下载辰思小说免费APP
Wehavehereanimportantpeculiarityintheintellectual，developmentofRussia。InWesternEuropethemodernscientific，spirit，beingthenaturaloffspringofnumerousconcomitant，historicalcauses，wasborninthenaturalway，andSocietyhad，consequently，beforegivingbirthtoit，toendurethepainsof，pregnancyandthethroesofprolongedlabour。InRussia，onthe，contrary，thisspiritappearedsuddenlyasanadultforeigner，adoptedbyadespoticpaterfamilias。ThusRussiamadethe，transitionfrommediaevaltomoderntimeswithoutanyviolent，strugglebetweentheoldandthenewconceptionssuchashadtaken，placeintheWest。TheChurch，effectuallyrestrainedfromall，activeoppositionbytheImperialpower，preservedunmodifiedher，ancientbeliefs;whilstthenobles，castingtheirtraditional，conceptionsandbeliefstothewinds，marchedforwardunfetteredon，thatpathwhichtheirfathersandgrandfathershadregardedasthe，directroadtoperdition。
DuringthefirstpartofPeter’sreignRussiawasnotsubjectedto，theexclusiveinfluenceofanyoneparticularcountry。Thoroughly，cosmopolitaninhissympathies，thegreatreformer，likethe，Japaneseofthepresentday，wasreadytoborrowfromanyforeign，nation——German，Dutch，Danish，orFrench——whateverseemedtohimto，suithispurpose。ButsoonthegeographicalproximitytoGermany，theannexationoftheBalticProvincesinwhichthecivilisation，wasGerman，andintermarriagesbetweentheImperialfamilyand，variousGermandynasties，gavetoGermaninfluenceadecided，preponderance。WhentheEmpressAnne，Peter’sniece，whohadbeen，DuchessofCourland，entrustedthewholeadministrationofthe，countrytoherfavouriteBiron，theGermaninfluencebecamealmost，exclusive，andtheCourt，theofficialworld，andtheschoolswere，Germanised。
Theharsh，cruel，tyrannicalruleofBironproducedastrong，reaction，endinginarevolution，whichraisedtothethronethe，PrincessElizabeth，Peter’sunmarrieddaughter，whohadlivedin，retirementandneglectduringtheGermanregime。Shewasexpected，toridthecountryofforeigners，andshedidwhatshecouldto，fulfiltheexpectationsthatwereentertainedofher。Withloud，protestationsofpatrioticfeelings，sheremovedtheGermansfrom，allimportantposts，demandedthatinfuturethemembersofthe，AcademyshouldbechosenfromamongbornRussians，andgaveorders，thattheRussianyouthshouldbecarefullypreparedforallkinds，ofofficialactivity。
ThisattempttothrowofftheGermanbondagedidnotleadto，intellectualindependence。DuringPeter’sviolentreformsRussia，hadruthlesslythrownawayherownhistoricpastwithwhatever，germsitcontained，andnowshepossessednoneoftheelementsofa，genuinenationalculture。Shewasinthepositionofafugitive，whohasescapedfromslavery，and，findinghimselfindangerof，starvation，looksaboutforanewmaster。Theupperclasses，who，hadacquiredatasteforforeigncivilisation，nosoonerthrewoff，everythingGermanthantheysoughtsomeothercivilisationtoput，initsplace。Andtheycouldnotlonghesitateinmakingachoice，foratthattimeallwhothoughtofcultureandrefinementturned，theireyestoParisandVersailles。Allthatwasmostbrilliant，andrefinedwastobefoundattheCourtoftheFrenchkings，under，whosepatronagetheartandliteratureoftheRenaissancehad，attainedtheirhighestdevelopment。EvenGermany，whichhad，resistedtheambitiousdesignsofLouisXIV。imitatedthemanners，ofhisCourt。EverypettyGermanpotentatestrovetoapethepomp，anddignityoftheGrandMonarque;andthecourtiers，affectingto，lookoneverythingGermanasrudeandbarbarous，adoptedFrench，fashions，andspokeahybridjargonwhichtheyconsideredmuchmore，elegantthantheplainmothertongue。Inaword，Gallomaniahad，becometheprevailingsocialepidemicofthetime，anditcouldnot，failtoattackandmetamorphosesuchaclassastheRussian，Noblesse，whichpossessedfewstubborndeep-rootednational，convictions。
AtfirsttheFrenchinfluencewasmanifestedchieflyinexternal，forms——thatistosay，indress，manners，language，andupholstery——
butgradually，andveryrapidlyaftertheaccessionofCatherine，II。thefriendofVoltaireandtheEncyclopaedists，itsank，deeper。Everynoblewhohadpretensionstobeing“civilised“
learnedtospeakFrenchfluently，andgainedsomesuperficial，acquaintancewithFrenchliterature。ThetragediesofCorneille，andRacineandthecomediesofMolierewereplayedregularlyatthe，CourttheatreinpresenceoftheEmpress，andawakenedarealor，affectedenthusiasmamongtheaudience。Forthosewhopreferred，readingintheirnativelanguage，numeroustranslationswere，published，asimplelistofwhichwouldfillseveralpages。Among，themwefindnotonlyVoltaire，Rousseau，Lesage，Marmontel，and，otherfavouriteFrenchauthors，butalsoallthemasterpiecesof，Europeanliterature，ancientandmodern，whichatthattimeenjoyed，ahighreputationintheFrenchliteraryworld——Homerand，Demosthenes，CiceroandVirgil，AriostoandCamoens，Miltonand，Locke，SterneandFielding。
ItisrelatedofByronthatheneverwroteadescriptionwhilstthe，scenewasactuallybeforehim;andthisfactpointstoanimportant，psychologicalprinciple。Thehumanmind，solongasitis，compelledtostrainthereceptivefaculties，cannotengageinthat，“poetic“activity——tousetheterminitsGreeksense——whichis，commonlycalled“originalcreation。”，Andaswithindividuals，so，withnations。Byacceptinginalumpaforeigncultureanation，inevitablycondemnsitselfforatimetointellectualsterility。
Solongasitisoccupiedinreceivingandassimilatingafloodof，newideas，unfamiliarconceptions，andforeignmodesofthought，it，willproducenothingoriginal，andtheresultofitshighest，effortswillbemerelysuccessfulimitation。Weneednotbe，surprisedthereforetofindthattheRussians，inbecoming，acquaintedwithforeignliterature，becameimitatorsand，plagiarists。Inthiskindofworktheirnaturalpliancyofmind，andpowerfulhistrionictalentmadethemwonderfullysuccessful。
Odes，pseudo-classicaltragedies，satiricalcomedies，epicpoems，elegies，andalltheotherrecognisedformsofpoetical，composition，appearedingreatprofusion，andmanyofthewriters，acquiredaremarkablecommandovertheirnativelanguage，whichhad，hithertobeenregardedasuncouthandbarbarous。Butinallthis，massofimitativeliterature，whichhassincefallenintowell-
meritedoblivion，thereareveryfewtracesofgenuineoriginality。
ToobtainthetitleoftheRussianRacine，theRussianLafontaine，theRussianPindar，ortheRussianHomer，wasatthattimethe，highestaimofRussianliteraryambition。
TogetherwiththefashionableliteraturetheRussianeducated，classesadoptedsomethingofthefashionablephilosophy。Theywere，peculiarlyunfittedtoresistthathurricaneof“enlightenment“
whichsweptoverEuropeduringthelatterhalfoftheeighteenth，century，firstbreakingoruprootingthereceivedphilosophical，systems，theologicalconceptions，andscientifictheories，andthen，shakingtotheirfoundationstheexistingpoliticalandsocial，institutions。TheRussianNoblessehadneitherthetraditional，conservativespirit，northefirm，well-reasoned，logicalbeliefs，whichinEnglandandGermanyformedapowerfulbarrieragainstthe，spreadofFrenchinfluence。Theyhadbeentoorecently，metamorphosed，andweretooeagertoacquireaforeign，civilisation，tohaveeventhegermsofaconservativespirit。The，rapidityandviolencewithwhichPeter’sreformshadbeeneffected，togetherwiththepeculiarspiritofGreekOrthodoxyandthelow，intellectualleveloftheclergy，hadpreventedtheologyfrom，associatingitselfwiththeneworderofthings。Theupperclasses，hadbecomeestrangedfromthebeliefsoftheirforefatherswithout，acquiringotherbeliefstosupplytheplaceofthosewhichhadbeen，lost。Theoldreligiousconceptionswereinseparablyinterwoven，withwhatwasrecognisedasantiquatedandbarbarous，whilstthe，newphilosophicalideaswereassociatedwithallthatwasmodern，andcivilised。Besidesthis，thesovereign，CatherineII。who，enjoyedtheunboundedadmirationoftheupperclasses，openly，professedallegiancetothenewphilosophy，andsoughttheadvice，andfriendshipofitshighpriests。Ifwebearinmindthesefacts，weshallnotbesurprisedtofindamongtheRussiannoblesofthat，timeaconsiderablenumberofso-called“Voltaireans“andnumerous，unquestioningbelieversintheinfallibilityoftheEncyclopedie。
Whatisalittlemoresurprisingis，thatthenewphilosophy，sometimesfounditswayintotheecclesiasticalseminaries。The，famousSperanskirelatesthatintheseminaryofSt。Petersburgone，ofhisprofessors，whennotinastateofintoxication，wasinthe，habitofpreachingthedoctrinesofVoltaireandDiderot！
TheriseofthesentimentalschoolinWesternEuropeproducedan，importantchangeinRussianliterature，byunderminingthe，inordinateadmirationfortheFrenchpseudo-classicalschool。
Florian，Richardson，Sterne，Rousseau，andBernardindeSt。Pierre，foundfirsttranslators，andthenimitators，andsoontheloud-
soundingdeclamationandwordyecstaticdespairofthestageheroes，weredrownedinthedeep-drawnsighsandplaintivewailingsof，amorousswainsandpeasant-maidsforsaken。Themaniaseemstohave，beeninRussiaevenmoreseverethaninthecountrieswhereit，originated。Full-grown，beardedmenweptbecausetheyhadnotbeen，borninpeacefulprimitivetimes，“whenallmenwereshepherdsand，brothers。”，Hundredsofsighingyouthsandmaidensvisitedthe，scenesdescribedbythesentimentalwriters，andwanderedbythe，riversandpondsinwhichdespairingheroineshaddrowned，themselves。Peopletalked，wrote，andmeditatedabout“the，sympathyofheartscreatedforeachother，““thesoftcommunionof，sympatheticsouls，“andmuchmoreofthesamekind。Sentimental，journeysbecameafavouriteamusement，andformedthesubjectof，verypopularbooks，containingmaudlinabsurditieslikelyto，producenowadaysmirthratherthantears。Onetraveller，for，instance，throwshimselfonhiskneesbeforeanoldoakandmakesa，speechtoit;anotherweepsdailyonthegraveofafavouritedog，andconstantlylongstomarryapeasantgirl;athirdtalksloveto，themoon，sendskissestothestars，andwishestopressthe，heavenlyorbstohisbosom！，Foratimethepublicwouldread，nothingbutabsurdproductionsofthissort，andKaramzin，the，greatliteraryauthorityofthetime，expresslydeclaredthatthe，truefunctionofArtwas“todisseminateagreeableimpressionsin，theregionofthesentimental。”
TheloveofFrenchphilosophyvanishedassuddenlyasthe，inordinateadmirationoftheFrenchpseudo-classicalliterature。
WhenthegreatRevolutionbrokeoutinParisthefashionable，philosophicliteratureinSt。Petersburgdisappeared。Menwho，talkedaboutpoliticalfreedomandtherightsofman，without，thinkingforamomentoflimitingtheautocraticpowerorof，emancipatingtheirserfs，werenaturallysurprisedandfrightened，ondiscoveringwhattheliberalprinciplescouldeffectwhen，appliedtoreallife。HorrifiedbytheawfulscenesoftheTerror，theyhastenedtodivestthemselvesoftheprincipleswhichledto，suchresults，andsankintoakindofoptimisticconservatismthat，harmonisedwellwiththevirtuoussentimentalisminvogue。Inthis，theEmpressherselfgavetheexample。TheImperialdiscipleand，friendoftheEncyclopaedistsbecameinthelastyearsofherreign，adecidedreactionnaire。
DuringtheNapoleonicwars，whenthepatrioticfeelingswere，excited，therewasaviolenthostilitytoforeignintellectual，influence;andfeebleintermittentattemptsweremadetothrowoff，theintellectualbondage。Theinvasionofthecountryin1812by，theGrandeArmee，andtheburningofMoscow，addedabundantfuelto，thispatrioticfire。Forsometimeanyonewhoventuredtoexpress，evenamoderateadmirationforFrenchcultureincurredtheriskof，beingstigmatisedasatraitortohiscountryandarenegadetothe，nationalfaith。Butthispatrioticfanaticismsoonevaporated，and，exaggerationsoftheultra-nationalpartybecametheobjectof，satireandparody。Whenthepoliticaldangerwaspast，andpeople，resumedtheirordinaryoccupations，thosewholovedforeign，literaturereturnedtotheiroldfavourites——or，astheultra-
patriotscalledit，totheir“wallowinginthemire“——simply，becausethenativeliteraturedidnotsupplythemwithwhatthey，desired。”Wearequiteready，“theysaidtotheirupbraiders，“to，admireyourgreatworksassoonastheyappear，butinthemeantime，pleaseallowustoenjoywhatwepossess。”，Thusinthelastyears，ofthereignofAlexanderI。thepatrioticoppositiontoWest，Europeanliteraturegraduallyceased，andanewperiodof，unrestrictedintellectualimportationbegan。
Theintellectualmerchandisenowbroughtintothecountrywasvery，differentfromthatwhichhadbeenimportedinthetimeof，Catherine。TheFrenchRevolution，theNapoleonicdomination，the，patrioticwars，therestorationoftheBourbons，andtheother，greateventsofthatmemorableepoch，hadintheintervalproduced，profoundchangesintheintellectualaswellasthepolitical，conditionofWesternEurope。DuringtheNapoleonicwarsRussiahad，becomecloselyassociatedwithGermany;andnowthepeculiar，intellectualfermentationwhichwasgoingonamongtheGerman，educatedclasseswasreflectedinthesocietyofSt。Petersburg。
Itdidnotappear，indeed，intheprintedliterature，forthe，Press-censurehadbeenrecentlyorganisedontheprincipleslaid，downbyMetternich，butitwasnonethelessviolentonthat，account。Whilsttheperiodicalswerefilledwithcommonplace，meditationsonyouth，spring，theloveofArt，andsimilarinnocent，topics，theyounggenerationwasdiscussinginthesalonsallthe，burningquestionswhichMetternichandhisadherentswere，endeavouringtoextinguish。
Thesediscussions，ifdiscussionstheymightbecalled，werenotof，averyseriouskind。Intruedilettantestylethefashionable，youngphilosophersculledfromthenewestbooksthenewestthoughts，andtheories，andretailedtheminthesalonortheballroom。And，theywerealwayssuretofindattentivelisteners。Themore，astoundingtheideaordogma，themorelikelywasittobe，favourablyreceived。Nomatterwhetheritcamefromthe，Rationalists，theMystics，theFreemasons，ortheMethodists，it，wascertaintofindfavour，provideditwasnovelandpresentedin，anelegantform。Theeclecticmindsofthatcurioustimecould，deriveequalsatisfactionfromthebrilliantdiscoursesofthe，reactionaryjesuiticalDeMaistre，therevolutionaryodesof，Pushkin，andthemysticismofFrauvonKrudener。Forthemajority，thevaguetheosophicdoctrinesandtheprojectsforaspiritual，unionofgovernmentsandpeopleshadperhapsthegreatestcharm，beingspeciallycommendedbythefactthattheyenjoyedthe，protectionandsympathyoftheEmperor。Pioussoulsdiscoveredin，themysticallucubrationsofJung-StillingandBaaderthefinal，solutionofallexistingdifficulties——political，social，and，philosophical。Menoflessdreamytemperamentputtheirfaithin，politicaleconomyandconstitutionaltheories，andsoughta，foundationfortheirfavouriteschemesinthepasthistoryofthe，countryandinthesupposedfundamentalpeculiaritiesofthe，nationalcharacter。LiketheyoungGermandemocrats，whowerethen，talkingenthusiasticallyaboutTeutons，Cheruskers，Skalds，the，shadeofArminius，andtheheroesoftheNiebelungen，theseyoung，RussiansavantsrecognisedinearlyRussianhistory——when，reconstructedaccordingtotheirownfancy——loftypoliticalideals，anddreamedofresuscitatingtheancientinstitutionsinalltheir，pristineimaginarysplendour。
Eachagehasitspeculiarsocialandpoliticalpanaceas。One，generationputsitstrustinreligion，anotherinphilanthropy，a，thirdinwrittenconstitutions，afourthinuniversalsuffrage，a，fifthinpopulareducation。IntheEpochoftheRestoration，asit，iscalled，thefavouritepanaceaallovertheContinentwassecret，politicalassociation。VerysoonaftertheoverthrowofNapoleon，thepeopleswhohadriseninarmstoobtainpoliticalindependence，discoveredthattheyhadmerelychangedmasters。ThePrinces，reconstructedEuropeaccordingtotheirownconvenience，without，payingmuchattentiontopatrioticaspirations，andforgottheir，promisesofliberalinstitutionsassoonastheywereagainfirmly，seatedontheirthrones。Thiswasnaturallyformanyabitter，deception。Theyounggeneration，excludedfromallsharein，politicallifeandgaggedbythestringentpolicesupervision，soughttorealiseitspoliticalaspirationsbymeansofsecret，societies，resemblingmoreorlesstheMasonicbrotherhoods。There，weretheBurschenschafteninGermany;theUnion，andthe“Aidetoi，etlecielt’aidera，“inFrance;theOrderoftheHammerinSpain;
theCarbonariinItaly;andtheHetairaiinGreece。InRussiathe，youngnoblesfollowedtheprevailingfashion。Secretsocieties，wereformed，andinDecember，1825，anattemptwasmadetoraisea，militaryinsurrectioninSt。Petersburg，forthepurposeof，deposingtheImperialfamilyandproclaimingarepublic;butthe，attemptfailed，andthevagueUtopiandreamsoftheromanticwould-
bereformersweresweptawaybygrape-shot。
This“Decembercatastrophe，“stillvividlyremembered，wasforthe，societyofSt。Petersburglikethegivingwayofthefloorina，crowdedball-room。Butamomentbefore，allhadbeenanimated，careless，andhappy;nowconsternationwasdepictedoneveryface。
Thesalons，thatbutyesterdayhadbeenringingwithlively，discussionsonmorals，aesthetics，politics，andtheology，werenow，silentanddeserted。Manyofthosewhohadbeenwonttoleadthe，causerieshadbeenremovedtothecellsofthefortress，andthose，whohadnotbeenarrestedtrembledforthemselvesortheirfriends;
fornearlyallhadoflatedabbledmoreorlessinthetheoryand，practiceofrevolution。Theannouncementthatfiveofthe，conspiratorshadbeencondemnedtothegallowsandtheothers，sentencedtotransportationdidnottendtocalmtheconsternation。
Societywaslikeadiscomfitedchild，who，amidstthedelightand，excitementoflettingofffireworks，hashaditsfingersseverely，burnt。
Thesentimental，waveringAlexanderI。hadbeensucceededbyhis，stern，energeticbrotherNicholas，andthecommandwentforththat，thereshouldbenomorefireworks，nomoredilettante，philosophisingorpoliticalaspirations。Therewas，however，littleneedforsuchanorder。Societyhadbeen，forthemomentat，least，effectuallycuredofalltendenciestopoliticaldreaming。
Ithaddiscovered，toitsastonishmentanddismay，thatthesenew，ideas，whichweretobringtemporalsalvationtohumanity，andto，makeallmenhappy，virtuous，refined，andpoetical，ledinreality，toexileandthescaffold！，Thepleasantdreamwasatanend，and，thefashionableworld，givingupitsformerhabits，tookto，harmlessoccupations——card-playing，dissipation，andthereadingof，Frenchlightliterature。”TheFrenchquadrille，“asawriterof，thetimeterselyexpressesit，“hastakentheplaceofAdamSmith。”
Whenthestormhadpassed，thelifeofthesalonsbegananew，but，itwasverydifferentfromwhatithadbeen。Therewasnolonger，anytalkaboutpoliticaleconomy，theology，populareducation，administrativeabuses，socialandpoliticalreforms。Everything，thathadanyrelationtopoliticsinthewidersenseoftheterm，wasbytacitconsentavoided。Discussionstherewereasofold，buttheywerenowconfinedtoliterarytopics，theoriesofart，and，similarinnocentsubjects。
Thisindifferenceorpositiverepugnancetophilosophyand，politicalscience，strengthenedandprolongedbytherepressive，systemofadministrationadoptedbyNicholas，wasofcoursefatal，tothemany-sidedintellectualactivitywhichhadflourishedduring，theprecedingreign，butitwasbynomeansunfavourabletothe，cultivationofimaginativeliterature。Onthecontrary，by，excludingthosepracticalinterestswhichtendtodisturbartistic，productionandtoengrosstheattentionofthepublic，itfostered，whatwascalledinthephraseologyofthattime“thepure-hearted，worshipoftheMuses。”，Weneednot，therefore，besurprisedto，findthatthereignofNicholas，whichiscommonlyandnotunjustly，describedasanepochofsocialandintellectualstagnation，maybe，calledinacertainsensetheGoldenAgeofRussianliterature。
AlreadyintheprecedingreignthestrugglebetweentheClassical，andtheRomanticschool——betweentheadherentsoftraditional，aestheticprinciplesandthepartisansofuntrammelledpoetic，inspiration——whichwasbeingcarriedoninWesternEurope，was，reflectedinRussia。Agroupofyoungmenbelongingtothe，aristocraticsocietyofSt。Petersburgembracedwithenthusiasmthe，newdoctrines，anddeclaredwaragainst“classicism，“underwhich，termtheyunderstoodallthatwasantiquated，dry，andpedantic。
Discardingthestately，lumbering，unwieldyperiodswhichhad，hithertobeeninfashion，theywrotealight，elastic，vigorous，style，andformedaliterarysocietyfortheexpresspurposeof，ridiculingthemostapprovedclassicalwriters。Thenewprinciples，foundmanyadherents，andthenewstylemanyadmirers，butthis，onlyintensifiedthehostilityoftheliteraryConservatives。The，staid，respectableleadersoftheoldschool，whohadalltheir，liveskeptthefearofBoileaubeforetheireyesandconsideredhis，preceptsastheinfallibleutterancesofaestheticwisdom，thunderedagainsttheimpiousinnovationsasunmistakablesymptoms，ofliterarydeclineandmoraldegeneracy——representingthe，boisterousyoungiconoclastsasdissipatedDonJuansanddangerous，freethinkers。
