第43章

Bythesideofindependentproducerswhocarryontheirhandicraftsandagricultureinthetraditionalold—fashionedway，therestandstheusurerorthemerchant，withhisusurer’scapitalormerchant’scapital，feedingonthemlikeaparasite。Thepredominance，inasociety，ofthisformofexploitationexcludesthecapitalistmodeofproduction;towhichmode，however，thisformmayserveasatransition，asitdidtowardsthecloseoftheMiddleAges。Finally，asisshownbymodern"domesticindustry，"

someintermediateformsarehereandtherereproducedinthebackgroundofModernIndustry，thoughtheirphysiognomyistotallychanged。

If，ontheonehand，themereformalsubjectionoflabourtocapitalsufficesfortheproductionofabsolutesurplus—value，if，e。g。，itissufficientthathandicraftsmanwhopreviouslyworkedontheirownaccount，orasapprenticesofamaster，shouldbecomewagelabourersunderthedirectcontrolofacapitalist;so，ontheotherhand，wehaveseen，howthemethodsofproducingrelativesurplus—value，are，atthesametime，methodsofproducingabsolutesurplus—value。Nay，more，theexcessiveprolongationoftheworking—dayturnedouttobethepeculiarproductofModernIndustry。

Generallyspeaking，thespecificallycapitalistmodeofproductionceasestobeameremeansofproducingrelativesurplus—value，sosoonasthatmodehasconqueredanentirebranchofproduction;andstillmoreso，sosoonasithasconqueredalltheimportantbranches。Itthenbecomesthegeneral，sociallypredominantformofproduction。Asaspecialmethodofproducingrelativesurplus—value，itremainseffectiveonly，first，insofarasitseizesuponindustriesthatpreviouslywereonlyformallysubjecttocapital，thatis，sofarasitispropagandist;secondly，insofarastheindustriesthathavebeentakenoverbyit，continuetoberevolutionisedbychangesinthemethodsofproduction。

Fromonestandpoint，anydistinctionbetweenabsoluteandrelativesurplus—valueappearsillusory。Relativesurplus—valueisabsolute，sinceitcompelstheabsoluteprolongationoftheworking—daybeyondthelabour—timenecessarytotheexistenceofthelabourerhimself。Absolutesurplus—valueisrelative，sinceitmakesnecessarysuchadevelopmentoftheproductivenessoflabour，aswillallowofthenecessarylabour—timebeingconfinedtoaportionoftheworking—day。Butifwekeepinmindthebehaviourofsurplus—value，thisappearanceofidentityvanishes。Oncethecapitalistmodeofproductionisestablishedandbecomegeneral，thedifferencebetweenabsoluteandrelativesurplus—valuemakesitselffelt，wheneverthereisaquestionofraisingtherateofsurplus—value。Assumingthatlabour—powerispaidforatitsvalue，weareconfrontedbythisalternative:giventheproductivenessoflabouranditsnormalintensity，therateofsurplus—valuecanberaisedonlybytheactualprolongationoftheworking—day;ontheotherhand，giventhelengthoftheworking—day，thatrisecanbeeffectedonlybyachangeintherelativemagnitudesofthecomponentsoftheworking—day，viz。，necessarylabourandsurplus—labour;achangewhich，ifthewagesarenottofallbelowthevalueoflabour—power，presupposesachangeeitherintheproductivenessorintheintensityofthelabour。

Ifthelabourerwantsallhistimetoproducethenecessarymeansofsubsistenceforhimselfandhisrace，hehasnotimeleftinwhichtoworkgratisforothers。Withoutacertaindegreeofproductivenessinhislabour，hehasnosuchsuperfluoustimeathisdisposal;withoutsuchsuperfluoustime，nosurplus—labour，andthereforenocapitalists，noslave—owners，nofeudallords，inoneword，noclassoflargeproprietors。[1]

Thuswemaysaythatsurplus—valuerestsonanaturalbasis;butthisispermissibleonlyintheverygeneralsense，thatthereisnonaturalobstacleabsolutelypreventingonemanfromdisburdeninghimselfofthelabourrequisiteforhisownexistence，andburdeninganotherwithit，anymore，forinstance，thanunconquerablenaturalobstaclepreventonemanfromeatingthefleshofanother。[2]Nomysticalideasmustinanywaybeconnected，assometimeshappens，withthishistoricallydevelopedproductivenessoflabour。Itisonlyaftermenhaveraisedthemselvesabovetherankofanimals，whenthereforetheirlabourhasbeentosomeextentsocialised，thatastateofthingsarisesinwhichthesurplus—labouroftheonebecomesaconditionofexistencefortheother。Atthedawnofcivilisationtheproductivenessacquiredbylabourissmall，butsotooarethewantswhichdevelopwithandbythemeansofsatisfyingthem。Further，atthatearlyperiod，theportionofsocietythatlivesonthelabourofothersisinfinitelysmallcomparedwiththemassofdirectproducers。Alongwiththeprogressintheproductivenessoflabour，thatsmallportionofsocietyincreasesbothabsolutelyandrelatively。[3]Besides，capitalwithitsaccompanyingrelationsspringsupfromaneconomicsoilthatistheproductofalongprocessofdevelopment。Theproductivenessoflabourthatservesasitsfoundationandstarting—point，isagift，notofnature，butofahistoryembracingthousandsofcenturies。

