第37章

o’clockatnight。Thestrawcutstheirmouths，withwhichtheyconstantlymoistenit，andtheirfingers。Dr。BallardgivesitasthegeneralopinionofthewholebodyofmedicalofficersinLondon，that300cubicfeetistheminimumspaceproperforeachpersoninabedroomorworkroom。Butinthestraw—plaitschoolsspaceismoresparinglyallottedthaninthelace—schools，"122/3，17，181/2andbelow22cubicfeetforeachperson。"

Thesmallerofthesenumbers，saysoneofthecommissioners，Mr。White，representslessspacethanthehalfofwhatachildwouldoccupyifpackedinaboxmeasuring3feetineachdirection。Thusdothechildrenenjoylifetilltheageof12or14。Thewretchedhalf—starvedparentsthinkofnothingbutgettingasmuchaspossibleoutoftheirchildren。

Thelatter，assoonastheyaregrownup，donotcareafarthing，andnaturallyso，fortheirparents，andleavethem。"Itisnowonderthatignoranceandviceaboundinapopulationsobroughtup……Theirmoralityisatthelowestebb，……agreatnumberofthewomenhaveillegitimatechildren，andthatatsuchanimmatureagethateventhosemostconversantwithcriminalstatisticsareastounded。"[184]AndthenativelandofthesemodelfamiliesisthepatternChristiancountryforEurope;sosaysatleastCountMontalembert，certainlyacompetentauthorityonChristianity！

Wagesintheaboveindustries，miserableastheyare（themaximumwagesofachildinthestraw—plaitschoolsrisinginrarecasesto3shillings），arereducedfarbelowtheirnominalamountbytheprevalenceofthetrucksystemeverywhere，butespeciallyinthelacedistricts。[185]

E。PassageofModernManufacture，anDomesticIndustryintoModernMechanicalIndustry。TheHasteningofThisRevolutionbytheApplicationoftheFactoryActstothoseIndustriesThecheapeningoflabour—power，bysheerabuseofthelabourofwomenandchildren，bysheerrobberyofeverynormalconditionrequisiteforworkingandliving，andbythesheerbrutalityofoverworkandnight—work，meetsatlastwithnaturalobstaclesthatcannotbeoverstepped。Soalso，whenbasedonthesemethods，dothecheapeningofcommoditiesandcapitalistexploitationingeneral。Sosoonasthispointisatlastreached？andittakesmanyyears？thehourhasstruckfortheintroductionofmachinery，andforthethenceforthrapidconversionofthescattereddomesticindustriesandalsoofmanufacturesintofactoryindustries。

Anexample，onthemostcolossalscale，ofthismovementisaffordedbytheproductionofwearingapparel。Thisindustry，accordingtotheclassificationoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，comprisesstraw—hatmakers，ladies’—hatmakers，cap—makers，tailors，millinersanddressmakers，shirt—makers，corset—makers，glove—makers，shoemakers，besidesmanyminorbranches，suchasthemakingofneck—ties，collars，&c。In1861，thenumberoffemalesemployedintheseindustries，inEnglandandWales，amountedto586，299，ofthese115，242attheleastwereunder20，and16，650。under15yearsofage。

ThenumberoftheseworkwomenintheUnitedKingdomin1861，was750，334。

ThenumberofmalesemployedinEnglandandWales，inhat—making，shoemaking，glove—makingandtailoringwas437，969;ofthese14，964under15years，89，285between15and20，and333，117over20years。Manyofthesmallerbranchesarenotincludedinthesefigures。Buttakethefiguresastheystand;wethenhaveforEnglandandWalesalone，accordingtothecensusof1861，atotalof1，024，277persons，aboutasmanyasareabsorbedbyagricultureandcattlebreeding。Webegintounderstandwhatbecomesoftheimmensequantitiesofgoodsconjuredupbythemagicofmachinery，andoftheenormousmassesofworkpeople，whichthatmachinerysetsfree。

Theproductionofwearingappareliscarriedonpartlyinmanufactoriesinwhoseworkroomsthereisbutareproductionofthatdivisionoflabour，themembradisjectaofwhichwerefoundreadytohand;partlybysmallmaster—handicraftsmen;these，however，donot，asformerly，workforindividualconsumers，butformanufactoriesandwarehouses，andtosuchanextentthatoftenwholetownsandstretchesofcountrycarryoncertainbranches，suchasshoemaking，asaspeciality;finally，onaverygreatscalebytheso—calleddomesticworkers，whoformanexternaldepartmentofthemanufactories，warehouses，andevenoftheworkshopsofthesmallermasters。[186]

