第20章

Supposetheworking—dayconsistsof6hoursofnecessarylabour，and6hoursofsurplus—labour。Thenthefreelabourergivesthecapitalisteveryweek6x6or36hoursofsurplus—labour。Itisthesameasifheworked3daysintheweekforhimself，and3daysintheweekgratisforthecapitalist。Butthisisnotevidentonthesurface。Surplus—labourandnecessarylabourglideoneintotheother。Ican，therefore，expressthesamerelationshipbysaying，e。g。，thatthelabourerineveryminuteworks30secondsforhimself，and30forthecapitalist，etc。Itisotherwisewiththecorvée。ThenecessarylabourwhichtheWallachianpeasantdoesforhisownmaintenanceisdistinctlymarkedofffromhissurplus—labouronbehalfoftheBoyard。Theonehedoesonhisownfield，theotherontheseignorialestate。Bothpartsofthelabour—timeexist，therefore，independently，sidebysideonewiththeother。Inthecorvéethesurplus—labourisaccuratelymarkedofffromthenecessarylabour。This，however，canmakenodifferencewithregardtothequantitativerelationofsurplus—labourtonecessarylabour。Threedays’surplus—labourintheweekremainthreedaysthatyieldnoequivalenttothelabourerhimself，whetheritbecalledcorvéeorwage—labour。Butinthecapitalistthegreedforsurplus—labourappearsinthestrainingafteranunlimitedextensionoftheworking—day，intheBoyardmoresimplyinadirecthuntingafterdaysofcorvée。[10]

IntheDanubianPrincipalitiesthecorvéewasmixedupwithrentsinkindandotherappurtenancesofbondage，butitformedthemostimportanttributepaidtotherulingclass。Wherethiswasthecase，thecorvéerarelyarosefromserfdom;serfdommuchmorefrequentlyontheotherhandtookoriginfromthecorvée。[11]ThisiswhattookplaceintheRoumanianprovinces。

Theiroriginalmodeofproductionwasbasedoncommunityofthesoil，butnotintheSlavonicorIndianform。Partofthelandwascultivatedinseverallyasfreeholdbythemembersofthecommunity，anotherpart？agerpublicus？wascultivatedbythemincommon。Theproductsofthiscommonlabourservedpartlyasareservefundagainstbadharvestsandotheraccidents，partlyasapublicstoreforprovidingthecostsofwar，religion，andothercommonexpenses。Incourseoftimemilitaryandclericaldignitariesusurped，alongwiththecommonland，thelabourspentuponit。Thelabourofthefreepeasantsontheircommonlandwastransformedintocorvéeforthethievesofthecommonland。Thiscorvéesoondevelopedintoaservilerelationshipexistinginpointoffact，notinpointoflaw，untilRussia，theliberatoroftheworld，madeitlegalunderpresenceofabolishingserfdom。Thecodeofthecorvée，whichtheRussianGeneralKisseleffproclaimedin1831，wasofcoursedictatedbytheBoyardsthemselves。ThusRussiaconqueredwithoneblowthemagnatesoftheDanubianprovinces，andtheapplauseofliberalcretinsthroughoutEurope。

Accordingtothe"Réglementorganique，"asthiscodeofthecorvéeiscalled，everyWallachianpeasantowestotheso—calledlandlord，besidesamassofdetailedpaymentsinkind:（1），12daysofgenerallabour;（2），onedayoffieldlabour;（3），onedayofwoodcarrying。

Inall，14daysintheyear。WithdeepinsightintoPoliticalEconomy，however，theworking—dayisnottakeninitsordinarysense，butastheworking—daynecessarytotheproductionofanaveragedailyproduct;andthataveragedailyproductisdeterminedinsocraftyawaythatnoCyclopswouldbedonewithitin24hours。Indrywords，theRéglementitselfdeclareswithtrueRussianironythatby12working—daysonemustunderstandtheproductofthemanuallabourof36days，by1dayoffieldlabour3

