第29章

Thisexternalrelationbetweenthefinishedproduct，anditsvariousanddiverseelementsmakesit，aswellinthiscaseasinthecaseofallsimilarfinishedarticles，amatterofchancewhetherthedetaillabourersarebroughttogetherinoneworkshopornot。Thedetailoperationsmayfurtherbecarriedonlikesomanyindependenthandicrafts，astheyareintheCantonsofVaudandNeufchâtel;whileinGenevathereexistlargewatchmanufactorieswherethedetaillabourersdirectlyco—operateunderthecontrolofasinglecapitalist。Andeveninthelattercasethedial，thesprings，andthecase，areseldommadeinthefactoryitself。Tocarryonthetradeasamanufacture，withconcentrationofworkmen，is，inthewatchtrade，profitableonlyunderexceptionalconditions，becausecompetitionisgreaterbetweenthelabourerswhodesiretoworkathome，andbecausethesplittingupoftheworkintoanumberofheterogeneousprocesses，permitsbutlittleuseoftheinstrumentsoflabourincommon，andthecapitalist，byscatteringthework，savestheoutlayonworkshops，&c。[7]Neverthelessthepositionofthisdetaillabourerwho，thoughheworksathome，doessoforacapitalist（manufacturer，établisseur），isverydifferentfromthatoftheindependentartificer，whoworksforhisowncustomers。[8]

Thesecondkindofmanufacture，itsperfectedform，producesarticlesthatgothroughconnectedphasesofdevelopment，throughaseriesofprocessesstepbystep，likethewireinthemanufactureofneedles，whichpassesthroughthehandsof72andsometimeseven92differentdetailworkmen。

Insofarassuchamanufacture，whenfirststarted，combinesscatteredhandicrafts，itlessensthespacebywhichthevariousphasesofproductionareseparatedfromeachother。Thetimetakeninpassingfromonestagetoanotherisshortened，soisthelabourthateffectuatesthispassage。[9]Incomparisonwithahandicraft，productivepowerisgained，andthisgainisowingtothegeneralco—operativecharacterofmanufacture。Ontheotherhand，divisionoflabour，whichisthedistinguishingprincipleofmanufacture，requirestheisolationofthevariousstagesofproductionandtheirindependenceofeachother。Theestablishmentandmaintenanceofaconnexionbetweentheisolatedfunctionsnecessitatestheincessanttransportofthearticlefromonehandtoanother，andfromoneprocesstoanother。Fromthestandpointofmodernmechanicalindustry，thisnecessitystandsforthasacharacteristicandcostlydisadvantage，andonethatisimmanentintheprincipleofmanufacture。[10]

Ifweconfineourattentiontosomeparticularlotofrawmaterials，ofrags，forinstance，inpapermanufacture，orofwireinneedlemanufacture，weperceivethatitpassesinsuccessionthroughaseriesofstagesinthehandsofthevariousdetailworkmenuntilcompletion。

Ontheotherhand，ifwelookattheworkshopasawhole，weseetherawmaterialinallthestagesofitsproductionatthesametime。Thecollectivelabourer，withonesetofhismanyhandsarmedwithonekindoftools，drawsthewire，withanotherset，armedwithdifferenttools，he，atthesametime，straightensit，withanother，hecutsit，withanother，pointsit，andsoon。Thedifferentdetailprocesses，whichweresuccessiveintime，havebecomesimultaneous，goonsidebysideinspace。Hence，productionofagreaterquantumoffinishedcommoditiesinagiventime。[11]Thissimultaneity，itistrue，isduetothegeneralco—operativeformoftheprocessasawhole;butManufacturenotonlyfindstheconditionsforco—operationreadytohand，italso，tosomeextent，createsthembythesub—divisionofhandicraftlabour。Ontheotherhand，itaccomplishesthissocialorganisationofthelabour—processonlybyrivetingeachlabourertoasinglefractionaldetail。