ThusforsometimeinRussia，asinWesternEurope，“aterriblewar，ragedonParnassus。”，AtfirsttheGovernmentfrownedatthe，innovators，onaccountofcertainrevolutionaryodeswhichoneof，theirnumberhadwritten;butwhentheRomanticMuse，havingturned，awayfromthepresentasessentiallyprosaic，wentbackintothe，distantpastandsoaredintotheregionofsublimeabstractions，themostkeen-eyedPressCensorsfoundnoreasontocondemnher，worship，andtheauthoritiesplacedalmostnorestrictionsonfree，poeticinspiration。Romanticpoetryacquiredtheprotectionofthe，GovernmentandthepatronageoftheCourt，andthenamesof，Zhukofski，Pushkin，andLermontof——thethreechiefrepresentatives，oftheRussianRomanticschool——becamehouseholdwordsinallranks，oftheeducatedclasses。
Thesethreegreatluminariesoftheliteraryworldwereofcourse，attendedbyahostofsatellitesofvariousmagnitudes，whodidall，intheirpowertorefutetheromanticprinciplesbyreductionesad，absurdum。Endowedforthemostpartwithconsiderablefacilityof，composition，thepoetasterspouredforththeirfeelingswith，torrentialrecklessness，demandingfreedomfortheirinspiration，andcursingtheagethatfetteredthemwithitsprosaiccares，its，coldreason，anditsdryscience。Atthesametimethedramatists，andnovelistscreatedheroesofimmaculatecharacterandangelic，purity，endowedwithallthecardinalvirtuesinthesuperlative，degree;and，asacontrasttothese，terribleSatanicpersonages，withsavagepassions，gleamingdaggers，deadlypoisons，andall，mannerofaimlessmelodramaticvillainy。Thesestilted，productions，interspersedwithlightsatiricalessays，historical，sketches，literarycriticism，andamusinganecdotes，formedthe，contentsoftheperiodicalliterature，andcompletelysatisfiedthe，wantsofthereadingpublic。Almostnooneatthattimetookany，interestinpublicaffairsorforeignpolitics。Theactsofthe，Governmentwhichwerewatchedmostattentivelywerethepromotions，intheserviceandtheconferringofdecorations。Thepublication，ofanewtalebyZagoskinorMarlinski——twowritersnowwell-nigh，forgotten——seemedofmuchgreaterimportancethananyamountof，legislation，andsucheventsastheFrenchRevolutionof1830paled，beforethepublicationofanewpoembyPushkin。
TheTranscendentalphilosophy，whichinGermanywenthandinhand，withtheRomanticliterature，foundlikewiseafaintreflectionin，Russia。AnumberofyoungprofessorsandstudentsinMoscow，who，hadbecomeardentadmirersofGermanliterature，passedfromthe，worksofSchiller，Goethe，andHoffmanntothewritingofSchelling，andHegel。TrainedintheRomanticschool，theseyoung，philosophersfoundatfirstaspecialcharminSchelling’smystical，system，teemingwithhazypoeticalmetaphors，andpresentinga，mistygrandiosepictureoftheuniverse;butgraduallytheyfelt，thewantofsomelogicalbasisfortheirspeculations，andHegel，becametheirfavourite。Gallantlytheystruggledwiththeuncouth，terminologyandepigrammaticparadoxesofthegreatthinker，and，strovetoforcetheirwaythroughtheintricatemazesofhis，logicalformulae。Withtheardourofneophytestheylookedat，everyphenomenon——eventhemosttrivialincidentofcommonlife——
fromthephilosophicalpointofview，talkeddayandnightabout，principles，ideas，subjectivity，Weltauffassung，andsimilar，abstractentities，andhabituallyattackedthe“hydraof，unphilosophy“byanalysingthephenomenapresentedandrelegating，theingredientelementstotherecognisedcategories。Inordinary，lifetheyweremenofquiet，grave，contemplativedemeanour，but，theirfacescouldflushandtheirbloodboilwhentheydiscussed，theall-importantquestion，whetheritispossibletopass，logicallyfromPureBeingthroughNonentitytotheconceptionof，DevelopmentandDefiniteExistence！
WeknowhowinWesternEuropeRomanticismandTranscendentalism，in，theirvariousforms，sankintooblivion，andwerereplacedbya，literaturewhichhadacloserconnectionwithordinaryprosaic，wantsandplaineverydaylife。Theeducatedpublicbecamewearyof，theRomanticwriters，whowerealways“sighinglikeafurnace，“
delightinginsolitude，coldeternity，andmoonshine，delugingthe，worldwiththeirheart-gushings，andcallingontheheavensandthe，earthtostandaghastattheirPrometheanagonisingortheir，Werthereandespair。Healthyhumannaturerevoltedagainstthe，poeticalenthusiastswhohadlostthefacultyofseeingthingsin，theirnaturallight，andwhoconstantlyindulgedinthatmorbid，self-analysiswhichisfataltogenuinefeelingandvigorous，action。Andinthishealthyreactionthephilosophersfaredno，betterthanthepoets，withwhom，indeed，theyhadmuchincommon。
Shuttingtheireyestothevisibleworldaroundthem，theyhad，busiedthemselveswithburrowinginthemysteriousdepthsof，AbsoluteBeing，grapplingwiththeegoandthenon-ego，constructingthegreatworld，visibleandinvisible，outoftheir，ownpunyinternalself-consciousness，endeavouringtoappropriate，alldepartmentsofhumanthought，andimpartingtoeverysubject，theytouchedthedrynessandrigidityofanalgebraicalformula。
Graduallymenwithrealhumansympathiesbegantoperceivethat，fromallthisphilosophicalturmoillittlerealadvantagewastobe，derived。Itbecameonlytooevidentthatthephilosopherswere，perfectlyreconciledwithalltheevilintheworld，providedit，didnotcontradicttheirtheories;thattheyweremenofthesame，typeasthephysicianinMoliere’scomedy，whosechiefcarewas，thathispatientsshoulddieselonlesordonnancesdelamedicine。
InRussiathereactionfirstappearedintheaestheticliterature。
ItsfirstinfluentialrepresentativewasGogol(b。1808，d。1852)，whomaybecalled，inacertainsense，theRussianDickens。A
minutecomparisonofthosetwogreathumouristswouldperhapsshow，asmanypointsofcontrastasofsimilarity，butthereisastrong，superficialresemblancebetweenthem。Theybothpossessedan，inexhaustiblesupplyofbroadhumourandanimaginationofsingular，vividness。Bothhadthepowerofseeingtheridiculoussideof，commonthings，andthetalentofproducingcaricaturesthathada，wonderfulsemblanceofreality。Alittlecalmreflectionwould，sufficetoshowthatthecharacterspresentedareforthemostpart，psychologicalimpossibilities;butonfirstmakingtheir，acquaintancewearesostruckwithoneortwolife-like，characteristicsandvariouslittledetailsdexterouslyintroduced，andatthesametimewearesocarriedawaybytheoverflowingfun，ofthenarrative，thatwehaveneithertimenorinclinationtouse，ourcriticalfaculties。InaveryshorttimeGogol’sfamespread，throughoutthelengthandbreadthoftheEmpire，andmanyofhis，charactersbecameasfamiliartohiscountrymenasSamWellerand，Mrs。GampweretoEnglishmen。Hisdescriptionsweresographic——so，liketheworldwhicheverybodyknew！，Thecharactersseemedtobe，oldacquaintanceshitofftothelife;andreadersrevelledinthat，peculiarpleasurewhichmostofusderivefromseeingourfriends，successfullymimicked。EventheIronTsarcouldnotresistthefun，andhumourof“TheInspector“(Revizor)，andnotonlylaughed，heartily，butalsoprotectedtheauthoragainstthetyrannyofthe，literarycensors，whoconsideredthatthepiecewasnotwrittenin，asufficiently“well-intentioned“tone。Inaword，thereading，publiclaughedasithadneverlaughedbefore，andthiswholesome，genuinemerrimentdidmuchtodestroythemorbidappetitefor，ByronicheroesandRomanticaffectation。
TheRomanticMusedidnotatonceabdicate，butwiththespreadof，Gogol’spopularityherreignwaspracticallyatanend。Invain，someoftheconservativecriticsdecriedthenewfavouriteas，talentless，prosaic，andvulgar。Thepublicwerenottoberobbed，oftheiramusementforthesakeofanyabstractaesthetic，considerations;andyoungauthors，takingGogolfortheirmodel，chosetheirsubjectsfromreallife，andendeavouredtodelineate，withminutetruthfulness。
Thisnewintellectualmovementwasatfirstpurelyliterary，and，affectedmerelythemannerofwritingnovels，tales，andpoems。
Thecriticswhohadpreviouslydemandedbeautyofformandelegance，ofexpressionnowdemandedaccuracyofdescription，condemnedthe，aspirationstowardsso-calledhighart，andpraisedloudlythose，whoproducedthebestliteraryphotographs。Butauthorsand，criticsdidnotlongremainonthispurelyaestheticstandpoint。
Theauthors，indescribingreality，begantoindicatemoral，approvalandcondemnation，andthecriticsbegantopassfromthe，criticismoftherepresentationstothecriticismoftherealities，represented。Apoemoratalewasoftenusedasapegonwhichto，hangamorallecture，andthefictitiouscharactersweresoundly，ratedfortheirsinsofomissionandcommission。Muchwassaid，aboutthedefenceoftheoppressed，femaleemancipation，honour，andhumanitarianism;andridiculewasunsparinglylaunchedagainst，allformsofignorance，apathy，andthespiritofroutine。The，ordinaryrefrainwasthatthepublicoughtnowtodiscardwhatwas，formerlyregardedaspoeticalandsublime，andtooccupyitself，withpracticalconcerns——withtherealwantsofsociallife。
Theliterarymovementwasthusbecomingamovementinfavourof，socialandpoliticalreformswhenitwassuddenlyarrestedby，politicaleventsintheWest。TheFebruaryRevolutioninParis，andthepoliticalfermentationwhichappearedduring1848-49in，almosteverycountryofEurope，alarmedtheEmperorNicholasand，hiscounsellors。ARussianarmywassentintoAustriatosuppress，theHungarianinsurrectionandsavetheHapsburgdynasty，andthe，moststringentmeasuresweretakentopreventdisordersathome。
Oneofthefirstprecautionsforthepreservationofdomestic，tranquillitywastomuzzlethePressmorefirmlythanbefore，and，tosilencetheaspirationstowardsreformandprogress;thenceforth，nothingcouldbeprintedwhichwasnotinstrictaccordancewith，theultra-patriotictheoryofRussianhistory，asexpressedbya，leadingofficialpersonage：“Thepasthasbeenadmirable，the，presentismorethanmagnificent，andthefuturewillsurpassall，thatthehumanimaginationcanconceive！”Thealarmcausedbythe，revolutionarydisordersspreadtothenon-officialworld，andgave，risetomuchpatrioticself-congratulation。”Thenationsofthe，West，“itwassaid，“envyus，andiftheyknewusbetter——ifthey，couldseehowhappyandprosperousweare——theywouldenvyusstill，more。Weoughtnot，however，towithdrawfromEuropeour，solicitude;itshostilityshouldnotdepriveusofourhighmission，ofsavingorderandrestoringresttothenations;weoughtto，teachthemtoobeyauthorityaswedo。Itisforustointroduce，thesavingprincipleoforderintoaworldthathasfallenaprey，toanarchy。Russiaoughtnottoabandonthatmissionwhichhas，beenentrustedtoherbytheheavenlyandbytheearthlyTsar。”*
*ThesewordswerewrittenbyTchaadaef，who，afewyearsbefore，hadvigorouslyattackedtheSlavophilsforenouncingsimilarviews。
Menwhosawinthesignificantpoliticaleruptionof1848nothing，butanoutburstofmeaningless，aimlessanarchy，andwhobelieved，thattheircountrywasdestinedtorestoreorderthroughoutthe，civilisedworld，hadofcourselittletimeorinclinationtothink，ofputtingtheirownhouseinorder。Noonenowspokeofthe，necessityofsocialreorganisation：therecentlyawakened，aspirationsandexpectationsseemedtobecompletelyforgotten。
Thecriticsreturnedtotheiroldtheorythatartandliterature，shouldbecultivatedfortheirownsakeandnotusedasavehicle，forthepropagationofideasforeigntotheirnature。Itseemed，inshort，asifalltheprolificideaswhichhadforatime，occupiedthepublicattentionhadbeenmerely“writinwater，“and，hadnowdisappearedwithoutleavingatracebehindthem。
Inrealitythenewmovementwasdestinedtoreappearverysoonwith，tenfoldforce;buttheaccountofitsreappearanceanddevelopment，belongstoafuturechapter。MeanwhileImayformulatethegeneral，conclusiontobedrawnfromtheforegoingpages。Eversincethe，timeofPetertheGreattherehasbeensuchacloseconnection，betweenRussiaandWesternEuropethateveryintellectualmovement，whichhasappearedinFranceandGermanyhasbeenreflected——albeit，inanexaggerated，distortedform——intheeducatedsocietyofSt。
PetersburgandMoscow。ThusthewindowwhichPeteropenedinorder，toenablehissubjectstolookintoEuropehaswellservedits，purpose。
CHAPTERXXVII
THECRIMEANWARANDITSCONSEQUENCES
TheEmperorNicholasandhisSystem——TheMenwithAspirationsand，theApatheticallyContented——NationalHumiliation——Popular，DiscontentandtheManuscriptLiterature——DeathofNicholas——
AlexanderII——NewSpirit——ReformEnthusiasm——Changeinthe，PeriodicalLiterature——TheKolokol——TheConservatives——The，Tchinovniks——FirstSpecificProposals——Joint-StockCompanies——The，SerfQuestionComestotheFront。
TheRussiansfranklyadmitthattheywerebeatenintheCrimean，War，buttheyregardtheheroicdefenceofSebastopolasoneofthe，mostgloriouseventsinthemilitaryannalsoftheircountry。Nor，dotheyaltogetherregrettheresultofthestruggle。Oftenina，half-jocular，half-serioustonetheysaythattheyhadreasontobe，gratefultotheAllies。Andthereismuchtruthinthis，paradoxicalstatement。TheCrimeanWarinauguratedanewepochin，thenationalhistory。Itgavethedeath-blowtotherepressive，systemoftheEmperorNicholas，andproducedanintellectual，movementandamoralrevivalwhichledtogiganticresults。