days，andby1dayofwoodcarryinginlikemannerthreetimesasmuch。

Inall，42corvéedays。Tothishadtobeaddedtheso—calledjobagie，serviceduetothelordforextraordinaryoccasions。Inproportiontothesizeofitspopulation，everyvillagehastofurnishannuallyadefinitecontingenttothejobagie。Thisadditionalcorvéeisestimatedat14daysforeachWallachianpeasant。Thustheprescribedcorvéeamountsto56working—daysyearly。ButtheagriculturalyearinWallachianumbersinconsequenceofthesevereclimateonly210days，ofwhich40

forSundaysandholidays，30onanaverageforbadweather，together70

days，donotcount。140working—daysremain。Theratioofthecorvéetothenecessarylabour56/84or662/3%givesamuchsmallerrateofsurplus—valuethanthatwhichregulatesthelabouroftheEnglishagriculturalorfactorylabourer。Thisis，however，onlythelegallyprescribedcorvée。Andinaspirityetmore"liberal"thantheEnglishFactoryActs，the"Réglementorganique"hasknownhowtofacilitateitsownevasion。Afterithasmade56daysoutof12，thenominalday’sworkofeachofthe56corvéedaysisagainsoarrangedthataportionofitmustfallontheensuingday。Inoneday，e。g。，mustbeweededanextentofland，which，forthiswork，especiallyinmaizeplantations，needstwiceasmuchtime。Thelegalday’sworkforsomekindsofagriculturallabourisinterpretableinsuchawaythatthedaybeginsinMayandendsinOctober。InMoldaviaconditionsarestillharder。"The12corvéedaysofthe’Réglementorganique’criedaBoyarddrunkwithvictory，amountto365daysintheyear。"[12]

IftheRéglementorganiqueoftheDanubianprovinceswasapositiveexpressionofthegreedforsurplus—labourwhicheveryparagraphlegalised，theEnglishFactoryActsarethenegativeexpressionofthesamegreed。

Theseactscurbthepassionofcapitalforalimitlessdrainingoflabour—power，byforciblylimitingtheworking—daybystateregulations，madebyastatethatisruledbycapitalist—andlandlord。Apartfromtheworking—classmovementthatdailygrewmorethreatening，thelimitingoffactorylabourwasdictatedbythesamenecessitywhichspreadguanoovertheEnglishfields。Thesameblindeagernessforplunderthatintheonecaseexhaustedthesoil，had，intheother，tornupbytherootsthelivingforceofthenation。PeriodicalepidemicsspeakonthispointasclearlyasthediminishingmilitarystandardinGermanyandFrance。[13]

TheFactoryActof1850nowinforce（1867）allowsfortheaverageworking—day10hours，i。e。，forthefirst5days12hoursfrom6a。m。to6p。m。，including1/2anhourforbreakfast，andanhourfordinner，andthusleaving10

1/2working—hours，and8hoursforSaturday，from6a。m。to2p。m。，ofwhich1/2anhourissubtractedforbreakfast。60working—hoursareleft，101/2foreachofthefirst5days，71/2forthelast。[14]

Certainguardiansoftheselawsareappointed，FactoryInspectors，directlyundertheHomeSecretary，whosereportsarepublishedhalf—yearly，byorderofParliament。Theygiveregularandofficialstatisticsofthecapitalisticgreedforsurplus—labour。

Letuslisten，foramoment，totheFactoryInspectors。[15]"Thefraudulentmill—ownerbeginsworkaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）before6a。m。，andleavesoffaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）after6p。m。Hetakes5minutesfromthebeginningandfromtheendofthehalfhournominallyallowedforbreakfast，and10minutesatthebeginningandendofthehournominallyallowedfordinner。Heworksforaquarterofanhour（sometimesmore，sometimesless）

after2p。m。onSaturday。Thushisgainis？

Before6a。m。，……15minutes。

After6p。m。，……15"

Atbreakfasttime，……10"

Atdinnertime，……20"

棗棗棗

Fivedays？300minutes，60"

OnSaturdaybefore6a。m。，……15minutes。

Atbreakfasttime，……10"

After2p。m。，……15"

棗棗棗

40minutes。

Totalweekly，……340minutes。

Or5hoursand40minutesweekly，whichmultipliedby50workingweeksintheyear（allowingtwoforholidaysandoccasionalstoppages）isequalto27working—days。"[16]

