第36章

Thelifeofmodernindustrybecomesaseriesofperiodsofmoderateactivity，prosperity，over—production，crisisandstagnation。Theuncertaintyandinstabilitytowhichmachinerysubjectstheemployment，andconsequentlytheconditionsofexistence，oftheoperativesbecomenormal，owingtotheseperiodicchangesoftheindustrialcycle。Exceptintheperiodsofprosperity，thereragesbetweenthecapitaliststhemostfuriouscombatfortheshareofeachinthemarkets。Thisshareisdirectlyproportionaltothecheapnessofthe。product。Besidestherivalrythatthisstrugglebegetsintheapplicationofimprovedmachineryforreplacinglabour—power，andofnewmethodsofproduction，therealsocomesatimeineveryindustrialcycle，whenaforciblereductionofwagesbeneaththevalueoflabour—power，isattemptedforthepurposeofcheapeningcommodities。[156]

Anecessarycondition，therefore，tothegrowthofthenumberoffactoryhands，isaproportionallymuchmorerapidgrowthoftheamountofcapitalinvestedinmills。Thisgrowth，however，isconditionedbytheebbandflowoftheindustrialcycle。Itis，besides，constantlyinterruptedbythetechnicalprogressthatatonetimevirtuallysuppliestheplaceofnewworkmen，atanother，actuallydisplacesoldones。Thisqualitativechangeinmechanicalindustrycontinuallydischargeshandsfromthefactory，orshutsitsdoorsagainstthefreshstreamofrecruits，whilethepurelyquantitativeextensionofthefactoriesabsorbsnotonlythementhrownoutofwork，butalsofreshcontingents。Theworkpeoplearethuscontinuallybothrepelledandattracted，hustledfrompillartopost，while，atthesametime，constantchangestakeplaceinthesex，age，andskillofthelevies。

ThelotofthefactoryoperativeswillbebestdepictedbytakingarapidsurveyofthecourseoftheEnglishcottonindustry。

From1770to1815thistradewasdepressedorstagnantfor5yearsonly。

Duringthisperiodof45yearstheEnglishmanufacturershadamonopolyofmachineryandofthemarketsoftheworld。From1815to1821depression;

1822and1823prosperity;1824abolitionofthelawsagainstTrades’Unions，greatextensionoffactorieseverywhere;1825crisis;1826greatmiseryandriotsamongthefactoryoperatives;1827slightimprovement;1828greatincreaseinpower—looms，andinexports;1829exports，especiallytoIndia，surpassallformeryears;1830gluttedmarkets，greatdistress;1831to1833continueddepression，themonopolyofthetradewithIndiaandChinawithdrawnfromthe，EastIndiaCompany;1834greatincreaseoffactoriesandmachinery，shortnessofhands。Thenewpoorlawfurthersthemigrationofagriculturallabourersintothefactorydistricts。Thecountrydistrictssweptofchildren。Whiteslavetrade;1835greatprosperity，contemporaneousstarvationofthehand—loomweavers;1836greatprosperity;1837and1838

depressionandcrisis;1839revival;1840greatdepression，riots，callingoutofthemilitary;1841and1842frightfulsufferingamongthefactoryoperatives;1842themanufacturerslockthehandsoutofthefactoriesinordertoenforcetherepealoftheCornLaws。TheoperativesstreaminthousandsintothetownsofLancashireandYorkshire，aredrivenbackbythemilitary，andtheirleadersbroughttotrialatLancaster;1843

greatmisery;1844revival;1845greatprosperity;1846continuedimprovementatfirst，thenreaction。RepealoftheCornLaws;1847crisis，generalreductionofwagesby10andmorepercent。inhonourofthe"bigloaf";

1848continueddepression;Manchesterundermilitary。protection;1849

revival;1850prosperity;1851fallingprices，lowwages，frequentstrikes;

1852improvementbegins，strikescontinue，themanufacturersthreatentoimportforeignhands;1853increasingexports。Strikefor8months，andgreatmiseryatPreston;1854prosperity，gluttedmarkets;1855newsoffailuresstreaminfromtheUnitedStates，Canada，andtheEasternmarkets;

