第22章

Theworking—dayforallartificersandfieldlabourersfromMarchtoSeptemberought，accordingtothisstatute（which，however，couldnotbeenforced），tolastfrom5inthemorningtobetween7and8intheevening。Butthemeal—timesconsistof1hourforbreakfast，11/2hoursfordinner，and1/2anhourfor"noon—meate，"i。e。，exactlytwiceasmuchasunderthefactoryactsnowinforce。[86]Inwinter，workwastolastfrom5inthemorninguntildark，withthesameintervals。AstatuteofElizabethof1562leavesthelengthoftheworking—dayforalllabourers"hiredfordailyorweeklywage"untouched，butaimsatlimitingtheintervalsto21/2hoursinthesummer，orto2inthewinter。Dinnerisonlytolast1hour，andthe"afternoon—sleepofhalfanhour"isonlyallowedbetweenthemiddleofMayandthemiddleofAugust。Foreveryhourofabsence1d。istobesubtractedfromthewage。

Inpractice，however，theconditionsweremuchmorefavourabletothelabourersthaninthestatute—book。WilliamPetty，thefatherofPoliticalEconomy，andtosomeextentthefounderofStatistics，saysinaworkthathepublishedinthelastthirdofthe17thcentury:"Labouring—men（thenmeaningfield—labourers）

work10hoursperdiem，andmake20mealsperweek，viz。，3adayforworking—days，and2onSundays;wherebyitisplain，thatiftheycouldfastonFridaynights，anddineinonehourandanhalf，whereastheytaketwo，fromeleventoone;therebythusworking1/20more，andspending1/20less，theabove—mentioned（tax）mightberaised。"[87]WasnotDr。AndrewUrerightincryingdownthe12hours’billof1833

asaretrogressiontothetimesofthedarkages？ItistruetheseregulationscontainedinthestatutementionedbyPetty，applyalsotoapprentices。

Buttheconditionofchild—labour，evenattheendofthe17thcentury，isseenfromthefollowingcomplaint:"’Tisnottheirpractice（inGermany）

aswithusinthiskingdom，tobindanapprenticeforsevenyears;threeorfouristheircommonstandard:andthereasonis，becausetheyareeducatedfromtheircradletosomethingofemployment，whichrendersthemthemoreaptanddocile，andconsequentlythemorecapableofattainingtoaripenessandquickerproficiencyinbusiness。Whereasouryouth，hereinEngland，beingbredtonothingbeforetheycometobeapprentices，makeaveryslowprogressandrequiremuchlongertimewhereintoreachtheperfectionofaccomplishedartists。"[88]

Still，duringthegreaterpartofthe18thcentury，uptotheepochofModernIndustryandmachinism，capitalinEnglandhadnotsucceededinseizingforitself，bythepaymentoftheweeklyvalueoflabour—power，thewholeweekofthelabourer，withtheexception，however，oftheagriculturallabourers。Thefactthattheycouldliveforawholeweekonthewageoffourdays，didnotappeartothelabourersasufficientreasonthattheyshouldworktheothertwodaysforthecapitalist。OnepartyofEnglisheconomists，intheinterestofcapital，denouncesthisobstinacyinthemostviolentmanner，anotherpartydefendsthelabourers。Letuslisten，e。g。，tothecontestbetweenPostlethwaytwhoseDictionaryofTradethenhadthesamereputationasthekindredworksofMacCullochandMacGregorto—day，andtheauthor（alreadyquoted）ofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce。"[89]

Postlethwaytsaysamongotherthings:"Wecannotputanendtothosefewobservations，withoutnoticingthattriteremarkinthemouthoftoomany;thatiftheindustriouspoorcanobtainenoughtomaintainthemselvesinfivedays，theywillnotworkthewholesix。

Whencetheyinferthenecessityofeventhenecessariesoflifebeingmadedearbytaxes，oranyothermeans，tocompeltheworkingartisanandmanufacturertolabourthewholesixdaysintheweek，withoutceasing。Imustbegleavetodifferinsentimentfromthosegreatpoliticians，whocontendfortheperpetualslaveryoftheworkingpeopleofthiskingdom;theyforgetthevulgaradage，allworkandnoplay。HavenottheEnglishboastedoftheingenuityanddexterityofherworkingartistsandmanufacturerswhichhaveheretoforegivencreditandreputationtoBritishwaresingeneral？

Whathasthisbeenowingto？Tonothingmoreprobablythantherelaxationoftheworkingpeopleintheirownway。Weretheyobligedtotoiltheyearround，thewholesixdaysintheweek，inarepetitionofthesamework，mightitnotblunttheiringenuity，andrenderthemstupidinsteadofalertanddexterous;andmightnotourworkmenlosetheirreputationinsteadofmaintainingitbysucheternalslavery？……Andwhatsortofworkmanshipcouldweexpectfromsuchhard—drivenanimals？……ManyofthemwillexecuteasmuchworkinfourdaysasaFrenchmanwillinfiveorsix。ButifEnglishmenaretobeeternaldrudges，’tistobefearedtheywilldegeneratebelowtheFrenchmen。Asourpeoplearefamedforbraveryinwar，dowenotsaythatitisowingtogoodEnglishroestbeefandpuddingintheirbellies，aswellastheirconstitutionalspiritofliberty？