“TheaffairofDecember，“1825——Imeantheabortiveattemptata，militaryinsurrectioninSt。Petersburg，towhichIhavealludedin，theforegoingchapter——gavethekey-notetoNicholas’sreign。The，armedattempttooverthrowtheImperialpower，endinginthe，executionorexileofmanyyoungmembersofthefirstfamilies，struckterrorintotheNoblesse，andpreparedthewayforaperiod，ofrepressivepoliceadministration。Nicholashadnoneofthe，morallimpnessandvacillatingcharacterofhispredecessor。His，wasoneofthosesimple，vigorous，tenacious，straightforward，natures——morefrequentlytobemetwithamongtheTeutonicthan，amongtheSlavraces——whoseconceptionsareallfoundedonafew，deep-rooted，semi-instinctiveconvictions，andwhoareutterly，incapableofaccommodatingthemselveswithhistrionicclevernessto，thechangesofexternalcircumstances。Fromhisearlyyouthhehad，shownastronglikingformilitarydisciplineandadecided，repugnancetothehumanitarianismandliberalprinciplesthenin，fashion。With“therightsofman，““thespiritoftheage，“and，similarphilosophicalabstractionshisstrong，domineeringnature，hadnosympathy;andforthevague，loud-soundingphrasesof，philosophicliberalismhehadamostprofoundcontempt。”Attendto，yourmilitaryduties，“hewaswonttosaytohisofficersbefore，hisaccession;“don’ttroubleyourheadswithphilosophy。Icannot，bearphilosophers！”Thetragiceventwhichformedthepreludeto，hisreignnaturallyconfirmedandfortifiedhisprevious，convictions。Therepresentativesofliberalism，whocouldtalkso，eloquentlyaboutdutyintheabstract，had，whilstwearingthe，uniformoftheImperialGuard，openlydisobeyedtherepeatedorders，oftheirsuperiorofficersandattemptedtoshaketheallegianceof，thetroopsforthepurposeofoverthrowingtheImperialpower！，A
manwhowasatoncesoldierandautocrat，bynatureaswellasby，position，couldofcourseadmitnoextenuatingcircumstances。The，incidentstereotypedhischaracterforlife，andmadehimthesworn，enemyofliberalismandthefanaticaldefenderofautocracy，not，onlyinhisowncountry，butthroughoutEurope。InEuropean，politicshesawtwoforcesstrugglingformastery——monarchyand，democracy，whichwereinhisopinionidenticalwithorderand，anarchy;andhewasalwaysreadytoassisthisbrothersovereigns，inputtingdowndemocraticmovements。InhisownEmpirehe，endeavouredbyeverymeansinhispowertopreventtheintroduction，ofthedangerousideas。Forthispurposeastringentintellectual，quarantinewasestablishedonthewesternfrontier。Allforeign，booksandnewspapers，exceptthoseofthemostharmlesskind，were，rigorouslyexcluded。Nativewriterswereplacedunderstrict，supervision，andperemptorilysilencedassoonastheydeparted，fromwhatwasconsidereda“well-intentioned“tone。Thenumberof，universitystudentswasdiminished，thechairsforpolitical，scienceweresuppressed，andthemilitaryschoolsmultiplied。
Russianswerepreventedfromtravellingabroad，andforeignerswho，visitedthecountrywerecloselywatchedbythepolice。Bythese，andsimilarmeasuresitwashopedthatRussiawouldbepreserved，fromthedangersofrevolutionaryagitation。
NicholashasbeencalledtheDonQuixoteofAutocracy，andthe，comparisonwhichthetermimpliesistrueinmanypoints。By，characterandaimshebelongedtoatimethathadpassedaway;but，failureandmishapcouldnotshakehisfaithinhisideal，andmade，nochangeinhishonest，stubbornnature，whichwasasloyaland，chivalresqueasthatoftheill-fatedKnightofLaMancha。In，spiteofallevidencetothecontrary，hebelievedinthepractical，omnipotenceofautocracy。Heimaginedthatashisauthoritywas，theoreticallyunlimited，sohispowercouldworkmiracles。By，natureandtrainingasoldier，heconsideredgovernmentaslightly，modifiedformofmilitarydiscipline，andlookedonthenationas，anarmywhichmightbemadetoperformanyintellectualoreconomic，evolutionsthathemightseefittocommand。Allsocialills，seemedtohimtheconsequenceofdisobediencetohisorders，andhe，knewonlyoneremedy——morediscipline。Anyexpressionofdoubtas，tothewisdomofhispolicy，oranycriticismofexisting，regulations，hetreatedasanactofinsubordinationwhichawise，sovereignoughtnottotolerate。Ifheneversaid，“L’Etat——c’est，moi！”itwasbecauseheconsideredthefactsoself-evidentthatit，didnotneedtobestated。Henceanyattackontheadministration，eveninthepersonofthemostinsignificantofficial，wasan，attackonhimselfandonthemonarchicalprinciplewhichhe，represented。Thepeoplemustbelieve——andfaith，asweknow，comes，notbysight——thattheylivedunderthebestpossiblegovernment。
Todoubtthiswaspoliticalheresy。Anincautiouswordora，foolishjokeagainsttheGovernmentwasconsideredaseriouscrime，andmightbepunishedbyalongexileinsomedistantand，inhospitablepartoftheEmpire。Progressshouldbyallmeansbe，made，butitmustbemadebywordofcommand，andintheway，ordered。Privateinitiativeinanyformwasathingonnoaccount，tobetolerated。Nicholasneversuspectedthataruler，however，well-intentioned，energetic，andlegallyautocratichemaybe，can，dobutlittlewithouttheco-operationofhispeople。Experience，constantlyshowedhimthefruitlessnessofhisefforts，buthepaid，noattentiontoitsteachings。Hehadformedonceforallhis，theoryofgovernment，andforthirtyyearsheactedaccordingtoit，withalltheblindnessandobstinacyofareckless，fanatical，doctrinaire。Evenatthecloseofhisreign，whentheterrible，logicoffactshadprovedhissystemtobeamistake——whenhis，armieshadbeendefeated，hisbestfleetdestroyed，hisports，blockaded，andhistreasurywell-nighemptied——hecouldnotrecant。
“Mysuccessor，“heisreportedtohavesaidonhisdeathbed，“may，doashepleases，butIcannotchange。”
HadNicholaslivedintheoldpatriarchaltimes，whenkingswere，theuncontrolled“shepherdsofthepeople，“hewouldperhapshave，beenanadmirableruler;butinthenineteenthcenturyhewasa，flagrantanachronism。Hissystemofadministrationcompletely，brokedown。Invainhemultipliedformalitiesandinspectors，and，punishedseverelythefewdelinquentswhohappenedbysomeaccident，tobebroughttojustice;theofficialscontinuedtopilfer，extort，andmisgovernineverypossibleway。Thoughthecountry，wasreducedtowhatwouldbecalledinEurope“astateofsiege，“
theinhabitantsmightstillhavesaid——astheyarereportedtohave，declaredathousandyearsbefore——“Ourlandisgreatandfertile，butthereisnoorderinit。”
Inanationaccustomedtopoliticallifeandtoacertainamountof，self-government，anyapproachtothesystemofNicholaswould，of，course，haveproducedwide-spreaddissatisfactionandviolent，hatredagainsttherulingpower。ButinRussiaatthattimeno，suchfeelingswereawakened。Theeducatedclasses——andafortiori，theuneducated——wereprofoundlyindifferentnotonlytopolitical，questions，butalsotoordinarypublicaffairs，whetherlocalor，Imperial，andwerequitecontenttoleavetheminthehandsof，thosewhowerepaidforattendingtothem。Incommonwiththe，uneducatedpeasantry，thenobleshadaboundlessrespect——onemight，almostsayasuperstitiousreverence——notonlyfortheperson，but，alsoforthewilloftheTsar，andwerereadytoshowunquestioning，obediencetohiscommands，solongasthesedidnotinterferewith，theiraccustomedmodeoflife。TheTsardesiredthemnotto，troubletheirheadswithpoliticalquestions，andtoleaveall，publicmatterstothecareoftheAdministration;andinthis，respecttheImperialwillcoincidedsowellwiththeirpersonal，inclinationsthattheyhadnodifficultyincomplyingwithit。
