserver。