第31章

[39]"Itisnotsufficientthatthecapital"（thewritershouldhavesaidthenecessarymeansofsubsistenceandofproduction）"requiredforthesubdivisionofhandicraftsshouldbeinreadinessinthesociety:itmustalsobeaccumulatedinthehandsoftheemployersinsufficientlylargequantitiestoenablethemtoconducttheiroperationsonalargescale……Themorethedivisionincreases，themoredoestheconstantemploymentofagivennumberoflabourersrequireagreateroutlayofcapitalintools，rawmaterial，&c。"（Storch:

"Coursd’Econ。Polit。"ParisEd。，t。I。，pp。250，251。）"Laconcentrationdesinstrumentsdeproductionetladivisiondutravailsontaussiinséparablesl’unedeI’autrequelesont，danslerégimepolitique，laconcentrationdespouvoirspublicsetladivisiondesintérêtsprivés。"

（KarlMarx，l。c。，p。134。）

[40]DugaldStewartcallsmanufacturinglabourers"livingautomatons……employedinthedetailsofthework。"（I。c。，p。318。）

[41]Incorals，eachindividualis，infact，thestomachofthewholegroup;

butitsuppliesthegroupwithnourishment，insteadof，liketheRomanpatrician，withdrawingit。

[42]"L’ouvrierquiportedanssesbrastoutunmétier，peutallerpartoutexercersonindustrieettrouverdesmoyensdesubsister:l’autre（themanufacturinglabourer）n’estqu’unaccessoirequi，séparé

desesconfrères，n’aplusnicapacité，niindépendance，etquisetrouveforced’accepterlaloiqu’onjugeàproposdeluiimposer。"（Storch，l。c。，Petersb。edit。，1815，t。I。，p。204。）

[43]A。Ferguson，l。c。，p。281:"Theformermayhavegainedwhattheotherhaslost。"

[44]"Themanofknowledgeandtheproductivelabourercometobewidelydividedfromeachother，andknowledge，insteadofremainingthehandmaidoflabourinthehandofthelabourertoincreasehisproductivepowers……hasalmosteverywherearrayeditselfagainstlabour……systematicallydeludingandleadingthem（thelabourers）astrayinordertorendertheirmuscularpowersentirelymechanicalandobedient。"（W。Thompson:"AnInquiryintothePrinciplesoftheDistributionofWealth。"London，1824，p。274。）

[45]A。Ferguson，l。c。，p。280。

[46]J。D。Tuckett:"AHistoryofthePastandPresentStateoftheLabouringPopulation。"Lond。，1846。

[47]A。Smith:"WealthofNations，"Bk。v。，ch。i，art。ii。BeingapupilofA。Fergusonwhoshowedthedisadvantageouseffectsofdivisionoflabour，AdamSmithwasperfectlyclearonthispoint。Intheintroductiontohiswork，whereheexprofessopraisesdivisionoflabour，heindicatesonlyinacursorymannerthatitisthesourceofsocialinequalities。

Itisnottillthe5thBook，ontheRevenueoftheState，thathereproducesFerguson。Inmy"MisèredelaPhilosophie，"IhavesufficientlyexplainedthehistoricalconnexionbetweenFerguson，A。Smith，Lemontey，andSay，asregardstheircriticismsofDivisionofLabour，andhaveshown，forthefirsttime，thatDivisionofLabouraspractisedinmanufactures，isaspecificformofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。

[48]Fergusonhadalreadysaid，l。c。，p。281:"Andthinkingitself，inthisageofseparations，maybecomeapeculiarcraft。"

[49]G。Garnier，vol。V。ofhistranslationofA。Smith，pp。4—5。

[50]Ramazzini，professorofpracticalmedicineatPadua，publishedin1713

hiswork"Demorbisartificum，"whichwastranslatedintoFrench1781，reprinted1841inthe"EncyclopédiedesSciencesMédicales。

7meDis。AuteursClassiques。"TheperiodofModernMechanicalIndustryhas，ofcourse，verymuchenlargedhiscatalogueoflabour’sdiseases。