1856greatprosperity;1857crisis;1858improvement;1859greatprosperity，increaseinfactories;1860ZenithoftheEnglishcottontrade，theIndian，Australian，andothermarketssogluttedwithgoodsthatevenin1863theyhadnotabsorbedthewholelot;theFrenchTreatyofCommerce，enormousgrowthoffactoriesandmachinery;1861prosperitycontinuesforatime，reaction，theAmericanCivilWar，cottonfamine:1862to1863completecollapse。

Thehistoryofthecottonfamineistoocharacteristictodispensewithdwellinguponitforamoment。Fromtheindicationsastotheconditionofthemarketsoftheworldin1860and1861，weseethatthecottonfaminecameinthenickoftimeforthemanufacturers，andwastosomeextentadvantageoustothem，afactthatwasacknowledgedinthereportsoftheManchesterChamberofCommerce，proclaimedinParliamentbyPalmerstonandDerby，andconfirmedbyevents。[157]Nodoubt，amongthe2，887cottonmillsintheUnitedKingdomin1861，thereweremanyofsmallsize。AccordingtothereportofMr。A。Redgrave，outofthe2，109millsincludedinhisdistrict，392，or19%employedlessthantenhorse—powereach;345，or16%employed10H。P。，andlessthan20H。P。;while1，372employedupwardsof20H。P。[158]Themajorityofthesmallmillswereweavingsheds，builtduringtheperiodofprosperityafter1858，forthemostpartbyspeculators，ofwhomonesuppliedtheyam，anotherthemachinery，athirdthebuildings，andwereworkedbymenwhohadbeenoverlookers，orbyotherpersonsofsmallmeans。

Thesesmallmanufacturersmostlywenttothewall。Thesamefatewouldhaveovertakentheminthecommercialcrisisthatwasstavedoffonlybythecottonfamine。Althoughtheyformedone—thirdofthetotalnumberofmanufacturers，yettheirmillsabsorbedamuchsmallerpartofthecapitalinvestedinthecottontrade。Astotheextentofthestoppage，itappearsfromauthenticestimates，thatinOctober1862，60。3%ofthespindles，and58%oftheloomswerestanding。Thisreferstothecottontradeasawhole，and，ofcourse，requiresconsiderablemodificationforindividualdistricts。Onlyveryfewmillsworkedfulltime（60hoursaweek），theremainderworkedatintervals。Eveninthosefewcaseswherefulltimewasworked，andatthecustomaryrateofpiece—wage，theweeklywagesoftheoperativesnecessarilyshrank，owingtogoodcottonbeingreplacedbybad，SeaIslandbyEgyptian（infinespinningmills），AmericanandEgyptianbySurat，andpurecottonbymixingsofwasteandSurat。TheshorterfibreoftheSuratcottonanditsdirtycondition，thegreaterfragilityofthethread，thesubstitutionofallsortsofheavyingredientsforflourinsizingthewarps，alltheselessenedthespeedofthemachinery，orthenumberoftheloomsthatcouldbesuperintendedbyoneweaver，increasedthelabourcausedbydefectsinthemachinery，andreducedthepiece—wagebyreducingthemassoftheproductturnedoff。WhereSuratcottonwasused，thelosstotheoperativeswhenonfulltime，amountedto20，30，andmorepercent。Butbesidesthis，themajorityofthemanufacturersreducedtherateofpiece—wageby5，71/2，and10percent。Wecanthereforeconceivethesituationofthosehandswhowereemployedforonly3，31/2or4daysaweek，orforonly6hoursaday。Evenin1863，afteracomparativeimprovementhadsetin，theweeklywagesofspinnersandofweaverswere3s。4d。，3s。10d。，4s。6d。and5s。

1d。[159]Eveninthismiserablestateofthings，however，theinventivespiritofthemasterneverstoodstill，butwasexercisedinmakingdeductionsfromwages。Theseweretosomeextentinflictedasapenaltyfordefectsinthefinishedarticlethatwerereallyduetohisbadcottonandtohisunsuitablemachinery。

