第20章

Petersburg。Atfirsttheyconfinedthemselvestoforminglittle，secretcirclesformakingconverts，andtheyfoundthattheground，hadbeentosomeextentpreparedfortheseedwhichtheyhadto，sow。Theworkmenwerediscontented，andsomeofthemore，intelligentamongstthemwhohadformerlybeenintouchwiththe，propagandistsoftheoldergenerationhadlearnedthattherewasan，ingeniousandeffectivemeansofgettingtheirgrievances，redressed。Howwasthatpossible？，Bycombinationandstrikes。

Fortheuneducatedworkersthiswasanimportantdiscovery，and，theysoonbegantoputthesuggestedremedytoapracticaltest。

Intheautumnof1894labourtroublesbrokeoutintheNevski，engineeringworksandthearsenal，andinthefollowingyearinthe，Thorntonfactoryandthecigaretteworks。Inallthesestrikesthe，SocialDemocraticagentstookpartbehindthescenes。Avoidingthe，mainerrorsoftheoldpropagandists，whohadofferedtheworkmen，merelyabstractSocialisttheorieswhichnouneducatedpersoncould，reasonablybeexpectedtounderstand，theyadoptedamorerational，method。Thoughimpervioustoabstracttheories，theRussian，workmanisnotatallinsensibletotheprospectofbetteringhis，materialconditionandgettinghiseverydaygrievancesredressed。

Ofthesegrievancestheoneshefeltmostkeenlywerethelong，hours，thelowwages，thefinesarbitrarilyimposedbythe，managers，andthebrutualseverityoftheforeman。Byhelpinghim，tohavethesegrievancesremovedtheSocialDemocraticagentsmight，gainhisconfidence，andwhentheyhadcometoberegardedbyhim，ashisrealfriendstheymightwidenhissympathiesandteachhim，tofeelthathispersonalinterestswereidenticalwiththe，interestsoftheworkingclassesasawhole。Inthiswayitwould，bepossibletoawakenintheindustrialproletariatgenerallya，sortofespritdecorps，whichisthefirstconditionofpolitical，organisation。

Ontheselinestheagentssettowork。Havingformedthemselves，intoasecretassociationcalledthe“UnionfortheEmancipationof，theWorkingClasses，“theygraduallyabandonedthenarrowlimitsof，coterie-propaganda，andpreparedthewayforagitationonalarger，scale。Amongthediscontentedworkmentheydistributedalarge，numberofcarefullywrittentracts，inwhichthematerial，grievanceswereformulated，andthewholepoliticalsystem，with，itspolice，gendarmes，Cossacks，andtax-gathers，wascriticisedin，nofriendlyspirit，butwithoutviolentlanguage。Inintroducing，intotheprogrammethispoliticalelement，greatcautionhadtobe，exercised，becausetheworkmendidnotyetperceiveclearlyany，closeconnectionbetweentheirgrievancesandtheexisting，politicalinstitutions，andthoseofthemwhobelongedtotheolder，generationregardedtheTsarastheincarnationofdisinterested，benevolence。Bearingthisinmind，theUnioncirculatedapamphlet，fortheenlightenmentofthelabouringpopulation，inwhichthe，writerrefrainedfromallreferencetotheAutocraticPower，and，describedsimplytheconditionofthelabouringclasses，theheavy，burdenstheyhadtobear，theabusesofwhichtheywerethe，victims，andtheinconsideratewayinwhichtheyweretreatedby，theiremployers。Thispamphletwaseagerlyread，andfromthat，momentwheneverlabourtroublesarosethemenappliedtotheSocial，Democraticagentstoassisttheminformulatingtheirgrievances。

Ofcourse，theassistancehadtobegivensecretly，becausethere，werealwayspolicespiesinthefactories，andallpersons，suspectedofaidingthelabourmovementwereliabletobearrested，andexiled。Inspiteofthisdangertheworkwascarriedonwith，greatenergy，andinthesummerof1896thefieldofoperationswas，extended。Duringthecoronationceremoniesofthatyearthe，factoriesandworkshopsinSt。Petersburgwereclosed，andthemen，consideredthatforthesedaystheyoughttoreceivewagesas，usual。Whentheirdemandwasrefused，40，000ofthemwentouton，strike。TheSocialDemocraticUnionseizedtheopportunityand，distributedtractsinlargequantities。Forthefirsttimesuch，tractswerereadaloudatworkmen’smeetingsandapplaudedbythe，audience。TheUnionencouragedtheworkmenintheirresistance，butadvisedthemtorefrainfromviolence，soasnottoprovokethe，interventionofthepoliceandthemilitary，astheyhad，imprudentlydoneonsomepreviousoccasions。Whenthepolicedid，interveneandexpelledsomeofthestrike-leadersfromSt。

Petersburg，theagitatorshadanexcellentopportunityof，explainingthattheauthoritiesweretheprotectorsofthe，employersandtheenemiesoftheworkingclasses。These，explanationscounteractedtheeffectofanofficialproclamationto，theworkmen，inwhichM。WittetriedtoconvincethemthattheTsar，wasconstantlystrivingtoimprovetheircondition。Thestruggle，wasdecided，notbyargumentsandexhortations，butbyamore，potentforce;havingnofundsforcontinuingthestrike，themen，werecompelledbystarvationtoresumework。

Thisisthepointatwhichthelabourmovementbegantobe，conductedonalargescaleandbymoresystematicmethods。Inthe，earlierlabourtroublesthestrikershadnotunderstoodthatthe，bestmeansofbringingpressureonemployerswassimplytorefuse，towork，andtheyhadoftenproceededtoshowtheirdissatisfaction，byruthlesslydestroyingtheiremployers’property。Thishad，broughtthepolice，andsometimesthemilitary，onthescene，and，numerousarrestshadfollowed。Anothermistakemadebythe，inexperiencedstrikerswasthattheyhadneglectedtocreatea，reservefundfromwhichtheycoulddrawthemeansofsubsistence，whentheynolongerreceivedwagesandcouldnolongerobtain，creditatthefactoryprovisionstore。Effortswerenowmadeto，correctthesetwomistakes，andwithregardtotheformertheywere，fairlysuccessful，forwantondestructionofpropertyceasedtobe，aprominentfeatureoflabourtroubles;butstrongreservefunds，havenotyetbeencreated，sothatthestrikeshaveneverbeenof，longduration。

Thoughthestrikeshadled，sofar，tonogreatpractical，tangible，results，thenewideasandaspirationswerespreadingrapidlyin，thefactoriesandworkshops，andtheyhadalreadystrucksuchdeep，rootthatsomeofthegenuineworkmenwishedtohaveavoiceinthe，managingcommitteeoftheUnion，whichwascomposedexclusivelyof，educatedmen。Whenarequesttothateffectwasrejectedbythe，committeealengthydiscussiontookplace，anditsoonbecame，evidentthatunderneaththequestionoforganisationlayamost，importantquestionofprinciple。Theworkmenwishedtoconcentrate，theireffortsontheimprovementoftheirmaterialcondition，and，toproceedonwhatweshouldcalltrade-unionistlines，whereasthe，committeewishedthemtoaimalsoattheacquisitionofpolitical，rights。Greatdeterminationwasshownonbothsides。Anattempt，oftheworkmentomaintainasecretorganoftheirownwiththe，viewofemancipatingthemselvesfromthe“Politicals“endedin，failure;buttheyreceivedsympathyandsupportfromsomeofthe，educatedmembersoftheparty，andinthiswayaschismtookplace，intheSocialDemocratcamp。Afterrepeatedineffectualattempts，tofindasatisfactorycompromise，thequestionwassubmittedtoa，CongresswhichwasheldinSwitzerlandin1900;butthediscussions，merelyaccentuatedthedifferencesofopinion，andthetwoparties，constitutedthemselvesintoseparateindependentgroups。Theone，undertheleadershipofPlekhanof，andcallingitselfthe，RevolutionarySocialDemocrats，heldtotheMarxdoctrinesinall，theirextentandpurity，andmaintainedthenecessityofconstant，agitationinthepoliticalsense。Theother，callingitselfthe，UnionofForeignSocialDemocrats，inclinedtothetrade-unionism，programme，andproclaimedthenecessityofbeingguidedby，politicalexpediencyratherthaninflexibledogmas。Betweenthe，twoawordywarfarewascarriedonforsometimeinpedantic，technicallanguage;butthoughhabituallybrandishingtheirweapons，anddenouncingtheirantagonistsintrueHomericstyle，theywere，reallyallies，strugglingtowardsacommonend——twosectionsofthe，SocialDemocraticpartydifferingfromeachotheronquestionsof，tactics。

Thetwodivergenttendencieshaveoftenreappearedinthe，subsequenthistoryofthemovement。Duringordinarypeacefultimes，theeconomicortrade-unionisttendencycangenerallyholditsown，butassoonasdisturbancesoccurandtheauthoritieshaveto，intervene，thepoliticalcurrentquicklygainstheupperhand。

Thiswasexemplifiedinthelabourtroubleswhichtookplaceat，Rostoff-on-the-Donin1902。Duringthefirsttwodaysofthe，striketheeconomicdemandsalonewereputforward，andinthe，speecheswhichweredeliveredatthemeetingsofworkmenno，referencewasmadetopoliticalgrievances。Onthethirddayone，oratorventuredtospeakdisrespectfullyoftheAutocraticPower，buthetherebyprovokedsignsofdissatisfactionintheaudiences。