"Fiveminutesaday’sincreasedwork，multipliedbyweeks，areequaltotwoandahalfdaysofproduceintheyear。"[17]

"Anadditionalhouradaygainedbysmallinstalmentsbefore6a。m。，after6p。m。，andatthebeginningandendofthetimesnominallyfixedformeals，isnearlyequivalenttoworking13monthsintheyear。"[18]

Crisesduringwhichproductionisinterruptedandthefactorieswork"shorttime，"i。e。，foronlyapartoftheweek，naturallydonotaffectthetendencytoextendtheworking—day。Thelessbusinessthereis，themoreprofithastobemadeonthebusinessdone。Thelesstimespentinwork，themoreofthattimehastobeturnedintosurpluslabour—time。

ThustheFactoryInspector’sreportontheperiodofthecrisisfrom1857to1858:

"Itmayseeminconsistentthatthereshouldbeanyoverworkingatatimewhentradeissobad;butthatverybadnessleadstothetransgressionbyunscrupulousmen，theygettheextraprofitofit……Inthelasthalfyear，saysLeonardHomer，122millsinmydistricthavebeengivenup;

143werefoundstanding，"yet，over—workiscontinuedbeyondthelegalhours。[19]

"Foragreatpartofthetime，"saysMr。Howell，"owingtothedepressionoftrade，manyfactorieswerealtogetherclosed，andastillgreaternumberwereworkingshorttime。Icontinue，however，toreceiveabouttheusualnumberofcomplaintsthathalf，orthree—quartersofanhourintheday，aresnatchedfromtheworkersbyencroachinguponthetimesprofessedlyallowedforrestandrefreshment。"[20]Thesamephenomenonwasreproducedonasmallerscaleduringthefrightfulcotton—crisesfrom1861to1865。[21]"Itissometimesadvancedbywayofexcuse，whenpersonsarefoundatworkinafactory，eitheratamealhour，oratsomeillegaltime，thattheywillnotleavethemillattheappointedhour，andthatcompulsionisnecessarytoforcethemtoceasework[cleaningtheirmachinery，&c。]，especiallyonSaturdayafternoons。But，ifthehandsremaininafactoryafterthemachineryhasceasedtorevolve……theywouldnothavebeensoemployedifsufficienttimehadbeensetapartspeciallyforcleaning，&c。，eitherbefore6a。m。[sic。！]orbefore2p。m。

onSaturdayafternoons。"[22]

"Theprofittobegainedbyit（over—workinginviolationoftheAct）

appearstobe，tomany，agreatertemptationthantheycanresist;theycalculateuponthechanceofnotbeingfoundout;andwhentheyseethesmallamountofpenaltyandcosts，whichthosewhohavebeenconvictedhavehadtopay，theyfindthatiftheyshouldbedetectedtherewillstillbeaconsiderablebalanceofgain……[23]Incaseswheretheadditionaltimeisgainedbyamultiplicationofsmalltheftsinthecourseoftheday，thereareinsuperabledifficultiestotheinspectorsmakingoutacase。"[24]

These"smallthefts"ofcapitalfromthelabourer’smealandrecreationtime，thefactoryinspectorsalsodesignateas"pettypilferingsofminutes，"[25]"snatchingafewminutes，"[26]or，asthelabourerstechnicallycalledthem，"nibblingandcribblingatmeal—times。"[27]

Itisevidentthatinthisatmospheretheformationofsurplus—valuebysurplus—labour，isnosecret。"Ifyouallowme，"saidahighlyrespectablemastertome，"toworkonlytenminutesinthedayover—time，youputonethousandayearinmypocket。"[28]"Momentsaretheelementsofprofit。"[29]

Nothingisfromthispointofviewmorecharacteristicthanthedesignationoftheworkerswhoworkfulltimeas"full—timers，"andthechildrenunder13whoareonlyallowedtowork6hoursas"half—timers。"Theworkerisherenothingmorethanpersonifiedlabour—time。Allindividualdistinctionsaremergedinthoseof"full—timers"and"half—timers"[30]

