第32章

Anorganisedsystemofmachines，towhichmotioniscommunicatedbythetransmittingmechanismfromacentralautomaton，isthemostdevelopedformofproductionbymachinery。Herewehave，intheplaceoftheisolatedmachine，amechanicalmonsterwhosebodyfillswholefactories，andwhosedemonpower，atfirstveiledundertheslowandmeasuredmotionsofhisgiantlimbs，atlengthbreaksoutintothefastandfuriouswhirlofhiscountlessworkingorgans。

Thereweremulesandsteam—enginesbeforetherewereanylabourers，whoseexclusiveoccupationitwastomakemulesandsteam—engines;justasmenworeclothesbeforethereweresuchpeopleastailors。TheinventionsofVaucanson，Arkwright，Watt，andothers，were，however，practicable，onlybecausethoseinventorsfound，readytohand，aconsiderablenumberofskilledmechanicalworkmen，placedattheirdisposalbythemanufacturingperiod。Someoftheseworkmenwereindependenthandicraftsmanofvarioustrades，othersweregroupedtogetherinmanufactures，inwhich，asbefore—mentioned，divisionoflabourwasstrictlycarriedout。Asinventionsincreasedinnumber，andthedemandforthenewlydiscoveredmachinesgrewlarger，themachine—makingindustrysplitup，moreandmore，intonumerousindependentbranches，anddivisionoflabourinthesemanufactureswasmoreandmoredeveloped。Here，then，weseeinManufacturetheimmediatetechnicalfoundationofModernIndustry。Manufactureproducedthemachinery，bymeansofwhichModernIndustryabolishedthehandicraftandmanufacturingsystemsinthosespheresofproductionthatitfirstseizedupon。Thefactorysystemwasthereforeraised，inthenaturalcourseofthings，onaninadequatefoundation。

Whenthesystemattainedtoacertaindegreeofdevelopment，ithadtorootupthisready—madefoundation，whichinthemeantimehadbeenelaboratedontheoldlines，andtobuildupforitselfabasisthatshouldcorrespondtoitsmethodsofproduction。Justastheindividualmachineretainsadwarfishcharacter，solongasitisworkedbythepowerofmanalone，andjustasnosystemofmachinerycouldbeproperlydevelopedbeforethesteam—enginetooktheplaceoftheearliermotivepowers，animals，wind，andevenwater;so，too，ModernIndustrywascrippledinitscompletedevelopment，solongasitscharacteristicinstrumentofproduction，themachine，oweditsexistencetopersonalstrengthandpersonalskill，anddependedonthemusculardevelopment，thekeennessofsight，andthecunningofhand，withwhichthedetailworkmeninmanufactures，aridthemanuallabourersinhandicrafts，wieldedtheirdwarfishimplements’Thus，apartfromthedearnessofthemachinesmadeinthisway，acircumstancethatiseverpresenttothemindofthecapitalist，theexpansionofindustriescarriedonbymeansofmachinery，andtheinvasionbymachineryoffreshbranchesofproduction，weredependentonthegrowthofaclassofworkmen，who，owingtothealmostartisticnatureoftheiremployment，couldincreasetheirnumbersonlygradually，andnotbyleapsandbounds。Butbesidesthis，atacertainstageofitsdevelopment，ModernIndustrybecametechnologicallyincompatiblewiththebasisfurnishedforitbyhandicraftandManufacture。Theincreasingsizeoftheprimemovers，ofthetransmittingmechanism，andofthemachinesproper，thegreatercomplication，multiformityandregularityofthedetailsofthesemachines，astheymoreandmoredepartedfromthemodelofthoseoriginallymadebymanuallabour，andacquiredaform，untrammelledexceptbytheconditionsunderwhichtheyworked，[18]theperfectingoftheautomaticsystem，andtheuse，everydaymoreunavoidable，ofamorerefractorymaterial，suchasironinsteadofwood—thesolutionofalltheseproblems，whichsprangupbytheforceofcircumstances，everywheremetwithastumbling—blockinthepersonalrestrictions，whicheventhecollectivelabourerofManufacturecouldnotbreakthrough，excepttoalimitedextent。Suchmachinesasthemodernhydraulicpress，themodernpower—loom，andthemoderncardingengine，couldneverhavebeenfurnishedbyManufacture。