Onthefifthandfollowingdays，however，severalpolitical，speechesweremade，endingwiththecryof“DownwithTsarism！”and，acrowdof30，000workmenagreedwiththespeakers。Thereafter，occurredsimilarstrikesinOdessa，theCaucasus，Kief，andCentral，Russia，andtheyhadallapoliticalratherthanapurelyeconomic，character。

Imustnowendeavourtoexplainclearlythepointofviewandplan，ofcampaignofthisnewmovement，whichImaycallthe，revolutionaryRenaissance。

Theultimateaimofthenewreformerswasthesameasthatofall，theirpredecessors——thethoroughreorganisationofSocietyon，Socialisticprinciples。Accordingtotheirdoctrines，Societyas，atpresentconstitutedconsistsoftwogreatclasses，called，variouslytheexploitersandtheexploited，theshearersandthe，shorn，thecapitalistsandtheworkers，theemployersandthe，employed，thetyrantsandtheoppressed;andthisunsatisfactory，stateofthingsmustgoonsolongastheso-calledbourgeoisor，capitalistregimecontinuestoexist。Inthenewheavenandthe，newearthofwhichtheSocialistdreamsthisunjustdistinctionis，todisappear;allhumanbeingsaretobeequallyfreeand，independent，allaretocooperatespontaneouslywithbrainsand，handstothecommongood，andallaretoenjoyinequalsharesthe，naturalandartificialgoodthingsofthislife。

Sofartherehasneverbeenanydifferenceofopinionamongthe，variousgroupsofRussianthorough-goingrevolutionists。Allof，them，fromtheantiquatedNihilistdowntotheSocialDemocratof，thelatesttype，haveheldtheseviews。Whathasdifferentiated，themfromeachotheristhegreaterorlessdegreeofimpatienceto，realisetheideal。

ThemostimpatientweretheAnarchists，whogroupedthemselves，aroundBakunin。Theywishedtooverthrowimmediatelybyafrontal，attackallexistingformsofgovernmentandsocialorganisation，in，thehopethatchance，orevolution，ornaturalinstinct，orsudden，inspirationorsomeothermysteriousforce，wouldcreatesomething，better。Theythemselvesdeclinedtoaidthismysteriousforceeven，bysuggestions，onthegroundthat，asoneofthemhassaid，“to，constructisnotthebusinessofthegenerationwhosedutyisto，destroy。”，Notwithstandingthestrongimpulsiveelementinthe，nationalcharacter，thereckless，ultra-impatientdoctrinaires，neverbecamenumerous，andneversucceededinforminganorganised，group，probablybecausetheyounggenerationinRussiaweretoo，muchoccupiedwiththeactualandfutureconditionoftheirown，countrytoembarkonschemesofcosmopolitananarchismsuchas，Bakuninrecommended。

Nextinthescaleofimpatiencecamethegroupofbelieversin，Socialistagitationamongthemasses，withaviewtooverturning，theexistingGovernmentandputtingthemselvesinitsplaceassoon，asthemassesweresufficientlyorganisedtoplaythepartdestined，forthem。BetweenthemandtheAnarchiststheessentialpointsof，differencewerethattheyadmittedthenecessityofsomeyearsof，preparation，andtheyintended，whentheGovernmentwasoverturned，nottopreserveindefinitelythestateofanarchy，buttoputin，theplaceofautocracy，limitedmonarchy，ortherepublic，a，strong，despoticGovernmentthoroughlyimbuedwithSocialistic，principles。Assoonasithadlaidfirmlythefoundationsofthe，neworderofthingsitwastocallaNationalAssembly，fromwhich，itwastoreceive，Ipresume，abillofindemnityforthe，benevolenttyrannywhichithadtemporarilyexercised。

Impatienceafewdegreeslessintenseproducedthenextgroup，the，partisansofpacificSocialistpropaganda。Theymaintainedthat，therewasnonecessityforoverthrowingtheoldorderofthings，tillthemasseshadbeenintellectuallypreparedforthenew，and，theyobjectedtothefoundationofthenewregimebeinglaidby，despots，howeverwell-intentionedintheSocialistsense。The，peoplemustbemadehappyandpreservedinastateofhappinessby，thepeoplethemselves。

Inthelastplacecametheleastimpatientofall，theSocial，Democrats，whodifferwidelyfromalltheprecedingcategories。

Allpreviousrevolutionarygroupshadsystematicallyrejectedthe，ideaofagradualtransitionfromthebourgeoistotheSocialist，regime。Theywouldnotlistentoanysuggestionabouta，constitutionalmonarchyorademocraticrepublicevenasamere，intermediatestageofsocialdevelopment。Allsuchthings，aspart，andparcelofthebourgeoissystem，wereanathematised。Theremust，benohalf-wayhousesbetweenpresentmiseryandfuturehappiness;

formanywearytravellersmightbetemptedtosettlethereinthe，desert，andfailtoreachthepromisedland。”Everonward“should，bethewatchword，andnotimeshouldbewastedonthefoolish，strugglesofpoliticalpartiesandtheemptyvanitiesofpolitical，life。

NotthusthoughttheSocialDemocrat。Hewasmuchwiserinhis，generation。Havingseenhowtheattemptsoftheimpatientgroups，hadendedindisaster，andknowingthat，iftheyhadsucceeded，the，oldeffetedespotismwouldprobablyhavebeenreplacedbyayoung，vigorousonemoreobjectionablethanitspredecessor，hedetermined，totryamorecircuitousbutsurerroadtothegoalwhichthe，impatientpeoplehadinview。Inhisopinionthedistancefromthe，presentRussianregimeprotectedbyautocracytothefuture，Socialistparadisewasfartoogreattobetraversedinasingle，stage，andheknewofoneortwocomfortablerest-housesonthe，way。Firsttherewastherest-houseofConstitutionalism，with，parliamentaryinstitutions。Forsomeyearsthebourgeoisiewould，doubtlesshaveaparliamentarymajority，butgradually，by，persistenteffort，theFourthEstatewouldgaintheupperhand，and，thentheSocialistmillenniummightbeproclaimed。Meanwhile，what，hadtobedonewastogaintheconfidenceofthemasses，especially，ofthefactoryworkers，whoweremoreintelligentandless，conservativethanthepeasantry，andtocreatepowerfullabour，organisationsasmaterialforafuturepoliticalparty。

Thisprogrammeimplied，ofcourse，acertainunityofactionwith，theconstitutionalists，fromwhom，asIhavesaid，the，revolutionistsoftheoldschoolhadstoodsternlyaloof。There，wasnownoquestionofaformalunion，andcertainlynoideaofa，“unionofhearts，“becausetheSocialistsknewthattheirultimate，aimwouldbestrenuouslyopposedbytheLiberals，andtheLiberals，knewthatanattemptwasbeingmadetousethemasacat’s-paw;but，thereseemedtobenoreasonwhytheyofthetwogroupsshouldnot，observetowardseachotherabenevolentneutrality，andmarchside，bysideasfarasthehalf-wayhouse，wheretheycouldconsiderthe，conditionsofthefurtheradvance。

WhenIfirstbecameacquaintedwiththeRussianSocialDemocratsI

imaginedthattheirplanofcampaignwasofapurelypacific，character;andthattheywere，unliketheirpredecessors，an，evolutionary，asdistinguishedfromarevolutionary，party。

SubsequentlyIdiscoveredthatthisconceptionwasnotquite，accurate。Inordinaryquiettimestheyusemerelypacificmethods，andtheyfeelthattheProletariatisnotyetsufficiently，prepared，intellectuallyandpolitically，toassumethegreat，responsibilitieswhicharereservedforitinthefuture。

Moreover，whenthemomentcomesforgettingridoftheAutocratic，Power，theywouldpreferagradualprocessofliquidationtoa，suddencataclysm。Sofartheymaybesaidtobeevolutionaries，ratherthanrevolutionaries，buttheirplanofcampaigndoesnot，entirelyexcludeviolence。Theywouldnotconsiderittheirduty，toopposetheuseofviolenceonthepartofthemoreimpatient，sectionsoftherevolutionists，andtheywouldhavenoscruples，aboututilisingdisturbancesfortheattainmentoftheirownend。

Publicagitation，whichisalwayslikelyinRussiatoprovoke，violentrepressionbytheauthorities，theyregardasnecessaryfor，keepingaliveandstrengtheningthespiritofopposition;andwhen，forceisusedbythepolicetheyapproveoftheagitatorsusing，forceinreturn。Toactsofterrorism，however，theyareopposed，onprinciple。

Who，then，aretheTerrorists，whohaveassassinatedsomanygreat，personages，includingtheGrandDukeSerge？，Inreplytothis，questionImustintroducethereadertoanothergroupofthe，revolutionistswhohaveusuallybeeninhostile，ratherthan，friendly，relationswiththeSocialDemocrats，andwhocall，themselvestheSocialist-Revolutionaries(Sotsialisty-

Revolutsionery)。

Itwillberememberedthattheterroristgroup，commonlycalled，NarodnayaVolya，orNarodovoltsi，whichsucceededinassassinating，AlexanderII。wereverysoonbrokenupbythepoliceandmostof，theleadingmemberswerearrested。Afewescaped，ofwhomsome，remainedinthecountryandothersemigratedtoSwitzerlandor，Paris，andeffortsatreorganisationweremade，especiallyinthe，southernandwesternprovinces，buttheyprovedineffectual。At，last，soberedbyexperienceanddespairingoffurthersuccess，some，oftheprisonersandafewoftheexiles——notablyTikhomirof，who，wasregardedastheleader——madetheirpeacewiththeGovernment，andforsomeyearsterrorismseemedtobeathingofthepast。

PassingthroughRussiaonmywayhomefromIndiaandCentralAsia，atthattime，Icametotheconclusionthattheyounggeneration，hadrecoveredfromitsprolongedattackofbrain-fever，andhad，enteredonamorenormal，tranquil，andhealthyperiodof，existence。

Myexpectationsprovedtoooptimistic。About1894theNarodnaya，Volyacametolifeagain，withallitsterroristtraditionsintact;

andshortlyafterwardsappearedthenewgroupwhichIhavejust，mentioned，theSocialist-Revolutionaries，withsomewhatsimilar，principlesandabetterorganisation。Forsomesevenoreight，yearsthetwogroupsexistedsidebyside，andthentheNarodnaya，Volyadisappeared，absorbedprobablybyitsmorepowerfulrival。

Duringthefirstyearsoftheirexistenceneithergroupwasstrong，enoughtocausetheGovernmentseriousinconvenience，anditwas，nottill1897-98thattheyfoundmeansofissuingmanifestosand，programmes。InthesetheNarodovoltsideclaredthattheir，immediateaimsweretheannihilationofAutocracy，theconvocation，ofaNationalAssemblyandthereorganisationoftheEmpireonthe，principlesoffederationandlocalself-government，andthatfor，theattainmentoftheseobjectsthemeanstobeemployedshould，includepopularinsurrections，militaryconspiracies，bombsand，dynamite。

Verysimilar，thoughostensiblyalittlemoreeclectic，wasthe，programmeoftheSocialist-Revolutionaries。Theirultimateaimwas，declaredtobethetransferofpoliticalauthorityfromthe，AutocraticPowertothepeople，theabolitionofprivateproperty，inthemeansofproduction，andingeneralthereorganisationof，nationallifeonSocialistprinciples。Oncertainpointstheywere，atonewiththeSocialDemocrats。Theyrecognised，forexample，thatthesocialreorganisationmustbeprecededbyapolitical，revolution，thatmuchpreparatoryworkwasnecessary，andthat，attentionshouldbedirectedfirsttotheindustrialproletariatas，themostintelligentsectionofthemasses。Ontheotherhandthey，maintainedthatitwasamistaketoconfinetherevolutionary，activitytotheworkingclassesofthetowns，whowerenotstrong，enoughtooverturntheAutocraticPower。Theagitationought，therefore，tobeextendedtothepeasantry，whowerequite，“developed“enoughtounderstandatleasttheideaofland-

nationalisation;andforthecarryingoutofthispartofthe，programmeaspecialorganisationwascreated。

Withsomanyopinionsincommon，itseemedatonemomentasifthe，SocialDemocratsandtheSocialist-Revolutionariesmightunite，theirforcesforacombinedattackontheGovernment;butapart，fromthemutualjealousyandhatredwhichsooftencharacterise，revolutionaryaswellasreligioussects，theywerepreventedfrom，coalescing，orevencordiallyco-operating，byprofounddifferences，bothindoctrineandinmethod。

TheSocialDemocratsareessentiallydoctrinaires。Thorough-going，disciplesofKarlMarx，theybelievedinwhattheyconsiderthe，immutablelawsofsocialprogress，accordingtowhichthe，Socialisticidealcanbereachedonlythroughcapitalism;andthe，intermediatepoliticalrevolution，whichistosubstitutethewill，ofthepeoplefortheAutocraticPower，mustbeeffectedbythe，conversionandorganisationoftheindustrialproletariat。With，thespiritualprideofmenwhofeelthemselvestobethe，incarnationsoravatarsofimmutablelaw，theyareinclinedtolook，downwithsomethingverylikecontemptonmereempiricswhoare，ignorantofscientificprinciplesandareguidedbyconsiderations，ofpracticalexpediency。TheSocial-Revolutionariesseemtothem，tobeempiricsofthiskindbecausetheyrejectthetenets，orat，leastdenytheinfallibility，oftheMarxschool，clingtotheidea，ofpartiallyresistingtheoverwhelminginfluenceofcapitalismin，Russia，hopethatthepeasantrywillplayatleastasecondarypart，inbringingaboutthepoliticalrevolution，andareprofoundly，convincedthattheadventofpoliticallibertymaybegreatly，acceleratedbytheuseofterrorism。Onthislastpointthey，statedtheirviewsveryfranklyinapamphletwhichtheypublished，in1902underthetitleof“OurTask“(NashaZadatcha)。Itis，theresaid：

“Oneofthepowerfulmeansofstruggle，dictatedbyour，revolutionarypastandpresent，ispoliticalterrorism，consisting，oftheannihilationofthemostinjuriousandinfluential，personagesofRussianautocracyingivenconditions。Systematic，terrorism，inconjunctionwithotherformsofopenmass-struggle，(industrialriotsandagrarianrisings，demonstrations，etc。)，whichreceivefromterrorismanenormous，decisivesignificance，willleadtothedisorganisationoftheenemy。Terroristactivity，willceaseonlywiththevictoryoverautocracyandthecomplete，attainmentofpoliticalliberty。Besidesitschiefsignificanceas，ameansofdisorganising，terroristactivitywillserveatthesame，timeasameansofpropagandaandagitation，aformofopen，struggletakingplacebeforetheeyesofthewholepeople，underminingtheprestigeofGovernmentauthority，andcallinginto，lifenewrevolutionaryforces，whiletheoralandliterary，propagandaisbeingcontinuedwithoutinterruption。Lastly，the，terroristactivityservesforthewholesecretrevolutionaryparty，asameansofself-defenceandofprotectingtheorganisation，againsttheinjuriouselementsofspiesandtreachery。”

Inaccordancewiththistheorya“militantorganisation“(Boevaga，Organisatsia)wasformedandsoonsettoworkwithrevolversand，bombs。FirstanattemptwasmadeonthelifeofPobedonostsef;

thentheMinisteroftheInterior，Sipiagin，wasassassinated;next，attemptsweremadeonthelivesoftheGovernorsofVilnaand，Kharkof，andtheKharkofchiefofpolice;andsincethattimethe，GovernorofUfa，theVice-GovernorofElizabetpol，theMinisterof，theInterior，M。Plehve，andtheGrandDukeSergehavefallen，victimstotheterroristpolicy。*

*InthislistIhavenotmentionedtheassassinationofM。

Bogolyepof，MinisterofPublicInstruction，in1901，becauseIdo，notknowwhetheritshouldbeattributedtotheSocialist-

RevolutionariesortotheNarodovoltsi，whohadnotyetamalgamated，withthem。

ThoughtheSocialDemocratshavenosentimentalsqueamishnessabout，bloodshed，theyobjectedtothispolicyonthegroundthatactsof，terrorismwereunnecessaryandwereapttoproveinjuriousrather，thanbeneficialtotherevolutionistcause。Oneofthemain，objectsofeveryintelligentrevolutionarypartyshouldbeto，awakenallclassesfromtheirhabitualapathyandinducethemto，takeanactivepartinthepoliticalmovement;butterrorismmust，haveacontraryeffectbysuggestingthatpoliticalfreedomisto，beattained，notbythesteadypressureandperseveringcooperation，ofthepeople，butbystartling，sensationalactsofindividual，heroism。

Theeffortsofthesetworevolutionaryparties，aswellasofminor，groups，togetholdoftheindustrialproletariatdidnotescape，thenoticeoftheauthorities;andduringthelabourtroublesof，1896，onthesuggestionofM。Witte，theGovernmenthadconsidered，thequestionastowhatshouldbedonetocounteracttheinfluence，oftheagitators。Onthatquestionithadnodifficultyincoming，toadecision;theconditionoftheworkingclassesmustbe，improved。Anexpertofficialwasaccordinglyinstructedtowritea，reportonwhathadalreadybeendoneinthatdirection。Inhis，reportitwasshownthattheGovernmenthadlongbeenthinking，aboutthesubject。Nottospeakofastill-bornlawaboutaten-

hourdayforartisans，datingfromthetimeofCatherineII。an，Imperialcommissionhadbeenappointedasearlyas1859，but，nothingpracticalcameofitsdeliberationsuntil1882，when，legislativemeasuresweretakenfortheprotectionofwomenand，childreninfactories。Alittlelater(1886)othergrievanceswere，dealtwithandpartlyremovedbyregulatingcontractsofhire，providingthatthemoneyderivedfromdeductionsandfinesshould，notbeappropriatedbytheemployers，andcreatingastaffof，factoryinspectorswhoshouldtakecarethatthebenevolent，intentionsoftheGovernmentweredulycarriedout。Having，reviewedalltheseofficialeffortsin1896，theGovernmentpassed，inthefollowingyearalawprohibitingnightworkandlimitingthe，workingdaytoelevenandahalfhours。

Thisdidnotsatisfytheworkmen。Theirwageswerestilllow，and，itwasdifficulttogetthemincreasedbecausestrikesandall，formsofassociationwerestill，astheyhadalwaysbeen，criminal，offences。OnthispointtheGovernmentremainedfirmsofarasthe，lawwasconcerned，butitgraduallymadepracticalconcessionsby，allowingtheworkmentocombineforcertainpurposes。In1898，for，example，inKharkof，theEngineers’MutualAidSocietywas，sanctioned，andgraduallyitbecamecustomarytoallowtheworkmen，toelectdelegatesforthediscussionoftheirgrievanceswiththe，employersandinspectors。

Findingthattheseconcessionsdidnotcheckthegrowinginfluence，oftheSocialDemocraticagitatorsamongtheoperatives，the，Governmentresolvedtogoastepfurther;itwouldorganisethe，workersonpurelytrade-unionistlines，andwouldtherebycombat，theSocialDemocrats，whoalwaysadvisedthestrikerstomixup，politicaldemandswiththeirmaterialgrievances。Theproject，seemedtohaveagoodprospectofsuccess，becausethereweremany，workmen，especiallyoftheoldergeneration，whodidnotatall，likethemixingupofpolitics，whichsooftenledtoarrest，imprisonmentandexile，withthepracticalconcernsofeveryday，life。

ThefirstattemptofthekindwasmadeinMoscowunderthe，directionofacertainZubatof，chiefofthesecretpolice，whohad，beenhimselfarevolutionaryinhisyouth，andafterwardsanagent，provocateur。AidedbyTikhomirof，therepentantterroristwhomI

havealreadymentioned，Zubatoforganisedalargeworkmen’s，association，withreading-rooms，lectures，discussionsandother，attractions，andsoughttoconvincethemembersthattheyshould，turnadeafeartotheSocialDemocraticagents，andlookonlyto，theGovernmentfortheimprovementoftheircondition。Inorderto，gaintheirsympathyandconfidence，heinstructedhissubordinates，totakethesideoftheworkmeninalllabourdisputes，whilehe，himselfbroughtofficialpressuretobearontheemployers。By，thismeanshemadeaconsiderablenumberofconverts，andfora，timetheassociationseemedtoprosper，buthedidnotpossessthe，extraordinaryabilityandtactrequiredtoplaythecomplicated，gamesuccessfully，andhecommittedthefatalmistakeofusingthe，office-bearersoftheassociationasdetectivesforthediscovery，ofthe“evil-intentioned。”，Thistacticalerrorhaditsnatural，consequences。Assoonastheworkmenperceivedthattheir，professedbenefactorswerepolicespies，whodidnotobtainfor，themanyrealimprovementoftheircondition，thepopularityofthe，associationrapidlydeclined。Atthesametime，thefactoryowners，complainedtotheMinisterofFinancethatthepolice，whooughtto，beguardiansofpublicorder，andwhohadaccusedthefactory，inspectorsofstirringupdiscontentinthelabouringpopulation，werethemselvescreatingtroublesbyincitingtheworkmentomake，inordinatedemands。TheMinisterofFinanceatthemomentwasM。

Witte，andtheMinisterofInterior，responsiblefortheactsof，thepolice，wasM。Plehve，andbetweenthesetwoofficial，dignitaries，whowerealreadyinverystrainedrelations，Zubatof’s，activityformedanewbaseofcontention。Inthesecircumstances，itisnotsurprisingthattheveryriskyexperimentcametoan，untimelyend。

InSt。Petersburgasimilarexperimentwasmade，anditendedmuch，moretragically。Therethechiefr鬺ewasplayedbyamysterious，personagecalledFatherGapon，whoacquiredgreatmomentary，notoriety。Thoughagenuinepriest，hedidnotbelongbybirth，as，mostRussianpriestsdo，totheecclesiasticalcaste。Thesonofa，peasantinLittleRussia，wheretheranksoftheclergyarenot，hermeticallysealedagainsttheothersocialclasses，heaspiredto，takeorders，andafterbeingrusticatedfromaseminaryfor，supposedsympathywithrevolutionaryideas，hecontrivedtofinish，hisstudiesandobtainordination。DuringaresidenceinMoscowhe，tookpartintheZubatofexperiment，andwhenthatbadlyconducted，schemecollapsedhewastransferredtoSt。Petersburgandappointed，chaplaintoalargeconvictprison。Hisnewprofessionalduties，didnotpreventhimfromcontinuingtotakeakeeninterestinthe，welfareoftheworkingclasses，andinthesummerof1904he，became，withtheapprovalofthepoliceauthorities，presidentofa，largelabourunioncalledtheSocietyofRussianWorkmen，whichhad，elevensectionsinthevariousindustrialsuburbsofthecapital。

Underhisguidancetheexperimentproceededforsomemonthsvery，successfully。Hegainedthesympathyandconfidenceofthe，workmen，andsolongasnoseriousquestionsarosehekepthishold，onthem;butastormwasbrewingandheprovedunequaltothe，occasion。

Inthefirstdaysof1905，whentheeconomicconsequencesofthe，warhadcometobekeenlyfelt，aspiritofdiscontentappeared，amongthelabouringpopulationofSt。Petersburg，andonSunday，January15th——exactlyaweekbeforethefamousSundaywhenthe，troopswerecalledintoplay——astrikebeganinthePutilof，ironworksandspreadlikewildfiretotheotherbigworksinthe，neighbourhood。Theimmediatecauseofthedisturbancewasthe，dismissalofsomeworkmenandademandonthepartofthelabour，unionthattheyshouldbereinstated。Adeputation，composed，partlyofgenuineworkmenandpartlyofSocialDemocratic，agitators，andledbyGapon，negotiatedwiththemanagersofthe，Putilofworks，andfailedtoeffectanarrangement。Atthismoment，Gapontriedhardtoconfinethenegotiationstothepointsin，dispute，whereastheagitatorsputforwarddemandsofawiderkind，suchastheeight-hourworkingday，andtheygraduallyobtainedhis，concurrenceonconditionthatnopoliticaldemandsshouldbe，introducedintotheprogramme。Indefendingthisconditionhewas，supportedbytheworkmen，sothatwhenagitatorstriedtomake，politicalspeechesatthemeetingstheywereunceremoniously，expelled。

Asimilarstrugglebetweenthe“Economists“andthe“Politicals“

wasgoingonintheotherindustrialsuburbs，notablyintheNevski，quarter，where45，000operativeshadstruckwork，andtheSocial，Democratswereparticularlyactive。InthissectionoftheLabour，Unionthemostinfluentialmemberwasayoungworkmancalled，Petroff，whowasastaunchGaponistinthesensethathewishedthe，workerstoconfinethemselvestotheirowngrievancesandtoresist，theintroductionofpoliticaldemands。Atfirsthesucceededin，preventingtheagitatorsfromspeakingatthemeetings，butthey，soonprovedtoomuchforhim。AtoneofthemeetingsonTuesday，whenhehappenedtobeabsent，aSocialDemocratcontrivedtoget，himselfelectedchairman，andfromthatmomentthepolitical，agitatorshadafreehand。Theyhadaregularorganisation，composedofanorganiser，three“oratoricalagitators，“andseveral，assistant-organiserswhoattendedthesmallmeetingsinthe，operatives’sleeping-quarters。Besidesthesetherewereacertain，numberofworkmenalreadyconvertedtoSocialDemocraticprinciples，whohadlearnedtheartofmakingpoliticalspeeches。

Thereportsoftheagitatorstothecentralorganisation，written，hurriedlyduringthiseventfulweek，areextremelygraphicand，interesting。Theydeclaredthatthereisafrightfulamountof，worktobedoneandveryfewtodoit。TheirstockofSocial，Democraticpamphletsisexhaustedandtheyarehoarsefromspeech-

making。Inspiteoftheirsuperhumaneffortsthemassesremain，frightfully“undeveloped。”，Themenwillinglycollecttohearthe，orators，listentothemattentively，expressapprovalordissent，andevenputquestions;butwithallthistheyremainobstinately，onthegroundoftheirownimmediatewants，suchastheincreaseof，wagesandprotectionagainstbrutalforemen，andtheyonlyhint，vaguelyatmoreseriousdemands。Theagitators，however，are，equallyobstinate，andtheymakeafewconverts。Toillustratehow，conversionsaremade，thefollowingincidentisrelated。Atone，meetingthecryof“Stopthewar！”israisedbyanoratorwithout，sufficientpreparation，andatonceavoiceisheardinthe，audiencesaying。”No，no！，ThelittleJaps(Yaposhki)mustbe，beaten！”Thereuponamoreexperiencedoratorcomesforwardanda，characteristicconversationtakesplace：

“Havewemuchlandofourown，myfriends？”askstheorator。

“Much！”repliesthecrowd。

“DowerequireManchuria？”

“No！”

“Whopaysforthewar？”

“Wedo！”

“Areourbrothersdying，anddoyourwivesandchildrenremain，withoutabitofbread？”

“Soitis！”saymany，withasignificantshakeofthehead。

Havingsucceededsofar，theoratortriestoturnthepopular，indignationagainsttheTsarbyexplainingthatheistoblamefor，allthismiseryandsuffering，butPetroffsuddenlyappearsonthe，sceneandmaintainsthatforthemiseryandsufferingtheTsaris，notatalltoblame，forheknowsnothingaboutit。Itisallthe，faultofhisservants，thetchinovniks。

BythisdevicePetroffsuppressestheseditiouscryof“Downwith，autocracy！”whichtheSocialDemocratswereanxioustomakethe，watchwordofthemovement，buthehastherebybeendrawnfromhis，strongpositionof“Nopolitics，“andheisstanding，asweshall，seepresently，onaslipperyincline。

OnThursdayandFridaytheactivityoftheleadersandthe，excitementofthemassesincrease。WhiletheGaponistsspeak，merelyoflocalgrievancesandmaterialwants，theSocialDemocrats，incitetheirhearerstoapoliticalstruggle，advisingthemto，demandaConstituentAssembly，andexplainingthenecessityforall，workmentodrawtogetherandformapowerfulpoliticalparty。The，haranguinggoesonfrommorningtonight，andagitatorsdriveabout，fromonefactorytoanothertokeeptheexcitementatfever-heat。

Thepolice，usuallysoactiveonsuchoccasions，donotputinan，appearance。PrinceSviatopolkMirski，thehonest，well-

intentioned，liberalMinisteroftheInterior，cannotmakeuphis，mindtoactwithenergy，andletsthingsdrift。Theagitators，themselvesareastonishedatthisextraordinaryinactivity。Oneof，them，writingafewdaysafterwards，says：“Thepolicewas，paralysed。ItwouldhavebeeneasytoarrestGapon，anddiscover，theorators。OnFridaytheclubsmighthavebeensurroundedand，theoratorsarrested……Inaword，decidedmeasuresmighthave，beentaken，buttheywerenot。”

ItisnotonlyPetroffthathasabandonedhisstrongpositionof，“Nopolitics“;Gaponisdoinglikewise。Themovementhasspread，farbeyondwhatheexpected，andheisbeingcarriedawaybythe，prevailingexcitement。Withallhisbenevolentintentions，heis，ofanervous，excitablenature，andhisbesettingsinisvanity。

HeperceivesthatbyresistingtheSocialDemocratsheislosing，hisholdonthemasses。Earlyintheweek，aswehaveseen，he，begantowidenhisprogrammeintheSocialDemocraticsense，and，everydayhemakesnewconcessions。Beforetheweekisfinisheda，SocialDemocraticoratorcanwritetriumphantly：“Inthreedayswe，havetransformedtheGaponistassembliesintopoliticalmeetings！”

LikePetroff，GaponseekstodefendtheTsar，andhefallsinto，Petroff’sstrategicalmistakeofpretendingthattheTsarknows，nothingofthesufferingsofhispeople。Fromthatadmissionto，theresolutionthattheTsarmustsomehowbeinformedpersonally，anddirectly，bysomemeansoutsideoftheregularofficial，channel，thereisbutonestep，andthatstepisquicklytaken。On，FridaymorningGaponhasdeterminedtopresentwithhisownhandsa，petitiontohisMajesty，andthepetitionisalreadydrafted，containingdemandswhichgofarbeyondworkmen’sgrievances。After，resistingtheSocialDemocraticagitatorssostoutly，heisnow，goingover，bagandbaggage，totheSocialDemocraticcamp。

ThiswonderfulchangewasconsummatedonFridayeveningata，conferencewhichheheldwithsomedelegatesoftheSocial，Democrats。Fromanaccountwrittenbyoneofthesedelegates，immediatelyafterthemeetingwegetaninsightintotheworthy，priest’scharacterandmotives。Inthemorninghehadwrittento，them：“Ihave100，000workmen，andIamgoingwiththemtothe，Palacetopresentapetition。Ifitisnotgranted，weshallmake，arevolution。Doyouagree？”Theydidnotliketheidea，because，theSocialDemocraticpolicyistoextortconcessions，nottoask，favours，andtorefrainfromanythingthatmightincreasethe，prestigeoftheAutocraticPower。Intheirreply，therefore，they，consentedsimplytodiscussthematter。Iproceednowtoquote，fromthedelegate’saccountofwhattookplaceattheconference：

“ThecompanyconsistedofGapon，withtwoadherents，andfive，SocialDemocrats。Allsatroundatable，andtheconversation，began。Gaponisagood-lookingman，withdarkcomplexionand，thoughtful，sympatheticface。Heisevidentlyverytired，and，liketheotherorators，heishoarse。Tothequestionsaddressed，tohim，hereplies：’Themassesareatpresentsoelectrifiedthat，youmayleadthemwhereveryoulike。WeshallgoonSundaytothe，Palace，andpresentapetition。Ifweareallowedtopasswithout，hindrance，weshallmarchtothePalaceSquare，andsummontheTsar，fromTsarskoeSelo。Weshallwaitforhimtilltheevening。When，hearrives，Ishallgotohimwithadeputation，andinpresenting，tohimthepetition，Ishallsay：“YourMajesty！，Thingscannotgo，onlikethis;itistimetogivethepeopleliberty。”，(Taknelzya！

Paradat’narodusvobodu。)，Ifheconsents，weshallinsistthathe，takeanoathbeforethepeople。Onlythenweshallcomeaway，and，whenwebegintowork，itwillonlybeforeighthoursaday。If，ontheotherhand，wearepreventedfromenteringthecity，we，shallrequestandbeg，andiftheydonotletuspass，weshall，forceourway。InthePalaceSquareweshallfindtroops，andwe，shallentreatthemtocomeovertoourside。Iftheybeatus，we，shallstrikeback。Therewillbesacrifices，butpartofthe，troopswillcomeovertous，andthen，beingourselvesstrongin，numbers，weshallmakearevolution。Weshallconstruct，barricades，pillagethearmourers’shops，breakopentheprisons，andseizethetelephonesandtelegraphs。TheSocialist-

Revolutionarieshavepromisedusbombs，andtheDemocratsmoney：

andweshallbevictorious！*

*Thisconfirmstheinformationwhichcomestomefromother，quartersthatGaponwasalreadyinfriendlyrelationswithother，revolutionarygroups。

“Such，inafewwords，weretheideaswhichGaponexpounded。The，impressionhemadeonuswasthathedidnotclearlyrealisewhere，hewasgoing。Actingwithsincerity，hewasreadytodie，buthe，wasconvincedthatthetroopswouldnotfire，andthatthe，deputationwouldbereceivedbytheEmperor。Hedidnot，distinguishbetweendifferentmethods。Thoughnotatalla，partisanofviolentmeans，hehadbecomeinfuriatedagainst，autocracyandtheTsar，aswasshownbyhislanguagewhenhesaid：

’IfthatblockheadofaTsarcomesout’(YeslietotdurakTsar，vuidet)……Burningwiththedesiretoattainhisobject，he，lookedonrevolutionlikeachild，asifitcouldbeaccomplished，inadaywithemptyhands！”

Knowingthatnopreviouspreparationshadbeenmadefora，revolutionsuchasGapontalkedof，theSocialDemocraticagents，triedtodissuadehimfromcarryingouthisideaonSunday，buthe，stoodfirm。Hehadalreadycommittedhimselfpubliclytothe，project。Ataworkmen’smeetinginanotherquarter(Vassiliostrof)

earlierinthedayhehadexplainedthepetition，andsaid：“Letus，gototheWinterPalaceandsummontheEmperor，andletustellhim，ourwants;ifhedoesnotlistentouswedonotrequirehimany，longer。”，ToaSocialDemocratwhoshookhimwarmlybythehandand，expressedhisastonishmentthatthereshouldbesuchamanamong，theclergy，hereplied：“Iamnolongerapriest;Iamafighter，forliberty！，Theywanttoexileme，andforsomenightsIhavenot，sleptathome。”，Whenofferedassistancetoescapearrest，he，answeredlaconically：“Thanks;Ihavealreadyaplaceofrefuge。”

Afterhisdeparturefromthemeetingoneofhisfriends，towhomhe，hadconfidedacopyofthepetition，roseandsaid：“Nowhas，arrivedthegreathistoricalmoment！，Nowwecanandmustdemand，rightsandliberty！”Afterhearingthepetitionreadthemeeting，decidedthatiftheTsardidnotcomeoutatthedemandofthe，peoplestrongmeasuresshouldbetaken，andoneoratorindicated，prettyplainlywhattheyshouldbe：“Wedon’trequireaTsarwhois，deaftothewoesofthepeople;weshallperishourselves，butwe，shallkillhim。SwearthatyouwillallcometothePalaceon，Sundayattwelveo’clock！”Theaudienceraisedtheirhandsin，tokenofassent。

FindingitimpossibletodissuadeGaponfromhispurpose，the，SocialDemocratstoldhimthattheywouldtakeadvantageofthe，circumstancesindependently，andthatifhewasallowedtoenter，thecitywithhisdeputationtheywouldorganisemonstermeetings，inthePalaceSquare。

TheimperioustoneusedbyGaponatthepublicmeetingsandprivate，consultationswasadoptedbyhimalsoinhisletterstothe，MinisteroftheInteriorandtotheEmperor。Totheformerhe，wrote：

“TheworkmenandinhabitantsofSt。Petersburgofvariousclasses，desiretoseetheTsarattwoo’clockonSundayintheWinter，PalaceSquare，inordertolaybeforehimpersonallytheirneeds，andthoseofthewholeRussianpeople……TelltheTsarthatI

andtheworkmen，manythousandsinnumber，havepeacefully，with，confidenceinhim，butirrevocably，resolvedtoproceedtothe，WinterPalace。Lethimshowhisconfidencebydeeds，andnotby，manifestos。”

TotheTsarhimselfhislanguagewasnotmorerespectful：

“Sovereign，——IfeartheMinistershavenottoldyouthetruthabout，thesituation。Thewholepeople，trustinginyou，hasresolvedto，appearattheWinterPalaceattwoo’clockintheafternoon，in，ordertoinformyouofitsneeds。Ifyouhesitate，anddonot，appearbeforethepeople，thenyoutearthemoralbondsbetweenyou，andthem。Trustinyouwilldisappear，becauseinnocentbloodwill，flow。Appearto-morrowbeforeyourpeopleandreceiveouraddress，ofdevotioninacourageousspirit！Iandthelabour，representatives，mybravecomrades，guaranteetheinviolabilityof，yourperson。”

GaponwasnolongermerelythepresidentoftheWorkmen’sUnion：

inebriatedwiththeexcitementhehaddonesomuchtocreate，he，nowimaginedhimselftherepresentativeoftheoppressedRussian，people，andtheheroicleaderofagreatpoliticalrevolution。In，thepetitionwhichhehadpreparedhesaidlittleaboutthe，grievancesoftheSt。Petersburgworkmenwhoseinterestshehada，righttoadvocate，andpreferredtosoarintomuchhigherregions：

“Thebureaucracyhasbroughtthecountrytothevergeofruin，and，byashamefulwar，isbringingittoitsdownfall。Wehaveno，voiceintheheavyburdensimposedonus;wedonotevenknowfor，whomorwhythismoneyiswrungfromtheimpoverishedpeople，and，wedonotknowhowitisexpended。Thisstateofthingsis，contrarytotheDivinelaws，andrenderslifeunbearable。

Assembledbeforeyourpalace，wepleadforoursalvation。Refuse，notyouraid;raiseyourpeoplefromthetomb，andgivethemthe，meansofworkingouttheirowndestiny。Rescuethemfromthe，intolerableyokeofofficialdom;throwdownthewallthatseparates，youfromthem，inorderthattheymayrulewithyouthecountry，thatwascreatedfortheirhappiness——ahappinesswhichisbeing，wrenchedfromus，leavingnothingbutsorrowandhumiliation。”

WithaninnatesentimentofautocraticdignitytheEmperordeclined，toobeytheimperioussummons，andhetherebyavoidedanunseemly，altercationwiththeexcitedpriest，aswellastheboisterous，publicmeetingswhichtheSocialDemocratswerepreparingtohold，inthePalaceSquare。Ordersweregiventothepoliceandthe，troopstopreventthecrowdsofworkmenfrompenetratingintothe，centreofthecityfromtheindustrialsuburbs。Therestneednot，bedescribedindetail。OnSundaythecrowdstriedtoforcetheir，way，thetroopsfired，andmanyofthedemonstratorswerekilledor，wounded。Howmanyitisimpossibletosay;betweenthevarious，estimatesthereisanenormousdiscrepancy。Atoneofthefirst，volleysFatherGaponfell，butheturnedouttobequiteunhurt，andwasspiritedawaytohisplaceofrefuge，whenceheescaped，acrossthefrontier。

Assoonashehadanopportunityofgivingpublicexpressiontohis，feelings，heindulgedinverystronglanguage。Inhislettersand，proclamationstheTsariscalledamiscreantandanassassin，and，isdescribedastraitorous，bloodthirsty，andbestial。Tothe，ministersheisequallyuncomplimentary。Theyappeartohiman，accursedbandofbrigands，Mamelukes，jackals，monsters。Against，theTsar，“withhisreptilianbrood，“andtheministersalike，he，vowsvengeance——“deathtothemall！”Asforthemeansfor，realisinghissacredmission，herecommendsbombs，dynamite，individualandwholesaleterrorism，popularinsurrection，and，paralysingthelifeofthecitiesbydestroyingthewater-mains，thegas-pipes，thetelegraphandtelephonewires，therailwaysand，tram-ways，theGovernmentbuildingsandtheprisons。Atsome，momentsheseemstoimaginehimselfinvestedwithpapalpowers，for，heanathematisesthesoldierswhodidtheirdutyontheeventful，day，whilstheblessesandabsolvesfromtheiroathofallegiance，thosewhohelpthenationtowinliberty。

SofarIhavespokenmerelyofthemaincurrentsinthe，revolutionarymovement。Oftheminorcurrents——particularlythose，intheoutlyingprovinces，wheretheSocialisttendencieswere，mingledwithnationalistfeeling——Ishallhaveoccasiontospeak，whenIcometodealwiththepresentpoliticalsituationasa，whole。Meanwhile，Iwishtosketchinoutlinetheforeignpolicy，whichhaspowerfullycontributedtobringaboutthepresentcrisis。

CHAPTERXXXVIII

TERRITORIALEXPANSIONANDFOREIGNPOLICY

RapidGrowthofRussia——ExpansiveTendencyofAgriculturalPeoples——

TheRusso-Slavonians——TheNorthernForestandtheSteppe——

Colonisation——ThePartoftheGovernmentintheProcessof，Expansion——ExpansiontowardstheWest——GrowthoftheEmpire，RepresentedinaTabularForm——CommercialMotiveforExpansion——The，ExpansiveForceintheFuture——PossibilitiesofExpansionin，Europe——Persia，Afghanistan，andIndia——Trans-SiberianRailwayand，Weltpolitik——AGrandioseScheme——DeterminedOppositionofJapan——

NegotiationsandWar——Russia’sImprudenceExplained——Conclusion。

TherapidgrowthofRussiaisoneofthemostremarkablefactsof，modernhistory。Aninsignificanttribe，orcollectionoftribes，which，athousandyearsago，occupiedasmalldistrictnearthe，sourcesoftheDnieperandWesternDvina，hasgrownintoagreat，nationwithaterritorystretchingfromtheBaltictotheNorthern，Pacific，andfromthePolarOceantothefrontiersofTurkey，Persia，Afghanistan，andChina。Wehavehereafactwelldeserving，ofinvestigation，andastheprocessisstillgoingonandis，commonlysupposedtothreatenournationalinterests，the，investigationoughttohaveforusmorethanamerescientific，interest。Whatisthesecretofthisexpansivepower？，Isita，merebarbarouslustofterritorialaggrandisement，orisitsome，morereasonablemotive？，Andwhatisthenatureoftheprocess？，Is，annexationfollowedbyassimilation，ordothenewacquisitions，retaintheiroldcharacter？，IstheEmpireinitspresentextenta，homogeneouswhole，ormerelyaconglomerationofheterogenousunits，heldtogetherbytheoutwardbondofcentralisedadministration？

Ifwecouldfindsatisfactoryanswerstothesequestions，wemight，determinehowfarRussiaisstrengthenedorweakenedbyher，annexationsofterritory，andmightformsomeplausibleconjectures，astohow，when，andwheretheprocessofexpansionistostop。

Byglancingatherhistoryfromtheeconomicpointofviewwemay，easilydetectoneprominentcauseofexpansion。

Anagriculturalpeople，employingmerelytheprimitivemethodsof，agriculture，hasalwaysastrongtendencytowidenitsborders。

Thenaturalincreaseofpopulationdemandsaconstantlyincreasing，productionofgrain，whilsttheprimitivemethodsofcultivation，exhaustthesoilandsteadilydiminishitsproductivity。With，regardtothisstageofeconomicdevelopment，themodestassertion，ofMalthus，thatthesupplyoffooddoesnotincreasesorapidlyas，thepopulation，oftenfallsfarshortofthetruth。Asthe，populationincreases，thesupplyoffoodmaydecreasenotonly，relatively，butabsolutely。Whenapeoplefindsitselfinthis，criticalposition，itmustadoptoneoftwoalternatives：eitherit，mustpreventtheincreaseofpopulation，oritmustincreasethe，productionoffood。Intheformercaseitmaylegalisethecustom，of“exposing“infants，aswasdoneinancientGreece;oritmay，regularlysellalargeportionoftheyoungwomenandchildren，as，wasdoneuntilrecentlyinCircassia;orthesurpluspopulationmay，emigratetoforeignlands，astheScandinaviansdidintheninth，century，andasweourselvesaredoinginamorepeaceablefashion，atthepresentday。Theotheralternativemaybeeffectedeither，byextendingtheareaofcultivationorbyimprovingthesystemof，agriculture。

TheRusso-Slavonians，beinganagriculturalpeople，experienced，thisdifficulty，butforthemitwasnotserious。Aconvenientway，ofescapewasplainlyindicatedbytheirpeculiargeographical，position。Theywerenothemmedinbyloftymountainsorstormy，seas。Tothesouthandeast——attheirverydoors，asitwere——lay，aboundlessexpanseofthinlypopulatedvirginsoil，awaitingthe，labourofthehusbandman，andreadytorepayitmostliberally。

Thepeasantrytherefore，insteadofexposingtheirinfants，selling，theirdaughters，orsweepingtheseasasVikings，simplyspreadout，towardstheeastandsouth。Thiswasatoncethemostnaturaland，thewisestcourse，forofalltheexpedientsforpreservingthe，equilibriumbetweenpopulationandfood-production，increasingthe，areaofcultivationis，underthecircumstancesjustdescribed，the，easiestandmosteffective。Theoreticallythesameresultmight，havebeenobtainedbyimprovingthemethodofagriculture，but，practicallythiswasimpossible。Intensivecultureisnotlikely，tobeadoptedsolongasexpansioniseasy。Highfarmingisa，thingtobeproudofwhenthereisascarcityofland，butitwould，beabsurdtoattemptitwherethereisabundanceofvirginsoilin，thevicinity。