SECTION3BRANCHESOFENGLISHINDUSTRYWITHOUTLEGALLIMITSTOEXPLOITATION

Wehavehithertoconsideredthetendencytotheextensionoftheworking—day，thewere—wolf’shungerforsurplus—labourinadepartmentwherethemonstrousexactions，notsurpassed，saysanEnglishbourgeoiseconomist，bythecrueltiesoftheSpaniardstotheAmericanred—skins，[31]causedcapitalatlasttobeboundbythechainsoflegalregulations。

Now，letuscastaglanceatcertainbranchesofproductioninwhichtheexploitationoflabouriseitherfreefromfetterstothisday，orwassoyesterday。

Mr。BroughtonCharlton，countymagistrate，declared，aschairmanofameetingheldattheAssemblyRooms，Nottingham，onthe14thJanuary，1860，"thattherewasanamountofprivationandsufferingamongthatportionofthepopulationconnectedwiththelacetrade，unknowninotherpartsofthekingdom，indeed，inthecivilisedworld……Childrenofnineortenyearsaredraggedfromtheirsqualidbedsattwo，three，orfouro’clockinthemorningandcompelledtoworkforabaresubsistenceuntilten，eleven，ortwelveatnight，theirlimbswearingaway，theirframesdwindling，theirfaceswhitening，andtheirhumanityabsolutelysinkingintoastone—liketorpor，utterlyhorribletocontemplate……WearenotsurprisedthatMr。Mallett，oranyothermanufacturer，shouldstandforwardandprotestagainstdiscussion……Thesystem，astheRev。MontaguValpydescribesit，isoneofunmitigatedslavery，socially，physically，morally，andspiritually……Whatcanbethoughtofatownwhichholdsapublicmeetingtopetitionthattheperiodoflabourformenshallbediminishedtoeighteenhoursaday？……WedeclaimagainsttheVirginianandCaroliniancotton—planters。Istheirblack—market，theirlash，andtheirbarterofhumanfleshmoredetestablethanthisslowsacrificeofhumanitywhichtakesplaceinorderthatveilsandcollarsmaybefabricatedforthebenefitofcapitalists？’’[32]

ThepotteriesofStaffordshirehave，duringthelast22years，beenthesubjectofthreeparliamentaryinquiries。TheresultisembodiedinMr。Scriven’sReportof1841tothe"Children’sEmploymentCommissioners，"

inthereportofDr。Greenhowof1860publishedbyorderofthemedicalofficerofthePrivyCouncil（PublicHealth，3rdReport，112—113），lastly，inthereportofMr。Longeof1862inthe"FirstReportoftheChildren’sEmploymentCommission，ofthe13thJune，1863。"Formypurposeitisenoughtotake，fromthereportsof1860and1863，somedepositionsoftheexploitedchildrenthemselves。Fromthechildrenwemayformanopinionastotheadults，especiallythegirlsandwomen，andthatinabranchofindustrybythesideofwhichcotton—spinningappearsanagreeableandhealthfuloccupation。[33]

WilliamWood，9yearsold，was7yearsand10monthswhenhebegantowork。He"ranmoulds"（carriedready—mouldedarticlesintothedrying—room，afterwardsbringingbacktheemptymould）fromthebeginning。Hecametoworkeverydayintheweekat6a。m。，andleftoffabout9p。m。"Iworktill9o’clockatnightsixdaysintheweek。Ihavedonesosevenoreightweeks。"Fifteenhoursoflabourforachild7yearsold！J。Murray，12

yearsofage，says:"Iturnjigger，andrunmoulds。Icomeat6。SometimesIcomeat4。Iworkedallnightlastnight，till6o’clockthismorning。

Ihavenotbeeninbedsincethenightbeforelast。Therewereeightornineotherboysworkinglastnight。Allbutonehavecomethismorning。

Iget3shillingsandsixpence。Idonotgetanymoreforworkingatnight。

Iworkedtwonightslastweek。"Fernyhough，aboyoften:"Ihavenotalwaysanhour（fordinner）。Ihaveonlyhalfanhoursometimes;onThursday，Friday，andSaturday。[34]