Apartfromthedegreeofdevelopment，greaterorless，intheformofsocialproduction，theproductivenessoflabourisfetteredbyphysicalconditions。Theseareallreferabletotheconstitutionofmanhimself（race，&c。），andtosurroundingnature。Theexternalphysicalconditionsfallintotwogreateconomicclasses，（1）Naturalwealthinmeansofsubsistence，i。e。，afruitfulsoil，watersteemingwithfish，&c。，and（2），naturalwealthintheinstrumentsoflabour，suchaswaterfalls，navigablerivers，wood，metal，coal，&c。Atthedawnofcivilisation，itisthefirstclassthatturnsthescale;atahigherstageofdevelopment，itisthesecond。Compare，forexample，EnglandwithIndia，orinancienttimes，AthensandCorinthwiththeshoresoftheBlackSea。

Thefewerthenumberofnaturalwantsimperativelycallingforsatisfaction，andthegreaterthenaturalfertilityofthesoilandthefavourablenessoftheclimate，somuchlessisthelabour—timenecessaryforthemaintenanceandreproductionoftheproducer。Somuchgreaterthereforecanbetheexcessofhislaboursforothersoverhislabourforhimself。DiodoruslongagoremarkedthisinrelationtotheancientEgyptians。"Itisaltogetherincrediblehowlittletroubleandexpensethebringingupoftheirchildrencausesthem。Theycookforthemthefirstsimplefoodathand;theyalsogivethemthelowerpartofthepapyrusstemtoeat，sofarasitcanberoastedinthefire，andtherootsandstalksofmarshplants，someraw，someboiledandroasted。Mostofthechildrengowithoutshoesandunclothed，fortheairissomild。Henceachild，untilheisgrownup，costshisparentsnotmore，onthewhole，thantwentydrachmas。Itisthis，chiefly，whichexplainswhythepopulationofEgyptissonumerous，and，therefore，whysomanygreatworkscanbeundertaken。"[4]NeverthelessthegrandstructuresofancientEgyptarelessduetotheextentofitspopulationthantothelargeproportionofitthatwasfreelydisposable。Justastheindividuallabourercandomoresurplus—labourinproportionashisnecessarylabour—timeisless，sowithregardtotheworkingpopulation。Thesmallerthepartofitwhichisrequiredfortheproductionofthenecessarymeansofsubsistence，somuchthegreateristhepartthatcanbesettodootherwork。

Capitalistproductiononceassumed，then，allothercircumstancesremainingthesame，andgiventhelengthoftheworkingday，thequantityofsurplus—labourwillvarywiththephysicalconditionsoflabour，especiallywiththefertilityofthesoil。Butitbynomeansfollowsfromthisthatthemostfruitfulsoilisthemostfittedforthegrowthofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。

Thismodeisbasedonthedominionofmanovernature。Wherenatureistoolavish，she"keepshiminhand，likeachildinleading—strings。"Shedoesnotimposeuponhimanynecessitytodevelophimself。[5]Itisnotthetropicswiththeirluxuriantvegetation，butthetemperatezone，thatisthemother—countryofcapital。Itisnotthemerefertilityofthesoil，butthedifferentiationofthesoil，thevarietyofitsnaturalproducts，thechangesoftheseasons，whichformthephysicalbasisforthesocialdivisionoflabour，andwhich，bychangesinthenaturalsurroundings，spurmanontothemultiplicationofhiswants，hiscapabilities，hismeansandmodesoflabour。Itisthenecessityofbringinganaturalforceunderthecontrolofsociety，ofeconomising，ofappropriatingorsubduingitonalargescalebytheworkofman’shand，thatfirstplaysthedecisivepartinthehistoryofindustry。Examplesare，theirrigationworksinEgypt，[6]Lombardy，Holland，orinIndiaandPersiawhereirrigationbymeansofartificialcanals，notonlysuppliesthesoilwiththewaterindispensabletoit，butalsocarriesdowntoit，intheshapeofsedimentfromthehills，mineralfertilisers。

ThesecretoftheflourishingstateofindustryinSpainandSicilyunderthedominionoftheArabslayintheirirrigationworks。[7]

Favourablenaturalconditionsalone，giveusonlythepossibility，neverthereality，ofsurplus—labour，nor，consequently，ofsurplus—valueandasurplus—product。Theresultofdifferenceinthenaturalconditionsoflabouristhis，thatthesamequantityoflaboursatisfies，indifferentcountries，adifferentmassofrequirements，[8]consequently，thatundercircumstancesinotherrespectsanalogous，thenecessarylabour—timeisdifferent。Theseconditionsaffectsurplus—labouronlyasnaturallimits，i。e。，byfixingthepointsatwhichlabourforotherscanbegin。Inproportionasindustryadvances，thesenaturallimitsrecede。InthemidstofourWestEuropeansociety，wherethelabourerpurchasestherighttoworkforhisownlivelihoodonlybypayingforitinsurplus—labour，theideaeasilytakesrootthatitisaninherentqualityofhumanlabourtofurnishasurplus—product。[9]Butconsider，forexample，aninhabitantoftheeasternislandsoftheAsiaticArchipelago，wheresagogrowswildintheforests。"Whentheinhabitantshaveconvincedthemselves，byboringaholeinthetree，thatthepithisripe，thetrunkiscutdownanddividedintoseveralpieces，thepithisextracted，mixedwithwaterandfiltered:itisthenquitefitforuseassago。Onetreecommonlyyields300lbs。，andoccasionally500to600

lbs。There，then，peoplegointotheforests，andcutbreadforthemselves，justaswithustheycutfire—wood。"[10]Supposenowsuchaneastembread—cutterrequires12workinghoursaweekforthesatisfactionofallhiswants。Nature’sdirectgifttohimisplentyofleisuretime。Beforehecanapplythisleisuretimeproductivelyforhimself，awholeseriesofhistoricaleventsisrequired;beforehespendsitinsur