Therawmaterial，&c。，issuppliedbymechanicalindustry，themassofcheaphumanmaterial（taillableàmercietmiséricorde）

iscomposedoftheindividuals"liberated"bymechanicalindustryandimprovedagriculture。Themanufacturesofthisclassowedtheiroriginchieflytothecapitalist’sneedofhavingathandanarmyreadyequippedtomeetanyincreaseofdemand。[187]Thesemanufactures，nevertheless，allowedthescatteredhandicraftsanddomesticindustriestocontinuetoexistasabroadfoundation。Thegreatproductionofsurplus—valueinthesebranchesoflabour，andtheprogressivecheapeningoftheirarticles，wereandarechieflyduetotheminimumwagespaid，nomorethanrequisiteforamiserablevegetation，andtotheextensionofworking—timeuptothemaximumendurablebythehumanorganism。Itwasinfactbythecheapnessofthehumansweatandthehumanblood，whichwereconvertedintocommodities，thatthemarketswereconstantlybeingextended，andcontinuedailytobeextended;moreespeciallywasthisthecasewithEngland’scolonialmarkets，where，besides，Englishtastesandhabitsprevail。Atlastthecriticalpointwasreached。Thebasisoftheoldmethod，sheerbrutalityintheexploitationoftheworkpeople，accompaniedmoreorlessbyasystematicdivisionoflabour，nolongersufficedfortheextendingmarketsandforthestillmorerapidlyextendingcompetitionofthecapitalists。Thehourstruckfortheadventofmachinery。Thedecisivelyrevolutionarymachine，themachinewhichattacksinanequaldegreethewholeofthenumberlessbranchesofthissphereofproduction，dressmaking，tailoring，shoemaking，sewing，hat—making，andmanyothers，isthesewing—machine。

Itsimmediateeffectontheworkpeopleislikethatofallmachinery，which，sincetheriseofmodernindustry，hasseizeduponnewbranchesoftrade。Childrenoftootenderanagearesentadrift。Thewageofthemachinehandsrisescomparedwiththatofthehouse—workers，manyofwhombelongtothepoorestofthepoor。Thatofthebettersituatedhandicraftsman，withwhomthemachinecompetes，sinks。Thenewmachinehandsareexclusivelygirlsandyoungwomen。Withthehelpofmechanicalforce，theydestroythemonopolythatmalelabourhadoftheheavierwork，andtheydriveofffromthelighterworknumbersofoldwomenandveryyoungchildren。Theoverpoweringcompetitioncrushestheweakestofthemanuallabourers。Thefearfulincreaseindeathfromstarvationduringthelast10yearsinLondonrunsparallelwiththeextensionofmachinesewing。[188]Thenewworkwomenturnthemachinesbyhandandfoot，orbyhandalone，sometimessitting，sometimesstanding，accordingtotheweight，size，andspecialmakeofthemachine，andexpendagreatdealoflabour—power。Theiroccupationisunwholesome，owingtothelonghours，althoughinmostcasestheyarenotsolongasundertheoldsystem。Whereverthesewing—machinelocatesitselfinnarrowandalreadyover—crowdedworkrooms，itaddstotheunwholesomeinfluences。"Theeffect，"saysMr。Lord，"onenteringlow—ceiledworkroomsinwhich30to40machinehandsareworkingisunbearable……Theheat，partlyduetothegasstovesusedforwarmingtheirons，ishorrible……

Evenwhenmoderatehoursofwork，i。e。，from8inthemorningtill6intheevening，prevailinsuchplaces，yet3or4personsfallintoaswoonregularlyeveryday。"[189]