Theprocessofexpansion，thusproducedbypurelyeconomiccauses，wasacceleratedbyinfluencesofanotherkind，especiallyduring，theseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies。Theincreaseinthe，numberofofficials，theaugmentationofthetaxes，themerciless，exactionsoftheVoyevodsandtheirsubordinates，the，transformationofthepeasantsand“freewanderingpeople“into，serfs，theecclesiasticalreformsandconsequentpersecutionofthe，schismatics，thefrequentconscriptionsandviolentreformsof，PetertheGreat——theseandotherkindsofoppressionmadethousands，fleefromtheirhomesandseekarefugeinthefreeterritory，wheretherewerenoofficials，notax-gatherers，andno，proprietors。ButtheState，withitsarmyoftax-gatherersand，officials，followedcloseontheheelsofthefugitives，andthose，whowishedtopreservetheirlibertyhadtoadvancestillfurther。

Notwithstandingtheeffortsoftheauthoritiestoretainthe，populationinthelocalitiesactuallyoccupied，thewaveof，colonisationmovedsteadilyonwards。

Thevastterritorywhichlayopentothecolonistsconsistedoftwo，contiguousregions，separatedfromeachotherbynomountainsor，rivers，butwidelydifferingfromeachotherinmanyrespects。The，one，comprisingallthenorthernpartofEasternEuropeandof，Asia，evenuntoKamchatka，mayberoughlydescribedasalandof，forests，intersectedbymanyrivers，andcontainingnumerouslakes，andmarshes;theother，stretchingsouthwardstotheBlackSea，and，eastwardsfarawayintoCentralAsia，isforthemostpartwhat，Russianscall“theSteppe，“andAmericanswouldcalltheprairies。

Eachofthesetworegionspresentedpeculiarinducementsand，peculiarobstaclestocolonisation。Sofarasthefacilityof，raisinggrainwasconcerned，thesouthernregionwasdecidedly，preferable。Inthenorththesoilhadlittlenaturalfertility，andwascoveredwithdenseforests，sothatmuchtimeandlabour，hadtobeexpendedinmakingaclearingbeforetheseedcouldbe，sown。*，Inthesouth，onthecontrary，thesquatterhadnotreesto，fell，andnoclearingtomake。Naturehadclearedthelandfor，him，andsuppliedhimwitharichblacksoilofmarvellous，fertility，whichhasnotyetbeenexhaustedbycenturiesof，cultivation。Why，then，didthepeasantoftenpreferthenorthern，foreststothefertileSteppewherethelandwasalreadyprepared，forhim？

*Themodusoperandihasbeenalreadydescribed;videsupra，pp。

104etseq。

Forthisapparentinconsistencytherewasagoodandvalidreason。

Themuzhikhadnot，eveninthosegoodoldtimes，anypassionate，loveoflabourforitsownsake，norwashebyanymeansinsensible，tothefacilitiesforagricultureaffordedbytheSteppe。Buthe，couldnotregardthesubjectexclusivelyfromtheagricultural，pointofview。Hehadtotakeintoconsiderationthefaunaaswell，asthefloraofthetworegions。Attheheadofthefaunainthe，northernforestsstoodthepeace-loving，laboriousFinnishtribes，littledisposedtomolestsettlerswhodidnotmakethemselves，obnoxiouslyaggressive;ontheSteppelivedthepredatory，nomadic，hordes，everreadytoattack，plunder，andcarryoffasslavesthe，peacefulagriculturalpopulation。Thesefacts，aswellasthe，agriculturalconditions，wereknowntointendingcolonists，and，influencedthemintheirchoiceofanewhome。Thoughgenerally，fearlessandfatalisticinahigherdegree，theycouldnotentirely，overlookthedangersoftheSteppe，andmanyofthempreferredto，encounterthehardworkoftheforestregion。

Thesedifferencesinthecharacterandpopulationofthetwo，regionsdeterminedthecharacterofthecolonisation。Thoughthe，colonisationofthenorthernregionswasnoteffectedentirely，withoutbloodshed，itwas，onthewhole，ofapeacefulkind，and，consequentlyreceivedlittleattentionfromthecontemporary，chroniclers。ThecolonisationoftheSteppe，onthecontrary，requiredthehelpoftheCossacks，andforms，asIhavealready，shown，oneofthebloodiestpagesofEuropeanhistory。

Thus，wesee，theprocessofexpansiontowardsthenorth，east，and，southmaybedescribedasaspontaneousmovementofthe，agriculturalpopulation。Itmust，however，beadmittedthatthis，isanimperfectandone-sidedrepresentationofthephenomenon。

Thoughtheinitiativeunquestionablycamefromthepeople，the，Governmentplayedanimportantpartinthemovement。

InearlytimeswhenRussiawasmerelyaconglomerationof，independentprincipalities，thePrinceswereunderthemoraland，politicalobligationofprotectingtheirsubjects，andthis，obligationcoincidedadmirablywiththeirnaturaldesiretoextend，theirdominions。WhentheGrandPrincesofMuscovy，inthe，fifteenthcentury，unitedthenumerousprincipalitiesand，proclaimedthemselvesTsars，theyacceptedthisobligationforthe，wholecountry，andconceivedmuchgranderschemesofterritorial，aggrandisement。Towardsthenorthandnortheastnostrenuous，effortswererequired。TheRepublicofNovgorodeasilygained，possessionofNorthernRussiaasfarastheUralMountains，and，SiberiawasconqueredbyasmallbandofCossackswithoutthe，authorisationofMuscovy，sothattheTsarshadmerelytoannexthe，alreadyconqueredterritory。Inthesouthernregionthepart，playedbytheGovernmentwasverydifferent。Theagricultural，populationhadtobeconstantlyprotectedalongafrontierof，enormouslength，lyingopenatallpointstotheincursionsof，nomadictribes。Topreventraidsitwasnecessarytokeepupa，militarycordon，andthismeansdidnotalwaysensureprotectionto，thoselivingnearthefrontier。Thenomadsoftencamein，formidablehordes，whichcouldbesuccessfullyresistedonlyby，largearmies，andsometimesthearmieswerenotlargeenoughto，copewiththem。Againandagainduringthethirteenthand，fourteenthcenturiesTartarhordessweptoverthecountry——burning，thevillagesandtowns，andspreadingdevastationwhereverthey，appeared——andduringmorethantwocenturiesRussiahadtopaya，heavytributetotheKhans。

GraduallytheTsarsthrewoffthisgallingyoke。IvantheTerrible，annexedthethreeKhanatesoftheLowerVolga——Kazan，Kipttchak，andAstrakhan——andinthatwayremovedthedangerofaforeign，domination。Butpermanentprotectionwasnottherebysecuredto，theoutlyingprovinces。Thenomadictribeslivingnearthe，frontiercontinuedtheirraids，andintheslavemarketsofthe，CrimeathelivingmerchandisewassuppliedbyRussiaandPoland。

Toprotectanopenfrontieragainsttheincursionsofnomadic，tribesthreemethodsarepossible：theconstructionofagreat，wall，theestablishmentofastrongmilitarycordon，andthe，permanentsubjugationofthemarauders。Thefirstofthese，expedients，adoptedbytheRomansinBritainandbytheChineseon，theirnorthwesternfrontier，isenormouslyexpensive，andwas，utterlyimpossibleinacountrylikeSouthernRussia，wherethere，isnostoneforbuildingpurposes;thesecondwasconstantlytried，andconstantlyfoundwanting;thethirdaloneprovedpracticable，andefficient。ThoughtheGovernmenthaslongsincerecognised，thattheacquisitionofbarren，thinlypopulatedsteppesisa，burdenratherthananadvantage，ithasbeeninducedtogoon，makingannexationsforthepurposeofself-defence，aswellasfor，otherreasons。

InconsequenceofthisactivepartwhichtheGovernmenttookinthe，extensionoftheterritory，theprocessofpoliticalexpansion，sometimesgotgreatlyaheadofthecolonisation。AftertheTurkish，warsandconsequentannexationsinthetimeofCatherineII。for，example，agreatpartofSouthernRussiawasalmostuninhabited，andthedeficiencyhadtobecorrected，aswehaveseen，by，organisedemigration。Atthepresentday，intheAsiatic，provinces，therearestillimmensetractsofunoccupiedland，some，ofwhicharebeinggraduallycolonised。

IfweturnnowfromtheEasttotheWestweshallfindthatthe，expansioninthisdirectionwasofanentirelydifferentkind。The，countrylyingtothewestwardoftheearlyRusso-Slavonian，settlementshadapoorsoilandacomparativelydensepopulation，andconsequentlyheldoutlittleinducementtoemigration。Besides，this，itwasinhabitedbywarlikeagriculturalraces，whowerenot，onlycapableofdefendingtheirownterritory，butevenstrongly，disposedtomakeencroachmentsontheireasternneighbours。

Russianexpansiontothewestwardwas，therefore，notaspontaneous，movementoftheagriculturalpopulation，buttheworkofthe，Government，actingslowlyandlaboriouslybymeansofdiplomacyand，militaryforce;ithad，however，acertainhistorical，justification。

