第30章

Whilesimpleco—operationleavesthemodeofworkingbytheindividualforthemostpartunchanged，manufacturethoroughlyrevolutionisesit，andseizeslabour—powerbyitsveryroots。Itconvertsthelabourerintoacrippledmonstrosity，byforcinghisdetaildexterityattheexpenseofaworldofproductivecapabilitiesandinstincts;

justasintheStatesofLaPlatatheybutcherawholebeastforthesakeofhishideorhistallow。Notonlyisthedetailworkdistributedtothedifferentindividuals，buttheindividualhimselfismadetheautomaticmotorofafractionaloperation，[40]andtheabsurdfableofMeneniusAgrippa，whichmakesmanamerefragmentofhisownbody，becomesrealised。[41]If，atfirst，theworkmansellshislabour—powertocapital，becausethematerialmeansofproducingacommodityfailhim，nowhisverylabour—powerrefusesitsservicesunlessithasbeensoldtocapital。Itsfunctionscanbeexercisedonlyinanenvironmentthatexistsintheworkshopofthecapitalistafterthesale。Bynatureunfittedtomakeanythingindependently，themanufacturinglabourerdevelopsproductiveactivityasamereappendageofthecapitalist’sworkshop。[42]AsthechosenpeopleboreintheirfeaturesthesignmanualofJehovah，sodivisionoflabourbrandsthemanufacturingworkmanasthepropertyofcapital。

Theknowledge，thejudgement，andthewill，which，thoughineversosmalladegree，arepractisedbytheindependentpeasantorhandicraftsman，inthesamewayasthesavagemakesthewholeartofwarconsistintheexerciseofhispersonalcunningthesefacultiesarenowrequiredonlyfortheworkshopasawhole。Intelligenceinproductionexpandsinonedirection，becauseitvanishesinmanyothers。Whatislostbythedetaillabourers，isconcentratedinthecapitalthatemploysthem。[43]Itisaresultofthedivisionoflabourinmanufactures，thatthelabourerisbroughtfacetofacewiththeintellectualpotenciesofthematerialprocessofproduction，asthepropertyofanother，andasarulingpower。

Thisseparationbeginsinsimpleco—operation，wherethecapitalistrepresentstothesingleworkman，theonenessandthewilloftheassociatedlabour。

Itisdevelopedinmanufacturewhichcutsdownthelabourerintoadetaillabourer。Itiscompletedinmodernindustry，whichmakesscienceaproductiveforcedistinctfromlabourandpressesitintotheserviceofcapital。[44]

Inmanufacture，inordertomakethecollectivelabourer，andthroughhimcapital，richinsocialproductivepower，eachlabourermustbemadepoorinindividualproductivepowers。"Ignoranceisthemotherofindustryaswellasofsuperstition。Reflectionandfancyaresubjecttoerr;butahabitofmovingthehandorthefootisindependentofeither。Manufactures，accordingly，prospermostwherethemindisleastconsulted，andwheretheworkshopmay……beconsideredasanengine，thepartsofwhicharemen。"[45]Asamatteroffact，somefewmanufacturersinthemiddleofthe18thcenturypreferred，forcertainoperationsthatweretradesecrets，toemployhalf—idioticpersons。[46]

"Theunderstandingsofthegreaterpartofmen，"saysAdamSmith，"arenecessarilyformedbytheirordinaryemployments。Themanwhosewholelifeisspentinperformingafewsimpleoperations……

hasnooccasiontoexerthisunderstanding……Hegenerallybecomesasstupidandignorantasitispossibleforahumancreaturetobecome。"Afterdescribingthestupidityofthedetaillabourerhegoeson:"Theuniformityofhisstationarylifenaturallycorruptsthecourageofhismind……Itcorruptseventheactivityofhisbodyandrendershimincapableofexertinghisstrengthwithvigourandperseveranceinanyotheremploymentsthanthattowhichhehasbeenbred。Hisdexterityathisownparticulartradeseemsinthismannertobeacquiredattheexpenseofhisintellectual，social，andmartialvirtues。Butineveryimprovedandcivilisedsociety，thisisthestateintowhichthelabouringpoor，thatis，thegreatbodyofthepeople，mustnecessarilyfall。"[47]Forpreventingthecompletedeteriorationofthegreatmassofthepeoplebydivisionoflabour，A。SmithrecommendseducationofthepeoplebytheState，butprudently，andinhomeopathicdoses。G。Garnier，hisFrenchtranslatorandcommentator，who，underthefirstFrenchEmpire，quitenaturallydevelopedintoasenator，quiteasnaturallyopposeshimonthispoint。

Educationofthemasses，heurges，violatesthefirstlawofthedivisionoflabour，andwithit"ourwholesocialsystemwouldbeproscribed。""Likeallotherdivisionsoflabour，"hesays，"thatbetweenhandlabourandheadlabour[48]ismorepronouncedanddecidedinproportionassociety（herightlyusesthisword，forcapital，landedpropertyandtheirState）becomesricher。Thisdivisionoflabour，likeeveryother，isaneffectofpast，andacauseoffutureprogress……oughtthegovernmentthentoworkinoppositiontothisdivisionoflabour，andtohinderitsnaturalcourse？Oughtittoexpendapartofthepublicmoneyintheattempttoconfoundandblendtogethertwoclassesoflabour，whicharestrivingafterdivisionandseparation？"[49]