WhentheTsarorderedthoseofthemwhoheldofficetorefrainfrom，extortionandpeculation，hisorderswerenotsopunctiliously，obeyed，butinthisdisobediencetherewasnoopenopposition——no，assertionofarighttopilferandextort。Asthedisobedience，proceeded，notfromafeelingofinsubordination，butmerelyfrom，theweaknessthatofficialfleshisheirto，itwasnotregardedas，veryheinous。InthearistocraticcirclesofSt。Petersburgand，Moscowtherewasthesameindifferencetopoliticalquestionsand，publicaffairs。Allstrovetohavethereputationofbeing“well-
intentioned，“whichwasthefirstrequisiteforthosewhodesired，Courtfavouroradvancementinthepublicservice;andthosewhose，attentionwasnotentirelyoccupiedwithofficialduties，card-
playing，andtheordinaryroutineofeverydaylife，cultivated，belles-lettresorthefinearts。Inshort，theeducatedclassesin，Russiaatthattimeshowedacompleteindifferencetopoliticaland，socialquestions，anapatheticacquiescenceinthesystemof，administrationadoptedbytheGovernment，andanunreasoning，contentmentwiththeexistingstateofthings。
Abouttheyear1845，whenthereactionagainstRomanticismwas，awakeninginthereadingpublicaninterestintheaffairsofreal，life，*begantoappearwhatmaybecalled“themenwith，aspirations，“alittlebandofgenerousenthusiasts，strongly，resemblingtheyouthinLongfellow’spoemwhocarriesabannerwith，thedevice“Excelsior，“andstrivesevertoclimbhigher，without，havinganyclearnotionofwherehewasgoingorofwhatheisto，dowhenhereachesthesummit。Atfirsttheyhadlittlemorethan，asentimentalenthusiasmforthetrue，thebeautiful，andthegood，andacertainPlatonicloveforfreeinstitutions，liberty，enlightenment，progress，andeverythingthatwasgenerally，comprehendedatthatperiodundertheterm“liberal。”，Gradually，undertheinfluenceofcurrentFrenchliterature，theirideas，becamealittleclearer，andtheybegantolookonrealityaround，themwithacriticaleye。Theycouldperceive，withoutmuch，effort，theunrelentingtyrannyoftheAdministration，the，notoriousvenalityofthetribunals，therecklesssquanderingof，thepublicmoney，themiserableconditionoftheserfs，the，systematicstrangulationofallindependentopinionorprivate，initiative，and，aboveall，theprofoundapathyoftheupper，classes，whoseemedquitecontentwiththingsastheywere。
*Videsupra，p。377etseq。
Withsuchuglyfactsstaringthemintheface，andwiththehabit，oflookingatthingsfromthemoralpointofview，thesemencould，understandhowhollowandfalsewerethesoothingortriumphant，phrasesofofficialoptimism。Theydidnot，indeed，dareto，expresstheirindignationpublicly，fortheauthoritieswouldallow，nopublicexpressionofdissatisfactionwiththeexistingstateof，things，buttheydisseminatedtheirideasamongtheirfriendsand，acquaintancesbymeansofconversationandmanuscriptliterature，andsomeofthem，asuniversityprofessorsandwritersinthe，periodicalPress，contrivedtoawakeninacertainsectionofthe，younggenerationanardententhusiasmforenlightenmentand，progress，andavaguehopethatabrighterdaywasabouttodawn。
Notafewsympathisedwiththesenewconceptionsandaspirations，butthegreatmajorityofthenoblesregardedthem——especially，aftertheFrenchRevolutionof1848——asrevolutionaryand，dangerous。Thustheeducatedclassesbecamedividedintotwo，sections，whichhavesometimesbeencalledtheLiberalsandthe，Conservatives，butwhichmightbemoreproperlydesignatedthemen，withaspirationsandtheapatheticallycontented。Theselatter，doubtlessfeltoccasionallytheirksomenessoftheexisting，system，buttheyhadalwaysoneconsolation——iftheywereoppressed，athometheywerefearedabroad。TheTsarwasatleastathorough，soldier，possessinganenormousandwell-equippedarmybywhichhe，mightatanymomentimposehiswillonEurope。Eversincethe，gloriousdaysof1812，whenNapoleonwasforcedtomakean，ignominiousretreatfromtheruinsofMoscow，thebeliefthatthe，Russiansoldiersweresuperiortoallothers，andthattheRussian，armywasinvincible，hadbecomeanarticleofthepopularcreed;
andtherespectwhichthevoiceofNicholascommandedinWestern，Europeseemedtoprovethatthefactwasadmittedbyforeign，nations。Intheseandsimilarconsiderationstheapathetically，contentedfoundajustificationfortheirlethargy。
WhenitbecameevidentthatRussiawasabouttoengageinatrial，ofstrengthwiththeWesternPowers，thisoptimismbecamegeneral。
“Theheavyburdens，“itwassaid，“whichthepeoplehavehadto，bearwerenecessarytomakeRussiathefirstmilitaryPowerin，Europe，andnowthenationwillreapthefruitsofitslong-
sufferingandpatientresignation。TheWestwilllearnthather，boastedlibertyandliberalinstitutionsareoflittleservicein，thehourofdanger，andtheRussianswhoadmiresuchinstitutions，willbeconstrainedtoadmitthatastrong，all-directingautocracy，istheonlymeansofpreservingnationalgreatness。”，Asthe，patrioticfervourandmilitaryenthusiasmincreased，nothingwas，heardbutpraisesofNicholasandhissystem。Thewarwasregarded，bymanyasakindofcrusade——eventheEmperorspokeaboutthe，defenceof“thenativesoilandtheholyfaith“——andthemost，exaggeratedexpectationswereentertainedofitsresults。Theold，EasternQuestionwasatlasttobesolvedinaccordancewith，Russianaspirations，andNicholaswasabouttorealiseCatherine，II。’sgrandschemeofdrivingtheTurksoutofEurope。Thedateat，whichthetroopswouldarriveatConstantinoplewasactively，discussed，andaSlavophilpoetcalledontheEmperortoliedown，inConstantinople，andriseupasTsarofaPanslavonicEmpire。
SomeenthusiastsevenexpectedthespeedyliberationofJerusalem，fromthepoweroftheInfidel。Totheenemy，whomightpossibly，hindertheaccomplishmentoftheseschemes，verylittleattention，waspaid。”Wehaveonlytothrowourhatsatthem！”(Shapkami，zakidaem)becameafavouriteexpression。
Therewere，however，afewmeninwhomtheprospectofthecoming，struggleawokeverydifferentthoughtsandfeelings。Theycould，notsharethesanguineexpectationsofthosewhowereconfidentof，success。”Whatpreparationshavewemade，“theyasked，“forthe，strugglewithcivilisation，whichnowsendsitsforcesagainstus？
Withallourvastterritoryandcountlesspopulationweare，incapableofcopingwithit。Whenwetalkofthegloriouscampaign，againstNapoleon，weforgetthatsincethattimeEuropehasbeen，steadilyadvancingontheroadofprogresswhilewehavebeen，standingstill。Wemarchnottovictory，buttodefeat，andthe，onlygrainofconsolationwhichwehaveisthatRussiawilllearn，byexperiencealessonthatwillbeofusetoherinthefuture。”*
*ThesearethewordsofGranovski。
Theseprophetsofevilfound，ofcourse，fewdisciples，andwere，generallyregardedasunworthysonsoftheFatherland——almostas，traitorstotheircountry。Buttheirpredictionswereconfirmedby，events。TheAllieswerevictoriousintheCrimea，andeventhe，despisedTurksmadeasuccessfulstandonthelineoftheDanube。