Dr。GreenhowstatesthattheaveragedurationoflifeinthepotterydistrictsofStoke—on—Trent，andWolstantonisextraordinarilyshort。AlthoughinthedistrictofStoke，only36。6%andinWolstantononly30。4%

oftheadultmalepopulationabove20areemployedinthepotteries，amongthemenofthatageinthefirstdistrictmorethanhalf，inthesecond，nearly2/5ofthewholedeathsaretheresultofpulmonarydiseasesamongthepotters。Dr。Boothroyd，amedicalpractitioneratHanley，says:"Eachsuccessivegenerationofpottersismoredwarfedandlessrobustthantheprecedingone。"Inlikemanneranotherdoctor，Mr。M’Bean:"Sincehebegantopracticeamongthepotters25yearsago，hehadobservedamarkeddegenerationespeciallyshownindiminutionofstatureandbreadth。"ThesestatementsaretakenfromthereportofDr。Greenhowin1860。[35]

FromthereportoftheCommissionersin1863，thefollowing:Dr。J。

T。Arledge，seniorphysicianoftheNorthStaffordshireInfirmary，says:

"Thepottersasaclass，bothmenandwomen，representadegeneratedpopulation，bothphysicallyandmorally。Theyare，asarule，stuntedingrowth，ill—shaped，andfrequentlyill—formedinthechest;theybecomeprematurelyold，andarecertainlyshort—lived;theyarephlegmaticandbloodless，andexhibittheirdebilityofconstitutionbyobstinateattacksofdyspepsia，anddisordersoftheliverandkidneys，andbyrheumatism。Butofalldiseasestheyareespeciallypronetochest—disease，topneumonia，phthisis，bronchitis，andasthma。Oneformwouldappearpeculiartothem，andisknownaspotter’sasthma，orpotter’sconsumption。Scrofulaattackingtheglands，orbones，orotherpartsofthebody，isadiseaseoftwo—thirdsormoreofthepotters……Thatthe’degenerescence’ofthepopulationofthisdistrictisnotevengreaterthanitis，isduetotheconstantrecruitingfromtheadjacentcountry，andintermarriageswithmorehealthyraces。"[36]

Mr。CharlesParsons，latehousesurgeonofthesameinstitution，writesinalettertoCommissionerLonge，amongstotherthings:"Icanonlyspeakfrompersonalobservationandnotfromstatisticaldata，butIdonothesitatetoassertthatmyindignationhasbeenarousedagainandagainatthesightofpoorchildrenwhosehealthhasbeensacrificedtogratifytheavariceofeitherparentsoremployers。"Heenumeratesthecausesofthediseasesofthepotters，andsumsthemupinthephrase，"longhours。"ThereportoftheCommissiontruststhat"amanufacturewhichhasassumedsoprominentaplaceinthewholeworld，willnotlongbesubjecttotheremarkthatitsgreatsuccessisaccompaniedwiththephysicaldeterioration，widespreadbodilysuffering，andearlydeathoftheworkpeople……bywhoselabourandskillsuchgreatresultshavebeenachieved。"[37]AndallthatholdsofthepotteriesinEnglandistrueofthoseinScotland。[38]

Themanufactureoflucifermatchesdatesfrom1833，fromthediscoveryofthemethodofapplyingphosphorustothematchitself。Since1845thismanufacturehasrapidlydevelopedinEngland，andhasextendedespeciallyamongstthethicklypopulatedpartsofLondonaswellasinManchester，Birmingham，Liverpool，Bristol，Norwich，NewcastleandGlasgow。Withithasspreadtheformoflockjaw，whichaViennaphysicianin1845discoveredtobeadiseasepeculiartolucifer—matchmakers。Halftheworkersarechildrenunderthirteen，andyoungpersonsundereighteen。Themanufactureisonaccountofitsunhealthinessandunpleasantnessinsuchbadodourthatonlythemostmiserablepartofthelabouringclass，half—starvedwidowsandsoforth，deliveruptheirchildrentoit，"theragged，half—starved，untaughtchildren。"[39]

OfthewitnessesthatCommissionerWhiteexamined（1863），270wereunder18，50under10，10only8，and5only6yearsold。Arangeoftheworking—dayfrom12to14or15hours，night—labour，irregularmeal—times，mealsforthemostparttakenintheveryworkroomsthatarepestilentwithphosphorus。