Somecripplingofbodyandmindisinseparableevenfromdivisionoflabourinsocietyasawhole。Since，however，manufacturecarriesthissocialseparationofbranchesoflabourmuchfurther，andalso，byitspeculiardivision，attackstheindividualattheveryrootsofhislife，itisthefirsttoaffordthematerialsfor，andtogiveastartto，industrialpathology。[50]

"Tosubdivideamanistoexecutehim，ifhedeservesthesentence，toassassinatehimifhedoesnot……Thesubdivisionoflabouristheassassinationofapeople。"[51]

Co—operationbasedondivisionoflabour，inotherwords，manufacture，commencesasaspontaneousformation。Sosoonasitattainssomeconsistenceandextension，itbecomestherecognisedmethodicalandsystematicformofcapitalistproduction。Historyshowshowthedivisionoflabourpeculiartomanufacture，strictlysocalled，acquiresthebestadaptedformatfirstbyexperience，asitwerebehindthebacksoftheactors，andthen，liketheguildhandicrafts，strivestoholdfastthatformwhenoncefound，andhereandtheresucceedsinkeepingitforcenturies。Anyalterationinthisform，exceptintrivialmatters，issolelyowingtoarevolutionintheinstrumentsoflabour。ModernmanufacturewhereveritarisesIdonotherealludetomodernindustrybasedonmachineryeitherfindsthedisjectamembrapoetaereadytohand，andonlywaitingtobecollectedtogether，asisthecaseinthemanufactureofclothesinlargetowns，oritcaneasilyapplytheprincipleofdivision，simplybyexclusivelyassigningthevariousoperationsofahandicraft（suchasbook—binding）

toparticularmen。Insuchcases，aweek’sexperienceisenoughtodeterminetheproportionbetweenthenumbersofthehandsnecessaryforthevariousfunctions。[52]

Bydecompositionofhandicrafts，byspecialisationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，bytheformationofdetaillabourers，andbygroupingandcombiningthelatterintoasinglemechanism，divisionoflabourinmanufacturecreatesaqualitativegradation，andaquantitativeproportioninthesocialprocessofproduction;itconsequentlycreatesadefiniteorganisationofthelabourofsociety，andtherebydevelopsatthesametimenewproductiveforcesinthesociety。Initsspecificcapitalistformandunderthegivenconditions，itcouldtakenootherformthanacapitalisticonemanufactureisbutaparticularmethodofbegettingrelativesurplus—value，orofaugmentingattheexpenseofthelabourertheself—expansionofcapitalusuallycalledsocialwealth，"WealthofNations，"&c。Itincreasesthesocialproductivepoweroflabour，notonlyforthebenefitofthecapitalistinsteadofforthatofthelabourer，butitdoesthisbycripplingtheindividuallabourers。Itcreatesnewconditionsforthelordshipofcapitaloverlabour。If，therefore，ontheonehand，itpresentsitselfhistoricallyasaprogressandasanecessaryphaseintheeconomicdevelopmentofsociety，ontheotherhand，itisarefinedandcivilisedmethodofexploitation。

PoliticalEconomy，whichasanindependentscience，firstsprangintobeingduringtheperiodofmanufacture，viewsthesocialdivisionoflabouronlyfromthestandpointofmanufacture，[53]andseesinitonlythemeansofproducingmorecommoditieswithagivenquantityoflabour，and，consequently，ofcheapeningcommoditiesandhurryingontheaccumulationofcapital。Inmoststrikingcontrastwiththisaccentuationofquantityandexchange—value，istheattitudeofthewritersofclassicalantiquity，whoholdexclusivelybyqualityanduse—value。[54]Inconsequenceoftheseparationofthesocialbranchesofproduction，commoditiesarebettermade，thevariousbentsandtalentsofmenselectasuitablefield，[55]andwithoutsomerestraintnoimportantresultscanbeobtainedanywhere。[56]Hencebothproductandproducerareimprovedbydivisionoflabour。Ifthegrowthofthequantityproducedisoccasionallymentioned，thisisonlydonewithreferencetothegreaterabundanceofuse—values。Thereisnotawordalludingtoexchange—valueortothecheapeningofcommodities。

Thisaspect，fromthestandpointofuse—valuealone，istakenaswellbyPlato，[57]whotreatsdivisionoflabourasthefoundationonwhichthedivisionofsocietyintoclassesisbased，asbyXenophon，[58]whowithcharacteristicbourgeoisinstinct，approachesmorenearlytodivisionoflabourwithintheworkshop。Plato’sRepublic，insofarasdivisionoflabouristreatedinit，astheformativeprincipleoftheState，ismerelytheAthenianidealisationoftheEgyptiansystemofcastes，Egypthavingservedasthemodelofanindustrialcountrytomanyofhiscontemporariesalso，amongstotherstoIsocrates，[59]anditcontinuedtohavethisimportancetotheGreeksoftheRomanEmpire。[60]

Duringthemanufacturingperiodproper，i。e。，theperiodduringwhichmanufactureisthepredominantformtakenbycapitalistproduction，manyobstaclesareopposedtothefulldevelopmentofthepeculiartendenciesofmanufacture。Althoughmanufacturecreates，aswehavealreadyseen，asimpleseparationofthelabourersintoskilledandunskilled，simultaneouslywiththeirhierarchicarrangementinclasses，y