Therevolutionintheindustrialmethodswhichisthenecessaryresultoftherevolutionintheinstrumentsofproduction，iseffectedbyamedleyoftransitionforms。Theseformsvaryaccordingtotheextenttowhichthesewing—machinehasbecomeprevalentinonebranch，ofindustryortheother，tothetimeduringwhichithasbeeninoperation，tothepreviousconditionoftheworkpeople，tothepreponderanceofmanufacture，ofhandicraftsorofdomesticindustry，totherentoftheworkrooms，[190]&c。Indressmaking，forinstance，wherethelabourforthemostpartwasalreadyorganised，chieflybysimpleco—operation，thesewing—machineatfirstformedmerelyanewfactorinthatmanufacturingindustry。Intailoring，shirtmaking，shoemaking，&c。，alltheformsareintermingled。

Herethefactorysystemproper。Theremiddlemenreceivetherawmaterialfromthecapitalistenchef，andgrouparoundtheirsewing—machines，in"chambers"and"garrets，"from10to50ormoreworkwomen。Finally，asisalwaysthecasewithmachinerywhennotorganisedintoasystem，andwhenitcanalsobeusedindwarfishproportions，handicraftsmananddomesticworkers，alongwiththeirfamilies，orwithalittleextralabourfromwithout，makeuseoftheirownsewing—machines。[191]ThesystemactuallyprevalentinEnglandis，thatthecapitalistconcentratesalargenumberofmachinesonhispremises，andthendistributestheproduceofthosemachinesforfurthermanipulationamongstthedomesticworkers。[192]Thevarietyofthetransitionforms，however，doesnotconcealthetendencytoconversionintothefactorysystemproper。Thistendencyisnurturedbytheverynatureofthesewing—machine，themanifoldusesofwhichpushontheconcentration，underoneroof，andonemanagement，ofpreviouslyseparatedbranchesofatrade。Itisalsofavouredbythecircumstancethatpreparatoryneedlework，andcertainotheroperations，aremostconvenientlydoneonthepremiseswherethemachineisatwork;aswellasbytheinevitableexpropriationofthehandsewers，andofthedomesticworkerswhoworkwiththeirownmachines。

Thisfatehasalreadyinpartovertakenthem。Theconstantlyincreasingamountofcapitalinvestedinsewing—machines，[193]givesthespurtotheproductionof，andglutsthemarketswith，machine—madearticles，therebygivingthesignaltothedomesticworkersforthesaleoftheirmachines。Theoverproductionofsewing—machinesthemselves，causestheirproducers，inbadwantofasale，toletthemoutforsomuchaweek，thuscrushingbytheirdeadlycompetitionthesmallownersofmachines。[194]Constantchangesintheconstructionofthemachines，andtheirever—increasingcheapness，depreciatedaybydaytheoldermakes，andallowoftheirbeingsoldingreatnumbers，atabsurdprices，tolargecapitalists，whoalonecanthusemploythemataprofit。Finally，thesubstitutionofthesteam—engineformangivesinthis，asinallsimilarrevolutions，thefinishingblow。

Atfirst，theuseofsteampowermeetswithmeretechnicaldifficulties，suchasunsteadinessinthemachines，difficultyincontrollingtheirspeed，rapidwearandtearofthelightermachines，&c。，allofwhicharesoonovercomebyexperience。[195]If，ontheonehand，theconcentrationofmanymachinesinlargemanufactoriesleadstotheuseofsteampower，ontheotherhand，thecompetitionofsteamwithhumanmuscleshastensontheconcentrationofworkpeopleandmachinesinlargefactories。ThusEnglandisatpresentexperiencing，notonlyinthecolossalindustryofmakingwearingapparel，butinmostoftheothertradesmentionedabove，theconversionofmanufacture，ofhandicrafts，andofdomesticworkintothefactorysystem，aftereachofthoseformsofproduction，totallychangedanddisorganised。undertheInfluenceofmodernindustry，haslongagoreproduced，andevenoverdone，allthehorrorsofthefactorysystem，withoutparticipatinginanyoftheelementsofsocialprogressitcontains。[196]

Thisindustrialrevolutionwhichtakesplacespontaneously，isartificiallyhelpedonbytheextensionoftheFactoryActstoallindustriesinwhichwomen，youngpersonsandchildrenareemployed。Thecompulsoryregulationoftheworking—dayasregardsitslength，pauses，beginningandend，thesystemofrelaysofchildren，theexclusionofallchildrenunderacertainage，&c。，necessitateontheonehandmoremachinery[197]andthesubstitutionofsteamasamotivepowerintheplaceofmuscles。[198]Ontheoth