DantewouldhavefoundtheworsthorrorsofhisInfernosurpassedinthismanufacture。

Inthemanufactureofpaper—hangingsthecoarsersortsareprintedbymachine;thefinerbyhand（block—printing）。ThemostactivebusinessmonthsarefromthebeginningofOctobertotheendofApril。Duringthistimetheworkgoesonfastandfuriouswithoutintermissionfrom6a。m。to10

p。m。orfurtherintothenight。

J。Leachdeposes:"Lastwintersixoutofnineteengirlswereawayfromill—healthatonetimefromover—work。Ihavetobawlatthemtokeepthemawake。"W。Duffy:"Ihaveseenwhenthechildrencouldnoneofthemkeeptheireyesopenforthework;indeed，noneofuscould。"J。Lightbourne:

"Am13Weworkedlastwintertill9（evening），andthewinterbeforetill10。Iusedtocrywithsorefeeteverynightlastwinter。"G。Apsden:"Thatboyofminewhenhewas7yearsoldIusedtocarryhimonmybacktoandfrothroughthesnow，andheusedtohave16hoursaday……Ihaveoftenkneltdowntofeedhimashestoodbythemachine，forhecouldnotleaveitorstop。"Smith，themanagingpartnerofaManchesterfactory:"We（hemeanshis"hands"whoworkfor"us"）workonwithnostoppageformeals，sothatday’sworkof101/2hoursisfinishedby4。30p。m。，andallafterthatisover—time。"[40]（DoesthisMr。Smithtakenomealshimselfduring101/2hours？）"We（thissameSmith）seldomleaveoffworkingbefore6p。m。（hemeansleaveofftheconsumptionof"our"labour—powermachines），sothatwe（iterumCrispinus）

arereallyworkingover—timethewholeyearroundForallthese，childrenandadultsalike（152childrenandyoungpersonsand140adults），theaverageworkforthelast18monthshasbeenattheveryleast7days，5hours，or781/2hoursaweek。ForthesixweeksendingMay2ndthisyear（1862），theaveragewashigher？8daysor84hoursaweek。"StillthissameMr。

Smith，whoissoextremelydevotedtothepluralismajestatis，addswithasmile，"Machine—workisnotgreat。"Sotheemployersintheblock—printingsay:"Handlabourismorehealthythanmachinework。"Onthewhole，manufacturersdeclarewithindignationagainsttheproposal"tostopthemachinesatleastduringmeal—times。"Aclause，saysMr。Otley，managerofawall—paperfactoryintheBorough，"whichallowedworkbetween，say6a。m。and9p。inwouldsuitus（！）verywell，butthefactoryhours，6a。m。to6p。m。，arenotsuitable。Ourmachineisalwaysstoppedfordinner。（Whatgenerosity！）Thereisnowasteofpaperandcolourtospeakof。But，"headdssympathetically，"Icanunderstandthelossoftimenotbeingliked。"ThereportoftheCommissionopineswithnaïvetethatthefearofsome"leadingfirms"oflosingtime，i。e。，thetimeforappropriatingthelabourofothers，andthencelosingprofitisnotasufficientreasonforallowingchildrenunder13，andyoungpersonsunder18，working12to16hoursperday，tolosetheirdinner，norforgivingittothemascoalandwateraresuppliedtothesteam—engine，soaptowool，oiltothewheel？asmerelyauxiliarymaterialtotheinstrumentsoflabour，duringtheprocessofproductionitself;[41]

NobranchofindustryinEngland（wedonottakeintoaccountthemakingofbreadbymachineryrecentlyintroduced）haspreserveduptothepresentdayamethodofproductionsoarchaic，so？asweseefromthepoetsoftheRomanEmpire？pre—christian，asbaking。Butcapital，aswassaidearlier，isatfirstindifferentastotp;technicalcharacterofthelabour—process;itbeginsbytakingitjustasitfindsit。