Sincethefractionalproductofeachdetaillaboureris，atthesametime，onlyaparticularstageinthedevelopmentofoneandthesamefinishedarticle，eachlabourer，oreachgroupoflabourers，preparestherawmaterialforanotherlabourerorgroup。Theresultofthelabouroftheoneisthestarting—pointforthelabouroftheother。Theoneworkmanthereforegivesoccupationdirectlytotheother。Thelabour—timenecessaryineachpartialprocess，forattainingthedesiredeffect，islearntbyexperience;andthemechanismofManufacture，asawhole，isbasedontheassumptionthatagivenresultwillbeobtainedinagiventime。Itisonlyonthisassumptionthatthevarioussupplementarylabour—processescanproceeduninterruptedly，simultaneously，andsidebyside。Itisclearthatthisdirectdependenceoftheoperations，andthereforeofthelabourers，oneachother，compelseachoneofthemtospendonhisworknomorethanthenecessarytime，andthusacontinuity，uniformity，regularity，order，[12]andevenintensityoflabour，ofquiteadifferentkind，isbegottenthanistobefoundinanindependenthandicraftoreveninsimpleco—operation。Therule，thatthelabour—timeexpendedonacommodityshouldnotexceedthatwhichissociallynecessaryforitsproduction，appears，intheproductionofcommoditiesgenerally，tobeestablishedbythemereeffectofcompetition;since，toexpressourselvessuperficially，eachsingleproducerisobligedtosellhiscommodityatitsmarket—price。

InManufacture，onthecontrary，theturningoutofagivenquantumofproductinagiventimeisatechnicallawoftheprocessofproductionitself。[13]

Differentoperationstake，however，unequalperiods，andyieldtherefore，inequaltimesunequalquantitiesoffractionalproducts。If，therefore，thesamelabourerhas，dayafterday，toperformthesameoperation，theremustbeadifferentnumberoflabourersforeachoperation;forinstance，intypemanufacture，therearefourfoundersandtwobreakerstoonerubber:

thefoundercasts2，000typeanhour，thebreakerbreaksup4，000，andtherubberpolishes8，000。Herewehaveagaintheprincipleofco—operationinitssimplestform，thesimultaneousemploymentofmanydoingthesamething;onlynow，thisprincipleistheexpressionofanorganicrelation。

Thedivisionoflabour，ascarriedoutinManufacture，notonlysimplifiesandmultipliesthequalitativelydifferentpartsofthesocialcollectivelabourer，butalsocreatesafixedmathematicalrelationorratiowhichregulatesthequantitativeextentofthosepartsi。e。，therelativenumberoflabourers，ortherelativesizeofthegroupoflabourers，foreachdetailoperation。Itdevelops，alongwiththequalitativesub—divisionofthesociallabour—process，aquantitativeruleandproportionalityforthatprocess。

Whenoncethemostfittingproportionhasbeenexperimentallyestablishedforthenumbersofthedetaillabourersinthevariousgroupswhenproducingonagivenscale，thatscalecanbeextendedonlybyemployingamultipleofeachparticulargroup。[14]Thereisthistoboot，thatthesameindividualcandocertainkindsofworkjustaswellonalargeasonasmallscale;forinstance，thelabourofsuperintendence，thecarriageofthefractionalproductfromonestagetothenext，&c。Theisolationofsuchfunctions，theirallotmenttoaparticularlabourer，doesnotbecomeadvantageoustillafteranincreaseinthenumberoflabourersemployed;butthisincreasemustaffecteverygroupproportionally。