NosoonerhadRussiafreedherself，inthefifteenthcentury，from，theTartardomination，thanherpoliticalindependence，andeven，hernationalexistence，werethreatenedfromtheWest。Herwestern，neighbours，werelikeherself，animatedwiththattendencyto，nationalexpansionwhichIhaveabovedescribed;andforatimeit，seemeddoubtfulwhoshouldultimatelypossessthevastplainsof，EasternEurope。ThechiefcompetitorsweretheTsarsofMoscowand，theKingsofPoland，andthelatterappearedtohavethebetter，chance。IncloseconnectionwithWesternEurope，theyhadbeen，abletoadoptmanyoftheimprovementswhichhadrecentlybeenmade，intheartofwar，andtheyalreadypossessedtherichvalleyof，theDnieper。Once，withthehelpofthefreeCossacks，they，succeededinoverrunningthewholeofMuscovy，andasonofthe，PolishkingwaselectedTsarinMoscow。Byattemptingto，accomplishtheirpurposeinatoohastyandrecklessfashion，they，raisedastormofreligiousandpatrioticfanaticism，whichvery，soondrovethemoutoftheirnewlyacquiredpossessions。The，countryremained，however，inaveryprecariousposition，andits，moreintelligentrulersperceivedplainlythat，inordertocarry，onthestrugglesuccessfully，theymustimportsomethingofthat，Westerncivilisationwhichgavesuchanadvantagetotheir，opponents。

Somestepshadalreadybeentakeninthatdirection。Intheyear，1553anEnglishnavigator，whilstseekingforashortrouteto，ChinaandIndia，hadaccidentallydiscoveredtheportofArchangel，ontheWhiteSea，andsincethattimetheTsarshadkeptupan，intermittentdiplomaticandcommercialintercoursewithEngland。

Butthisroutewasatalltimestediousanddangerous，andduringa，greatpartoftheyearitwasclosedbytheice。Inviewofthese，difficultiestheTsarstriedtoimport“cunningforeign，artificers，“bywayoftheBaltic;buttheireffortswerehampered，bytheLivonianOrder，whoatthattimeheldtheeastcoast，and，whoconsidered，liketheEuropeansonthecoastofAfricaatthe，presentday，thatthebarbarousnativesoftheinteriorshouldnot，besuppliedwitharmsandammunition。Alltheotherroutestothe，Westtraversedlikewisetheterritoryofrivals，whomightatany，timebecomeavowedenemies。UnderthesecircumstancestheTsars，naturallydesiredtobreakthroughthebarrierwhichhemmedthem，in，andtheacquisitionoftheeasterncoastoftheBalticbecame，oneofthechiefobjectsofRussia’sforeignpolicy。

AfterPoland，Russia’smostformidablerivalwasSweden。That，powerearlyacquiredalargeamountofterritorytotheeastofthe，Baltic——includingthemouthsoftheNeva，whereSt。Petersburgnow，stands——andlongharbouredambitiousschemesoffurtherconquest。

InthetroubloustimeswhenthePolesoverrantheTsardomof，Muscovy，shetookadvantageoftheoccasiontoannexaconsiderable，amountofterritory，andherexpansioninthisdirectionwentonin，intermittentfashionuntilitwasfinallystoppedbyPeterthe，Great。

IncomparisonwiththesetworivalsRussiawasweakinallthat，regardedtheartofwar;butshehadtwoimmenseadvantages：she，hadaverylargepopulation，andastrong，stableGovernmentthat，couldconcentratethenationalforcesforanydefinitepurpose。

Allthatsherequiredforsuccessinthecompetitionwasanarmyon，theEuropeanmodel。PetertheGreatcreatedsuchanarmy，andwon，theprize。AfterthisthepoliticaldisintegrationofPoland，proceededrapidly，andwhenthatunhappycountryfelltopieces，Russianaturallytookforherselfthelion’sshareofthespoil。

Sweden，too，sanktopoliticalinsignificance，andgraduallylost，allhertrans-Balticpossessions。Thelastofthem——theGrand，DuchyofFinland，whichstretchesfromtheGulfofFinlandtothe，PolarOcean——wascededtoRussiabythepeaceofFriederichshammin，1809。

Theterritorialextentofalltheseacquisitionswillbebestshown，inatabularform。Thefollowingtablerepresentstheprocessof，expansionfromthetimewhenIvanIII。unitedtheindependent，principalitiesandthrewofftheTartaryoke，downtotheaccession，ofPetertheGreatin1682：

English，Sq。Miles。

In1505theTsardomofMuscovycontainedabout，784，000

“1583，““““996，000

“1584，““““2，650，000

“1598，““““3，328，000

“1676，““““5，448，000

“1682，““““5，618，000

Ofthese5，618，000Englishsquaremilesabout1，696，000werein，Europeandabout3，922，000inAsia。PetertheGreat，thoughfamous，asaconqueror，didnotannexnearlysomuchterritoryasmanyof，hispredecessorsandsuccessors。Athisdeath，in1752，theEmpire，contained，inroundnumbers，1，738，000squaremilesinEuropeand，4，092，000inAsia。Thefollowingtableshowsthesubsequent，expansion：

InEuropeand，theCaucasus，InAsia。

Eng。sq。m，Eng。sq。m。

In1725theRussianEmpirecontainedabout1，738，000，4，092，000

“1770，““““1，780，000，4，452，000

“1800，““““2，014，000，4，452，000

“1825，““““2，226，000，4，452，000

“1855，““““2，261，250，5，194，000

“1867，““““2，267，360，5，267，560

“1897，““““2，267，360，6，382，321

InthistableisnotincludedtheterritoryintheNorth-westof，America——containingabout513，250Englishsquaremiles——whichwas，annexedtoRussiain1799andcededtotheUnitedStatesin1867。

WhenonceRussiahasannexedshedoesnotreadilyrelaxhergrasp。

Shehas，however，sincethedeathofPetertheGreat，onfour，occasionscededterritorywhichhadcomeintoherpossession。To，Persiasheceded，in1729，MazanderanandAstrabad，andin1735a，largeportionoftheCaucasus;in1856，bytheTreatyofParis，she，gaveupthemouthsoftheDanubeandpartofBessarabia;in1867

shesoldtotheUnitedStatesherAmericanpossessions;in1881she，retrocededtoChinathegreaterpartofKuldja，whichshehad，occupiedfortenyears;andnowsheisreleasingherholdon，ManchuriaunderthepressureofJapan。

Theincreaseinthepopulation——dueinparttoterritorial，acquisitions——since1722，whenthefirstcensuswastaken，hasbeen，asfollows：——

In1722theEmpirecontainedabout14millioninhabitants。

“1742，“““16，“

“1762，“““19，“

“1782，“““28，“

“1796，“““36，“

“1812，“““41，“

“1815，“““45，“

“1835，“““60，“

“1851，“““68，“

“1858，“““44，“

“1897，“““129，“

Somuchforthepast。Tosumup，wemaysaythat，ifwehaveread，Russianhistoryaright，thechiefmotivesofexpansionhavebeen，spontaneouscolonisation，self-defenceagainstnomadictribes，and，highpoliticalaims，suchasthedesiretoreachthesea-coast;and，thattheprocesshasbeengreatlyfacilitatedbypeculiar，geographicalconditionsandtheautocraticformofgovernment。

Beforepassingtothefuture，Imustmentionanothercauseof，expansionwhichhasrecentlycomeintoplay，andwhichhasalready，acquiredverygreatimportance。

Russiaisrapidlybecoming，asIhaveexplainedinaprevious，chapter，agreatindustrialandcommercialnation，andisanxious，toacquirenewmarketsforhermanufacturedgoods。Thoughher，industriescannotyetsupplyherownwants，shelikestopegout，claimsforthefuture，soasnottobeforestalledbymoreadvanced，nations。Iamnotsurethatsheevermakesaconquestexclusively，forthispurpose，butwheneverithappensthatshehasother，reasonsforwideningherborders，theideaofacquiringcommercial，advantagesactsasasubsidiaryincentive，andassoonasthe，territoryisannexedsheraisesrounditalineofcommercial，fortificationsintheshapeofcustom-houses，throughwhichforeign，goodshavegreatdifficultyinforcingtheirway。

Thispolicyisquiteintelligiblefromthepatrioticpointofview，butRussiansliketojustifyit，andcondemnEnglishcompetition，onhigherground。England，theysay，islikeasuccessful，manufacturerwhohasoustrippedhisrivalsandwhoseekstoprevent，anynewcompetitorsfromcomingintothefield。Byhermercantile，policyshehasbecomethegreatblood-suckerofothernations。

Hayingnocausetofearcompetition，sheadvocatestheinsidious，principlesofFreeTrade，anddelugesforeigncountrieswithher，manufacturestosuchanextentthatunprotectednativeindustries，areinevitablyruined。Thusallnationshavelongpaidtributeto，England，buttheeraofemancipationhaddawned。Thefallaciesof，FreeTradehavebeendetectedandexposed，andRussia，likeother，nations，hasfoundinthebeneficentpowerofprotectivetariffsa，meansofescapefromBritisheconomicthraldom。Henceforth，not，onlythemuzhiksofEuropeanRussia，butalsothepopulationsof，CentralAsia，willbesavedfromtheheartlessexploitationof，ManchesterandBirmingham——andbehandedover，Ipresume，tothe，tendermerciesofthemanufacturersofMoscowandSt。Petersburg，whoselltheirgoodsmuchdearerthantheirEnglishrivals。

Havingthusanalysedtheexpansivetendency，letusendeavourto，determinehowthevariousfactorsofwhichitiscomposedare，actinginthepresentandarelikelytoactinthefuture。Inthis，investigationitwillbewelltobeginwiththesimpler，and，proceedgraduallytothemorecomplexpartsoftheproblem。

TowardsthenorthandthewestthehistoryofRussianexpansionmay，almostberegardedasclosed。Northwardsthereisnothingtobe，annexedbuttheArcticOceanandthePolarregions;and，westwards，annexationsattheexpenseofGermanyarenottobethoughtof。