See"Hygiènephysiqueetmoraledel’ouvrierdanslesgrandesvillesengénéraletdanslavilledeLyonenparticulier。ParleDr。A。L。Fonteret，Paris，1858，"and"DieKrankheiten，welcheverschiednenStänden，AlternundGeschlechterneigenthümlichsind。6Vols。

Ulm，1860，"andothers。In1854theSocietyofArtsappointedaCommissionofInquiryintoindustrialpathology。Thelistofdocumentscollectedbythiscommissionistobeseeninthecatalogueofthe"TwickenhamEconomicMuseum。"Veryimportantaretheofficial"ReportsonPublicHealth。"SeealsoEduardReich，M。D。"UeberdieEntartungdesMenschen，"Erlangen，1868。

[51]（D。Urquhart:"FamiliarWords。"Lond。，1855，p。119。）Hegelheldveryhereticalviewsondivisionoflabour。Inhis"Rechtsphilosophie"hesays:"Bywelleducatedmenweunderstandinthefirstinstance，thosewhocandoeverythingthatothersdo。"

[52]Thesimplebeliefintheinventivegeniusexercisedaprioribytheindividualcapitalistindivisionoflabour，existsnow—a—daysonlyamongGermanprofessors，ofthestampofHerrRoscher，who，torecompensethecapitalistfromwhoseJovianheaddivisionoflaboursprangreadyformed，dedicatestohim"variouswages"（diverseArbeitslöhne）。Themoreorlessextensiveapplicationofdivisionoflabourdependsonlengthofpurse，notongreatnessofgenius。

[53]Theolderwriters，likePettyandtheanonymousauthorof"AdvantagesoftheEastIndiaTrade，"bringoutthecapitalistcharacterofdivisionoflabourasappliedinmanufacturemorethanA。Smithdoes。

[54]Amongstthemodernsmaybeexceptedafewwritersofthe18thcentury，likeBeccariaandJamesHarris，whowithregardtodivisionoflabouralmostentirelyfollowtheancients。Thus，Beccaria:"Ciascunoprovacoll’esperienza，cheapplicandolamanoel’ingegnosempreallostessogenerediopereediprodutte，eglipiùfacili，piùabbondantiemigliorinetracarisultati，diquellocheseciascunoisolatamentelecosetutteasenecessariesoltantofacesse……Dividendosiintalmanieraperlacomuneeprivatautilitàgliuominiinvarieclassiecondizioni。"（CesareBeccaria:"ElementidiEcon:Pubblica，"ed。Custodi，ParteModerna，t。

xi，p。29。）JamesHarris，afterwardsEarlofMalmesbury，celebratedforthe"Diaries"ofhisembassyatSt。Petersburg，saysinanotetohis"DialogueConcerningHappiness，"Lond。，1741，reprintedafterwardsin"ThreeTreatises，3Ed。，Lond。，1772:"Thewholeargumenttoprovesocietynatural（i。e。，bydivisionofemployments）……istakenfromthesecondbookofPlato’sRepublic。"

[55]Thus，intheOdysseyxiv。，228，[Greek:"Allosgart’alloisinanerepiterpetaiergois"]andArchilochusinSextusEmpiricus，[greek:"allosalloep’ergokardieniainetai"。]

[56][Greek:"Poll’epistaioergo，kakosd’epistanopanta。"]EveryAthenianconsideredhimselfsuperiorasaproducerofcommoditiestoaSpartan;

forthelatterintimeofwarhadmenenoughathisdisposalbutcouldnotcommandmoney，asThucydidesmakesPericlessayinthespeechincitingtheAthenianstothePeloponnesianwar:[Greek:"somasiteetoimoteroioiautourgoitonanthroponekremasipolemein"]（Thuc。:1，I。c。41。）Nevertheless，evenwithregardtomaterialproduction，[Greek:autarkeia]，asopposedtodivisionoflabourremainedtheirideal，[Greek:"par’ongarto，eu，paratoutonkaitoautarkes。"]Itshouldbementionedherethatatthedateofthefallofthe30Tyrantstherewerestillnot5，000Athenianswithoutlandedproperty。

[57]WithPlato，divisionoflabourwithinthecommunityisadevelopmentfromthemultifariousrequirements，andthelimitedcapacitiesofindividuals。