Aradicalchangeinthemodeofproductioninonesphereofindustryinvolvesasimilarchangeinotherspheres。Thishappensatfirstinsuchbranchesofindustryasareconnectedtogetherbybeingseparatephasesofaprocess，andyetareisolatedbythesocialdivisionoflabour，insuchaway，thateachofthemproducesanindependentcommodity。Thusspinningbymachinerymadeweavingbymachineryanecessity，andbothtogethermadethemechanicalandchemicalrevolutionthattookplaceinbleaching，printing，anddyeing，imperative。Sotoo，ontheotherhand，therevolutionincotton—spinningcalledforththeinventionofthegin，forseparatingtheseedsfromthecottonfibre;itwasonlybymeansofthisinvention，thattheproductionofcottonbecamepossibleontheenormousscaleatpresentrequired。[19]Butmoreespecially，therevolutioninthemodesofproductionofindustryandagriculturemadenecessaryarevolutioninthegeneralconditionsofthesocialprocessofproduction，i。e。，inthemeansofcommunicationandoftransport。Inasocietywhosepivot，touseanexpressionofFourier，wasagricultureonasmallscale，withitssubsidiarydomesticindustries，andtheurbanhandicrafts，themeansofcommunicationandtransportweresoutterlyinadequatetotheproductiverequirementsofthemanufacturingperiod，withitsextendeddivisionofsociallabour，itsconcentrationoftheinstrumentsoflabour，andoftheworkmen，anditscolonialmarkets，thattheybecameinfactrevolutionised。InthesamewaythemeansofcommunicationandtransporthandeddownfromthemanufacturingperiodsoonbecameunbearabletrammelsonModernIndustry，withitsfeverishhasteofproduction，itsenormousextent，itsconstantflingingofcapitalandlabourfromonesphereofproductionintoanother，anditsnewly—createdconnexionswiththemarketsofthewholeworld。Hence，apartfromtheradicalchangesintroducedintheconstructionofsailingvessels，themeansofcommunicationandtransportbecamegraduallyadaptedtothemodesofproductionofmechanicalindustry，bythecreationofasystemofriversteamers，railways，oceansteamers，andtelegraphs。Butthe’。hugemassesofironthathadnowtobeforged，tobewelded，tobecut，tobebored，andtobeshaped，demanded，ontheirpart，cyclopeanmachines，fortheconstructionofwhichthemethodsofthemanufacturingperiodwereutterlyinadequate。

ModernIndustryhadthereforeitselftotakeinhandthemachine，itscharacteristicinstrumentofproduction，andtoconstructmachinesbymachines。

Itwasnottillitdidthis，thatitbuiltupforitselfafittingtechnicalfoundation，andstoodonitsownfeet。Machinery，simultaneouslywiththeincreasinguseofit，inthefirstdecadesofthiscentury，appropriated，bydegrees，thefabricationofmachinesproper。Butitwasonlyduringthedecadepreceding1866，thattheconstructionofrailwaysandoceansteamersonastupendousscalecalledintoexistencethecyclopeanmachinesnowemployedintheconstructionofprimemovers。

Themostessentialconditiontotheproductionofmachinesbymachineswasaprimemovercapableofexertinganyamountofforce，andyetunderperfectcontrol。Suchaconditionwasalreadysuppliedbythesteam—engine。