Moreover，wherethemanufacturerownedthecottagesoftheworkpeople，hepaidhimselfhisrentsbydeductingtheamountfromthesemiserableWages。Mr。Redgravetellsusofself—actingminders（operativeswhomanageapairofself—actingmules）"earningattheendofafortnight’sfullwork8s。11d。，andthatfromthissumwasdeductedtherentofthehouse，themanufacturer，however，returninghalftherentasagift。Theminderstookawaythesumof6s。11d。Inmanyplacestheself—actingmindersrangedfrom5s。to9s。perweek，andtheweaversfrom2s。to6s。perweek，duringthelatterpartof1862。"[160]Evenwhenworkingshorttimetherentwasfrequentlydeductedfromthewagesoftheoperatives。[161]NowonderthatinsomepartsofLancashireakindoffaminefeverbrokeout。Butmorecharacteristicthanallthis，was，therevolutionthattookplaceintheprocessofproductionattheexpenseoftheworkpeople。Experimentaincorporevili，likethoseofanatomistsonfrogs，wereformallymade。"Although，"

saysMr。Redgrave，"Ihavegiventheactualearningsoftheoperativesintheseveralmills，itdoesnotfollowthattheyearnthesameamountweekbyweek。Theoperativesaresubjecttogreatfluctuationfromtheconstantexperimentalisingofthemanufacturers……theearningsoftheoperativesriseandfallwiththequalityofthecottonmixings;sometimestheyhavebeenwithin15percent。offormerearnings，andthen，inaweekortwo，theyhavefallenofffrom50to60percent。"[162]Theseexperimentswerenotmadesolelyattheexpenseoftheworkman’smeansofsubsistence。Hisfivesensesalsohadtopaythepenalty。"ThepeoplewhoareemployedinmakingupSuratcottoncomplainverymuch。Theyinformme，onopeningthebalesofcottonthereisanintolerablesmell，whichcausessickness……Inthemixing，scribblingandcardingrooms，thedustanddirtwhicharedisengaged，irritatetheairpassages，andgiverisetocoughanddifficultyofbreathing。Adiseaseoftheskin，nodoubtfromtheirritationofthedirtcontainedintheSuratcotton，alsoprevails……Thefibrebeingsoshort，agreatamountofsize，bothanimalandvegetable，isused……Bronchitisismoreprevalentowingtothedust。Inflammatorysorethroatiscommon，fromthesamecause。

Sicknessanddyspepsiaareproducedbythefrequentbreakingoftheweft，whentheweaversuckstheweftthroughtheeyeoftheshuttle。"Ontheotherhand，thesubstitutesforflourwereaFortunatus’pursetothemanufacturers，byincreasingtheweightoftheyarn。Theycaused"15lbs。

ofrawmaterialtoweigh26lbs。afteritwaswoven。"[163]IntheReportofInspectorsofFactoriesfor30thApril，1864，wereadasfollows:"Thetradeisavailingitselfofthisresourceatpresenttoanextentwhichisevendiscreditable。Ihaveheardongoodauthorityofaclothweighing8lbs。whichwasmadeof51/4lbs。cottonand23/4lbs。

size;andofanotherclothweighing51/4lbs。，ofwhich2lbs。wassize。

Thesewereordinaryexportshirtings。Inclothsofotherdescriptions，asmuchas50percent。sizeissometimesadded;sothatamanufacturermay，anddoestrulyboast，thatheisgettingrichbysellingclothforlessmoneyperpoundthanhepaidforthemereyarnofwhichtheyarecomposed。"[164]Buttheworkpeoplehadtosuffer，notonlyfromtheexperimentsofthemanufacturersinsidethemills，andofthemunicipalitiesoutside，notonlyfromreducedwagesandabsenceofwork，fromwantandfromcharity，andfromtheeulogisticspeechesoflordsandcommons。

"Unfortunatefemaleswho，inconsequenceofthecottonfamine，wereatit