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Afurtherdifficultyisraisedbythefactthatallknowledgeis
ofuniversalsandofthe’such’，butsubstanceisnotauniversal，but
israthera’this’-aseparablething，sothatifthereisknowledge
aboutthefirstprinciples，thequestionarises，howarewetosuppose
thefirstprincipletobesubstance？
Further，isthereanythingapartfromtheconcretething(bywhich
Imeanthematterandthatwhichisjoinedwithit)，ornot？Ifnot，
wearemetbytheobjectionthatallthingsthatareinmatterare
perishable。Butifthereissomething，itmustbetheformorshape。
Nowitishardtodetermineinwhichcasesthisexistsapartandin
whichitdoesnot；forinsomecasestheformisevidentlynot
separable，e。g。inthecaseofahouse。
Further，aretheprinciplesthesameinkindorinnumber？Ifthey
areoneinnumber，allthingswillbethesame。
Sincethescienceofthephilosophertreatsofbeingquabeing
universallyandnotinrespectofapartofit，and’being’hasmany
sensesandisnotusedinoneonly，itfollowsthatifthewordis
usedequivocallyandinvirtueofnothingcommontoitsvarious
uses，beingdoesnotfallunderonescience(forthemeaningsofan
equivocaltermdonotformonegenus)；butifthewordisusedin
virtueofsomethingcommon，beingwillfallunderonescience。The
termseemstobeusedinthewaywehavementioned，like’medical’and
’healthy’。Foreachofthesealsoweuseinmanysenses。Termsare
usedinthiswaybyvirtueofsomekindofreference，intheone
casetomedicalscience，intheothertohealth，inothersto
somethingelse，butineachcasetooneidenticalconcept。Fora
discussionandaknifearecalledmedicalbecausetheformer
proceedsfrommedicalscience，andthelatterisusefultoit。Anda
thingiscalledhealthyinasimilarway；onethingbecauseitis
indicativeofhealth，anotherbecauseitisproductiveofit。And
thesameistrueintheothercases。Everythingthatis，then，issaid
to’be’inthissameway；eachthingthatisissaidto’be’because
itisamodificationofbeingquabeingorapermanentora
transientstateoramovementofit，orsomethingelseofthesort。
Andsinceeverythingthatismaybereferredtosomethingsingleand
common，eachofthecontrarietiesalsomaybereferredtothefirst
differencesandcontrarietiesofbeing，whetherthefirst
differencesofbeingarepluralityandunity，orlikenessand
unlikeness，orsomeotherdifferences；letthesebetakenasalready
discussed。Itmakesnodifferencewhetherthatwhichisbereferredto
beingortounity。Foreveniftheyarenotthesamebutdifferent，at
leasttheyareconvertible；forthatwhichisoneisalsosomehow
being，andthatwhichisbeingisone。
Butsinceeverypairofcontrariesfallstobeexaminedbyoneand
thesamescience，andineachpaironetermistheprivativeofthe
otherthoughonemightregardingsomecontrariesraisethequestion，
howtheycanbeprivatelyrelated，viz。thosewhichhavean
intermediate，e。g。unjustandjust-inallsuchcasesonemustmaintain
thattheprivationisnotofthewholedefinition，butoftheinfima
species。ifthejustmanis’byvirtueofsomepermanentdisposition
obedienttothelaws’，theunjustmanwillnotineverycasehave
thewholedefinitiondeniedofhim，butmaybemerely’insomerespect
deficientinobediencetothelaws’，andinthisrespecttheprivation
willattachtohim；andsimilarlyinallothercases。
Asthemathematicianinvestigatesabstractions(forbefore
beginninghisinvestigationhestripsoffallthesensible
qualities，e。g。weightandlightness，hardnessanditscontrary，and
alsoheatandcoldandtheothersensiblecontrarieties，andleaves
onlythequantitativeandcontinuous，sometimesinone，sometimesin
two，sometimesinthreedimensions，andtheattributesofthesequa
quantitativeandcontinuous，anddoesnotconsidertheminanyother
respect，andexaminestherelativeposi