Theincredibleadulterationofbread，especiallyinLondon，wasfirstrevealedbytheHouseofCommonsCommittee"ontheadulterationofarticlesoffood"（1855—56），andDr。Hassall’swork，"Adulterationsdetected。"[42]TheconsequenceoftheserevelationswastheActofAugust6th，1860，"forpreventingtheadulterationofarticlesoffoodanddrink，"aninoperativelaw，asitnaturallyshowsthetenderestconsiderationforeveryFree—traderwhodeterminesbythebuyingorsellingofadulteratedcommodities"toturnanhonestpenny。"[43]TheCommitteeitselfformulatedmoreorlessnaïvelyitsconvictionthatFree—trademeantessentiallytradewithadulterated，orastheEnglishingeniouslyputit，"sophisticated"goods。InfactthiskindofsophistryknowsbetterthanProtagorashowtomakewhiteblack，andblackwhite，andbetterthantheEleaticshowtodemonstrateadoculosthateverythingisonlyappearance。[44]

AtalleventstheCommitteehaddirectedtheattentionofthepublictoits"dailybread，"andthereforetothebakingtrade。AtthesametimeinpublicmeetingsandinpetitionstoParliamentrosethecryoftheLondonjourneymenbakersagainsttheirover—work，&c。ThecrywassourgentthatMr。H。S。Tremenheere，alsoamemberoftheCommissionof1863severaltimesmentioned，wasappointedRoyalCommissionerofInquiry。Hisreport。[45]togetherwiththeevidencegiven，rousedcapitalist，orlandlord，orsinecurist，iscommandedtoeathisbreadinthesweatofhisbrow，buttheydidnotknowthathehadtoeatdailyinhisbreadacertainquantityofhumanperspirationmixedwiththedischargeofabscesses，cobwebs，deadblack—beetles，andputridGermanyeast，withoutcountingalum，sand，andotheragreeablemineralingredients。Withoutanyregardtohisholiness，Free—trade，thefreebaking—tradewasthereforeplacedunderthesupervisionoftheStateinspectors（CloseoftheParliamentarysessionof1863），andbythesameActofParliament，workfrom9intheeveningto5inthemorningwasforbiddenforjourneymenbakersunder18。Thelastclausespeaksvolumesastotheover—workinthisold—fashioned，homelylineofbusiness。

"TheworkofaLondonjourneymanbakerbegins，asarule，ataboutelevenatnight。Atthathourhe’makesthedough，’？alaboriousprocess，whichlastsfromhalfanhourtothreequartersofanhour，accordingtothesizeofthebatchorthelabourbestoweduponit。Hethenliesdownuponthekneading—board，whichisalsothecoveringofthetroughinwhichthedoughis’made’;andwithasackunderhim，andanotherrolledupasapillow，hesleepsforaboutacoupleofhours。Heisthenengagedinarapidandcontinuouslabourforaboutfivehours？nbsp;throwingoutthedough，’scalingitoff，’mouldingit，puttingitintotheoven，preparingandbakingrollsandfancybread，takingthebatchbreadoutoftheoven，andupintotheshop，&c。，&c。Thetemperatureofabakehouserangesfromabout75toupwardsof90degrees，andinthesmallerbakehousesapproximatesusuallytothehigherratherthantothelowerdegreeofheat。Whenthebusinessofmakingthebread，rolls，&c。，isover，thatofitsdistributionbegins，andaconsiderableproportionofthejourneymeninthetrade，afterworkinghardinthemannerdescribedduringthenight，areupontheirlegsformanyhoursduringtheday，carryingbaskets，orwheelinghand—carts，andsometimesagaininthebakehouse，leavingoffworkatvarioushoursbetween1and6p。m。accordingtotheseasonoftheyear，ortheamountandnatureoftheirmaster’sbusiness;

whileothersareagainengagedinthebakehousein’bringingout’morebatchesuntillateintheafternoon。[46]……Duringwhatiscalled’theLondonseason，’theoperativesbelongingtothe’full—priced’bakersattheWestEndofthetown，generallybeginworkat11p。m。，andareengagedinmakingthebread，withoneortwoshort（sometimesveryshort）intervalsofrest，upto8o’clockthenextmorning。