Theisolatedgroupoflabourerstowhomanyparticulardetailfunctionisassigned，ismadeupofhomogeneouselements，andisoneoftheconstituentpartsofthetotalmechanism。Inmanymanufactures，however，thegroupitselfisanorganisedbodyoflabour，thetotalmechanismbeingarepetitionormultiplicationoftheseelementaryorganisms。Take，forinstance，themanufactureofglassbottles。Itmayberesolvedintothreeessentiallydifferentstages。First，thepreliminarystage，consistingofthepreparationofthecomponentsoftheglass，mixingthesandandlime，&c。，andmeltingthemintoafluidmassofglass。[15]Variousdetaillabourersareemployedinthisfirststage，asalsointhefinaloneofremovingthebottlesfromthedryingfurnace，sortingandpackingthem，&c。Inthemiddle，betweenthesetwostages，comestheglassmeltingproper，themanipulationofthefluidmass。Ateachmouthofthefurnace，thereworksagroup，called"thehole，"consistingofonebottlemakerorfinisher，oneblower，onegatherer，oneputter—uporwhetter—off，andonetaker—in。Thesefivedetailworkersaresomanyspecialorgansofasingleworkingorganismthatactsonlyasawhole，andthereforecanoperateonlybythedirectco—operationofthewholefive。Thewholebodyisparalysedifbutoneofitsmembersbewanting。Butaglassfurnacehasseveralopenings（inEnglandfrom4to6），eachofwhichcontainsanearthenwaremelting—potfullofmoltenglass，andemploysasimilarfive—memberedgroupofworkers。Theorganisationofeachgroupisbasedondivisionoflabour，butthebondbetweenthedifferentgroupsissimpleco—operation，which，byusingincommononeofthemeansofproduction，thefurnace，causesittobemoreeconomicallyconsumed。Suchafurnace，withits4—6

groups，constitutesaglasshouse;andaglassmanufactorycomprisesanumberofsuchglasshouses，togetherwiththeapparatusandworkmenrequisiteforthepreparatoryandfinalstages。

Finally，justasManufacturearisesinpartfromthecombinationofvarioushandicrafts，so，too，itdevelopsintoacombinationofvariousmanufactures。ThelargerEnglishglassmanufacturers，forinstance，maketheirownearthenwaremelting—pots，because，onthequalityofthesedepends，toagreatextent，thesuccessorfailureoftheprocess。Themanufactureofoneofthemeansofproductionishereunitedwiththatoftheproduct。

Ontheotherhand，themanufactureoftheproductmaybeunitedwithothermanufactures，ofwhichthatproductistherawmaterial，orwiththeproductsofwhichitisitselfsubsequentlymixed。Thus，wefindthemanufactureofflintglasscombinedwiththatofglasscuttingandbrassfounding;thelatterforthemetalsettingsofvariousarticlesofglass。Thevariousmanufacturessocombinedformmoreorlessseparatedepartmentsofalargermanufacture，butareatthesametimeindependentprocesses，eachwithitsowndivisionoflabour。Inspiteofthemanyadvantagesofferedbythiscombinationofmanufactures，itnevergrowsintoacompletetechnicalsystemonitsownfoundation。Thathappensonlyonitstransformationintoanindustrycarriedonbymachinery。

Earlyinthemanufacturingperiod，theprincipleoflesseningthenecessarylabour—timeintheproductionofcommodities，[16]wasacceptedandformulated:andtheuseofmachines，especiallyforcertainsimplefirstprocessesthathavetobeconductedonaverylargescale，andwiththeapplicationofgreatforce，spranguphereandthere。Thus，atanearlyperiodinpapermanufacture，thetearingupoftheragswasdonebypaper—mills;andinmetalworks，thepoundingoftheoreswaseffectedbystampingmills。[17]TheRomanEmpirehadhandeddowntheelementaryformofallmachineryinthewater—wheel。[18]

Thehandicraftperiodbequeathedtousthegreatinventionsofthecompass，ofgunpowder，oftype—printing，andoftheautomaticclock。But，onthewhole，machineryplayedthatsubordinatepartwhichAdamSmithassignstoitincomparisonwithdivisionoflabour。[19]Thesporadicuseofmachineryinthe17thcenturywasofthegreatestimportance，becauseitsuppliedthegreatmathematiciansoft