Andwhymaynotthesuperioringenuityanddexterityof，ourartistsandmanufacturers，beowingtothatfreedomandlibertytodirectthemselvesintheirownway，andIhopeweshallneverhavethemdeprivedofsuchprivilegesandthatgoodlivingfromwhencetheiringenuitynolessthantheircouragemayproceed。"[90]Thereupontheauthorofthe"EssayonTradeandCommerce"replies:"Ifthemakingofeveryseventhdayanholidayissupposedtobeofdivineinstitution，asitimpliestheappropriatingtheothersixdaystolabour"（hemeanscapitalasweshallsoonsee）"surelyitwillnotbethoughtcrueltoenforceit……Thatmankindingeneral，arenaturallyinclinedtoeaseandindolence，wefatallyexperiencetobetrue，fromtheconductofourmanufacturingpopulace，whodonotlabour，uponanaverage，abovefourdaysinaweek，unlessprovisionshappentobeverydear……Putallthenecessariesofthepoorunderonedenomination;

forinstance，callthemallwheat，orsupposethat……thebushelofwheatshallcostfiveshillingsandthathe（amanufacturer）earnsashillingbyhislabour，hethenwouldbeobligedtoworkfivedaysonlyinaweek。

Ifthebushelofwheatshouldcostbutfourshillings，hewouldbeobligedtoworkbutfourdays;butaswagesinthiskingdomaremuchhigherinproportiontothepriceofnecessaries……themanufacturer，wholaboursfourdays，hasasurplusofmoneytoliveidlewiththerestoftheweek……IhopeIhavesaidenoughtomakeitappearthatthemoderatelabourofsixdaysinaweekisnoslavery。Ourlabouringpeopledothis，andtoallappearancearethehappiestofallourlabouringpoor，[91]buttheDutchdothisinmanufactures，andappeartobeaveryhappypeople。

TheFrenchdoso，whenholidaysdonotintervene。[92]Butourpopulacehaveadoptedanotion，thatasEnglishmentheyenjoyabirthrightprivilegeofbeingmorefreeandindependentthaninanycountryinEurope。Nowthisidea，asfarasitmayaffectthebraveryofourtroops，maybeofsomeuse;nutthelessthemanufacturingpoorhaveofit，certainlythebetterforthemselvesandfortheState。Thelabouringpeopleshouldnever）thinkthemselvesindependentoftheirsuperiors……Itisextremelydangeroustoencouragemobsinacommercialstatelikeours，where，perhaps，sevenpartsoutofeightofthewhole，arepeoplewithlittleornoproperty。Thecurewillnotbeperfect，tillourmanufacturingpoorarecontentedtolaboursixdaysforthesamesumwhichtheynowearninfourdays。"[93]Tothisend，andfor"extirpatingidlenessdebaucheryandexcess，"promotingaspiritofindustry，"loweringthepriceoflabourinourmanufactories，andeasingthelandsoftheheavyburdenofpoor’srates，"our"faithfulEckart"ofcapitalproposesthisapproveddevice:toshutupsuchlabourersasbecomedependentonpublicsupport，inaword，paupers，in"anidealworkhouse。"Suchidealworkhousemustbemadea"HouseofTerror，"andnotanasylumforthepoor，"wheretheyaretobeplentifullyfed，warmlyanddecentlyclothed，andwheretheydobutlittlework。’’[94]Inthis"HouseofTerror，"this"idealworkhouse，thepoorshallwork14

hoursinaday，allowingpropertimeformeals，insuchmannerthatthereshallremain12hoursofneat—labour。"[95]

Twelveworking—hoursdailyintheIdealWorkhouse，inthe"HouseofTerror"of1770！63yearslater，in1833，whentheEnglishParliamentreducedtheworking—dayforchildrenof13to18，infourbranchesofindustryto12fullhours，thejudgmentdayofEnglishIndustryhaddawned！In1852，whenLouisBonapartesoughttosecurehispositionwiththebourgeoisiebytamperingwiththelegalworking—day，theFrenchworkingpeoplecriedoutwithonevoice"thelawthatlimitstheworking—dayto12hoursistheonegoodthathasremainedtousofthelegislationoftheRepublic！"[96]AtZürichtheworkofchildrenover10，islimitedto12hours;inAargauin1862，theworkofchildrenbetween13and16，wasreducedfrom121/2to12hours;inAustriain1860，forchildrenbetween14and16，thesamereductionwasmade。[97]"Whataprogress，"since1770！Macaulaywouldshoutwithexultation！

The"HouseofTerror"forpaupersofwhichthecapitalisticsoulof1770onlydreamed，wasrealisedafewyearslaterintheshapeofagigantic"Workhouse"fortheindustrialworkerhimself。ItiscalledtheFactory。

Andtheidealthistimefadesbeforethereality。

SECTION6THESTRUGGLEFORTHENORMALWORKING—DAY。

COMPULSORYLIMITATIONBYLAWOFTHEWORKING—TIME。

THEENGLISHFACTORYACTS，1833TO1864

Aftercapitalhadtakencenturiesinextendingtheworking—daytoitsnormalmaximumlimit，andthenbeyondthistothelimitofthenaturaldayof12hours，[98]therefollowedonthebirthofmachinismandmodernindustryinthelastthirdofthe18thcentury，aviolentencroachmentlikethatofanavalancheinitsintensityandextent。Allboundsofmoralsandnature，ageandsex，dayandnight，werebrokendown。Eventheideasofdayandnight，ofrusticsimplicityintheoldstatutes，becamesoconfusedthatanEnglishjudge，aslateas1860，neededaquiteTalmudicsagacitytoexplain"judicially"

whatwasdayandwhatwasnight。[99]Capitalcelebrateditsorgies。

Assoonastheworking—class，stunnedatfirstbythenoiseandturmoilofthenewsystemofproduction，recovered，insomemeasure，itssenses，itsresistancebegan，andfirstinthenativelandofmachinism，inEngland。

For30years，however，theconcessionsconqueredbytheworkpeoplewerepurelynominal。Parliamentpassed5labourLawsbetween1802and1833，butwasshrewdenoughnottovoteapennyfortheircarryingout，fortherequi