Butatthesametimeitwasnecessarytoproducethegeometricallyaccuratestraightlines，planes，circles，cylinders，cones，andspheres，requiredinthedetailpartsofthemachines。ThisproblemHenryMaudsleysolvedinthefirstdecadeofthiscenturybytheinventionofthesliderest，atoolthatwassoonmadeautomatic，andinamodifiedformwasappliedtootherconstructivemachinesbesidesthelathe，forwhichitwasoriginallyintended。Thismechanicalappliancereplaces，notsomeparticulartool，butthehanditself，whichproducesagivenformbyholdingandguidingthecuttingtoolalongtheironorothermaterialoperatedupon。Thusitbecamepossibletoproducetheformsoftheindividualpartsofmachinery"withadegreeofease，accuracy，andspeed，thatnoaccumulatedexperienceofthehandofthemostskilledworkmancouldgive。"[20]

Ifwenowfixourattentiononthatportionofthemachineryemployedintheconstructionofmachines，whichconstitutestheoperatingtool，wefindthemanualimplementsre—appearing，butonacyclopeanscale。Theoperatingpartoftheboringmachineisanimmensedrilldrivenbyasteam—engine;

withoutthismachine，ontheotherhand，thecylindersoflargesteam—enginesandofhydraulicpressescouldnotbemade。Themechanicallatheisonlyacyclopeanreproductionoftheordinaryfoot—lathe;theplaningmachine，anironcarpenter，thatworksonironwiththesametoolsthatthehumancarpenteremploysonwood;theinstrumentthat，ontheLondonwharves，cutstheveneers，isagiganticrazor;thetooloftheshearingmachine，whichshearsironaseasilyasatailor’sscissorscutcloth，isamonsterpairofscissors;andthesteam—hammerworkswithanordinaryhammerhead，butofsuchaweightthatnotThorhimselfcouldwieldit。[21]Thesesteam—hammersareaninventionofNasmyth，andthereisonethatweighsover6tonsandstrikeswithaverticalfallof7feet，onananvilweighing36tons。Itismerechild’s—playforittocrushablockofgraniteintopowder，yetitisnolesscapableofdriving，withasuccessionoflighttaps，anailintoapieceofsoftwood。[22]

Theimplementsoflabour，intheformofmachinery，necessitatethesubstitutionofnaturalforcesforhumanforce，andtheconsciousapplicationofscience，insteadofruleofthumb。InManufacture，theorganisationofthesociallabour—processispurelysubjective;itisacombinationofdetaillabourers;initsmachinerysystem，ModernIndustryhasaproductiveorganismthatispurelyobjective，inwhichthelabourerbecomesamereappendagetoanalreadyexistingmaterialconditionofproduction。Insimpleco—operation，andeveninthatfoundedondivisionoflabour，thesuppressionoftheisolated，bythecollective，workmanstillappearstobemoreorlessaccidental。Machinery，withafewexceptionstobementionedlater，operatesonlybymeansofassociatedlabour，orlabourincommon。Hencetheco—operativecharacterofthelabour—processis，inthelattercase，atechnicalnecessitydictatedbytheinstrumentoflabouritself。

SECTION2THEVALUETRANSFERREDBYMACHINERYTOTHEPRODUCT

Wesawthattheproductiveforcesresultingfromco—operationanddivisionoflabourcostcapitalnothing。Theyarenaturalforcesofsociallabour。

Soalsophysicalforces，likesteam，water，&c。，whenappropriatedtoproductiveprocesses，costnothing。Butjustasamanrequireslungstobreathewith，soherequiressomethingthatisworkofman’shand，inordertoconsumephysicalforcesproductively。Awater—wheelisnecessarytoexploittheforceofwater，andasteam—enginetoexploittheelasticityofsteam。Oncediscovered，thelawofthedeviationofthemagneticneedleinthefieldofanelectriccurrent，orthelawofthemagnetisationofiron，aroundwhichanelectriccurrentcirculates，costneverapenny。[23]Buttheexploitationoftheselawsforthepurposesmoftelegraphy，&c。，necessitatesacostlyandextensiveapparatus。Thetool，aswehaveseen，isnotexterminatedbythemachine。Frombeingadwarfimplementofthehumanorganism，itexpandsandmultipliesintotheimplementofamechanismcreatedbyman。Capitalnowsetsthelabourertowork，notwithamanualtool，b