Theyarethenengagedalldaylong，upto4，5，6，andaslateas7o’clockintheeveningcarryingoutbread，orsometimesintheafternooninthebakehouseagain，assistinginthebiscuit—baking。Theymayhave，aftertheyhavedonetheirwork，sometimesfiveorsix，sometimesonlyfourorfivehours’sleepbeforetheybeginagain。OnFridaystheyalwaysbeginsooner，someaboutteno’clock，andcontinueinsomecases，atwork，eitherinmakingordeliveringthebreadupto8p。m。onSaturdaynight，butmoregenerallyupto4or5o’clock，Sundaymorning。OnSundaysthemenmustattendtwiceorthreetimesduringthedayforanhourortwotomakepreparationsforthenextday’sbread……

Themenemployedbytheundersellingmasters（whoselltheirbreadunderthe’fullprice，’andwho，asalreadypointedout，comprisethree—fourthsoftheLondonbakers）havenotonlytoworkontheaveragelongerhours，buttheirworkisalmostentirelyconfinedtothebakehouse。Theundersellingmastersgenerallyselltheirbread……intheshop。Iftheysenditout，whichisnotcommon，exceptassupplyingchandlers’shops，theyusuallyemployotherhandsforthatpurpose。Itisnottheirpracticetodeliverbreadfromhousetohouse。Towardstheendoftheweek……themenbeginonThursdaynightat10o’clock，andcontinueonwithonlyslightintermissionuntillateonSaturdayevening。"[47]

Eventhebourgeoisintellectunderstandsthepositionofthe"underselling"

masters。"Theunpaidlabourofthemenwasmadethesourcewherebythecompetitionwascarriedon。"[48]Andthe"full—priced"bakerdenounceshisundersellingcompetitorstotheCommissionofInquiryasthievesofforeignlabourandadulterators。"Theyonlyexistnowbyfirstdefraudingthepublic，andnextgetting18hours’

workoutoftheirmenfor12hours’wages。"[49]

Theadulterationofbreadandtheformationofaclassofbakersthatsellsthebreadbelowthefullprice，datefromthebeginningofthe18thcentury，fromthetimewhenthecorporatecharacterofthetradewaslost，andthecapitalistintheformofthemillerorflour—factor，risesbehindthenominalmasterbaker[50]Thuswaslaidthefoundationofcapitalisticproductioninthistrade，oftheunlimitedextensionoftheworking—dayandofnight—labour，althoughthelatteronlysince1824gainedaseriousfooting，eveninLondon。[51]

Afterwhathasjustbeensaid，itwillbeunderstoodthattheReportoftheCommissionclassesjourneymenbakersamongtheshort—livedlabourers，who，havingbygoodluckescapedthenormaldecimationofthechildrenoftheworking—class，rarelyreachtheageof42。Nevertheless，thebakingtradeisalwaysoverwhelmedwithapplicants。Thesourcesofthesupplyoftheselabour—powerstoLondonareScotland，thewesternagriculturaldistrictsofEngland，andGermany。

Intheyears1858—60，thejourneymenbakersinIrelandorganisedattheirownexpensegreatmeetingstoagitateagainstnightandSundaywork。

Thepublic？e。g。，attheDublinmeetinginMay，1860？tooktheirpartwithIrishwarmth。Asaresultofthismovement，day—labouralonewassuccessfullyestablishedinWexford，Kilkenny，Clonmel，Waterford，&p;"InLimerick，wherethegrievancesofthejourneymenaredemonstratedtobeexcessive，themovementhasbeendefeatedbytheoppositionofthemasterbakers，themillerbakersbeingthegreatestopponents。TheexampleofLimerickledtoaretrogressioninEnnisandTipperary。InCork，wherethestrongestpossibledemonstrationoffeelingtookplace，themasters，byexercisingtheirpowerofturningthemenoutofemployment，havedefeatedthemovement。InDublin，themasterbakershaveofferedthemostdeterminedoppositiontothemovement，andbydiscountenancingasmuchaspossiblethejourneymenpromotingit，havesucceededinleadingthemenintoacquiescenceinSundayworkandnight—work，contrarytotheconvictionsofthemen。"[52]