Themainpointwithhimis，thatthelabourermustadapthimselftothework，nottheworktothelabourer;whichlatterisunavoidable，ifhecarriesonseveraltradesatonce，thusmakingoneortheotherofthemsubordinate。[Greek:"Ougaretheleitoprattomenontentouprattoniosscholenperimenein，all’anagketonprattontatoprattomenoepakolootheinmeenparergoumerei。Anagke。Ekdetoutonpleioteekastagignetaikaikallionkairaon，otaneisenkaiaphysinkaienkairoscholentonallonagon，pratte。"]（Rep。1。2。Ed。Baiter，Orelli，&c。）SoinThucydides，l。c。，c。142:"Seafaringisanartlikeanyother，andcannot，ascircumstancesrequire，becarriedonasasubsidiaryoccupation;nay，othersubsidiaryoccupationscannotbecarriedonalongsideofthisone。"Ifthework，saysPlato，hastowaitforthelabourer，thecriticalpointintheprocessismissedandthearticlespoiled，[Greek:"ergoukairondiollytai。"]ThesamePlatonicideaisfoundrecurringintheprotestoftheEnglishbleachersagainsttheclauseintheFactoryActthatprovidesfixedmealtimesforalloperatives。Theirbusinesscannotwaittheconvenienceoftheworkmen，for"inthevariousoperationsofsingeing，washing，bleaching，mangling，calendering，anddyeing，noneofthemcanbestoppedatagivenmomentwithoutriskofdamage……toenforcethesamedinnerhourforalltheworkpeoplemightoccasionallysubjectvaluablegoodstotheriskofdangerbyincompleteoperations。"Leplatonismeoùva—t—ilsenicher！

[58]Xenophonsays，itisnotonlyanhonourtoreceivefoodfromthetableoftheKingofPersia，butsuchfoodismuchmoretastythanotherfood。

"Andthereisnothingwonderfulinthis，forastheotherartsarebroughttospecialperfectioninthegreattowns，sotheroyalfoodispreparedinaspecialway。Forinthesmalltownsthesamemanmakesbedsteads，doors，ploughs，andtables:often，too，hebuildshousesintothebargain，andisquitecontentifhefindscustomsufficientforhissustenance。

Itisaltogetherimpossibleforamanwhodoessomanythingstodothemallwell。Butinthegreattowns，whereeachcanfindmanybuyers，onetradeissufficienttomaintainthemanwhocarriesiton。Nay，thereisoftennotevenneedofonecompletetrade，butonemanmakesshoesformen，anotherforwomen。Hereandthereonemangetsalivingbysewing，anotherbycuttingoutshoes;onedoesnothingbutcutoutclothes，anothernothingbutsewthepiecestogether。Itfollowsnecessarilythen，thathewhodoesthesimplestkindofwork，undoubtedlydoesitbetterthananyoneelse。Soitiswiththeartofcooking。"（Xen。Cyrop。I。viii。，c。2。）Xenophonherelaysstressexclusivelyupontheexcellencetobeattainedinuse—value，althoughhewellknowsthatthegradationsofthedivisionoflabourdependontheextentofthemarket。

[59]He（Busiris）dividedthemallintospecialcastes……commandedthatthesameindividualsshouldalwayscarryonthesametrade，forheknewthattheywhochangetheiroccupationsbecomeskilledinnone;butthatthosewhoconstantlysticktooneoccupationbringittothehighestperfection。

Intruth，weshallalsofindthatinrelationtotheartsandhandicrafts，theyhaveoutstrippedtheirrivalsmorethanamasterdoesabungler;andthecontrivancesformaintainingthemonarchyandtheotherinstitutionsoftheirStatearesoadmirablethatthemostcelebratedphilosopherswhotreatofthissubjectpraisetheconstitutionoftheEgyptianStateaboveallothers。（Isocrates，Busiris，c。8。）

[60]Cf。DiodorusSiculus。

[61]Ure，l。c。，p。20。

[62]ThisismorethecaseinEnglandthaninFrance，andmoreinFrancethaninHolland。

ChapterF