InspiteoftheeffortsoftheGovernmenttosuppressall，unpleasantintelligence，itsoonbecameknownthatthemilitary，organisationwaslittle，ifatall，betterthanthecivil，administration——thattheindividualbraveryofsoldiersand，officerswasneutralisedbytheincapacityofthegenerals，the，venalityoftheofficials，andtheshamelesspeculationofthe，commissariatdepartment。TheEmperor，itwassaid，haddrilledout，oftheofficersallenergy，individuality，andmoralforce。Almost，theonlymenwhoshowedjudgment，decision，andenergywerethe，officersoftheBlackSeafleet，whichhadbeenlesssubjectedto，theprevailingsystem。Asthestrugglewenton，itbecameevident，howweakthecountryreallywas——howdeficientintheresources，necessarytosustainaprolongedconflict。”Anotheryearofwar，“
writesaneye-witnessin1855，“andthewholeofSouthernRussia，willberuined。”，Tomeettheextraordinarydemandsonthe，Treasury，recoursewashadtoanenormousissueofpapermoney;but，therapiddepreciationofthecurrencyshowedthatthisresource，wouldsoonbeexhausted。Militiaregimentswereeverywhereraised，throughoutthecountry，andmanyproprietorsspentlargesumsin，equippingvolunteercorps;butverysoonthisenthusiasmcooled，whenitwasfoundthatthepatrioticeffortsenrichedthejobbers，withoutinflictinganyseriousinjuryontheenemy。
Underthestingofthegreatnationalhumiliation，theupper，classesawokefromtheiroptimisticresignation。Theyhadborne，patientlytheoppressionofasemi-militaryadministration，andfor，this！，ThesystemofNicholashadbeenputtoacrucialtest，and，foundwanting。Thepolicywhichhadsacrificedalltoincreasethe，militarypoweroftheEmpirewasseentobeafatalerror，andthe，worthlessnessofthedrill-sergeantregimewasprovedbybitter，experience。Thoseadministrativefetterswhichhadformorethana，quarterofacenturycrampedeveryspontaneousmovementhadfailed，tofulfileventhenarrowpurposeforwhichtheyhadbeenforged。
Theyhad，indeed，securedacertainexternaltranquillityduring，thosetroubloustimeswhenEuropewasconvulsedbyrevolutionary，agitation;butthistranquillitywasnotthatofhealthynormal，action，butofdeath——andunderneaththesurfacelaysecretand，rapidlyspreadingcorruption。Thearmystillpossessedthat，dashinggallantrywhichithaddisplayedinthecampaignsof，Suvorof，thatdogged，stoicalbraverywhichhadcheckedtheadvance，ofNapoleononthefieldofBorodino，andthatwondrouspowerof，endurancewhichhadoftenredeemedthenegligenceofgeneralsand，thedefectsofthecommissariat;buttheresultwasnownot，victory，butdefeat。Howcouldthisbeexplainedexceptbythe，radicaldefectsofthatsystemwhichhadbeenlongpractisedwith，suchinflexibleperseverance？，TheGovernmenthadimaginedthatit，coulddoeverythingbyitsownwisdomandenergy，andinrealityit，haddonenothing，orworsethannothing。Thehigherofficershad，learnedonlytoowelltobemereautomata;theameliorationsinthe，militaryorganisation，onwhichNicholashadalwaysbestowed，specialattention，werefoundtoexistforthemostpartonlyin，theofficialreports;theshamefulexploitsofthecommissariat，departmentweresuchastoexcitetheindignationofthosewhohad，longlivedinanatmosphereofofficialjobberyandpeculation;and，thefinances，whichpeoplehadgenerallysupposedtobeinahighly，satisfactorycondition，hadbecomeseriouslycrippledbythefirst，greatnationaleffort。
Thisdeepandwide-spreaddissatisfactionwasnotallowedtoappear，inthePress，butitfoundveryfreeexpressioninthemanuscript，literatureandinconversation。Inalmosteveryhouse——Imean，of，course，amongtheeducatedclasses——wordswerespokenwhichafew，monthsbeforewouldhaveseemedtreasonable，ifnotblasphemous。
Philippicsandsatiresinproseandversewerewrittenbythe，dozen，andcirculatedinhundredsofcopies。Apasquilonthe，CommanderinChief，oratiradeagainsttheGovernment，wassureto，beeagerlyreadandwarmlyapprovedof。Asaspecimenofthiskind，ofliterature，andanillustrationofthepublicopinionofthe，time，Imaytranslatehereoneofthosemetricaltirades。Though，itwasneverprinted，itobtainedawidecirculation：
“’GodhasplacedmeoverRussia，’saidtheTsartous，’andyou，mustbowdownbeforeme，formythroneisHisaltar。Troublenot，yourselveswithpublicaffairs，forIthinkforyouandwatchover，youeveryhour。Mywatchfuleyedetectsinternalevilsandthe，machinationsofforeignenemies;andIhavenoneedofcounsel，for，Godinspiresmewithwisdom。Beproud，therefore，ofbeingmy，slaves，ORussians，andregardmywillasyourlaw。’
“Welistenedtothesewordswithdeepreverence，andgaveatacit，consent;andwhatwastheresult？，Undermountainsofofficial，papersrealinterestswereforgotten。Theletterofthelawwas，observed，butnegligenceandcrimewereallowedtogounpunished。
Whilegrovellinginthedustbeforeministersanddirectorsof，departmentsinthehopeofreceivingtchinsanddecorations，the，officialsstoleunblushingly;andtheftbecamesocommonthathe，whostolethemostwasthemostrespected。Themeritsofofficers，weredecidedatreviews;andhewhoobtainedtherankofGeneral，wassupposedcapableofbecomingatonceanablegovernor，an，excellentengineer，oramostwisesenator。Thosewhowere，appointedgovernorswereforthemostpartgenuinesatraps，the，scourgesoftheprovincesentrustedtotheircare。Theother，officeswerefilledupwithaslittleattentiontothemeritsof，thecandidates。Astable-boybecamePresscensor！，anImperial，foolbecameadmiral！，Kleinmichelbecameacount！，Inaword，the，countrywashandedovertothetendermerciesofabandofrobbers。
“AndwhatdidweRussiansdoallthistime？
“WeRussiansslept！，Withgroansthepeasantpaidhisyearlydues;
withgroanstheproprietormortgagedthesecondhalfofhisestate;
groaning，weallpaidourheavytributetotheofficials。
Occasionally，withagraveshakingofthehead，weremarkedina，whisperthatitwasashameandadisgrace——thattherewasno，justiceinthecourts——thatmillionsweresquanderedonImperial，tours，kiosks，andpavilions——thateverythingwaswrong;andthen，withaneasyconscience，wesatdowntoourrubber，praisedthe，actingofRachel，criticisedthesingingofFrezzolini，bowedlow，tovenalmagnates，andsquabbledwitheachotherforadvancementin，theveryservicewhichwesoseverelycondemned。Ifwedidnot，obtaintheplacewewishedweretiredtoourancestralestates，wherewetalkedofthecrops，fattenedinindolenceandgluttony，andlivedagenuineanimallife。Ifanyone，amidstthegeneral，lethargy，suddenlycalleduponustoriseandfightforthetruth，andforRussia，howridiculousdidheappear！，Howcleverlythe，Pharisaicalofficialridiculedhim，andhowquicklythefriendsof，yesterdayshowedhimthecoldshoulder！，Undertheanathemaof，publicopinion，insomedistantSiberianmineherecognisedwhata，heinoussinitwastodisturbtheheavysleepofapatheticslaves。
Soonhewasforgotten，orrememberedasanunfortunatemadman;and，thefewwhosaid，’Perhapsafterallhewasright，’hastenedto，add，’butthatisnoneofourbusiness。’
“Butamidstallthiswehadatleastoneconsolation，onethingto，beproudof——themightofRussiaintheassemblyofkings。’What，needwecare，’wesaid，’forthereproachesofforeignnations？，We，arestrongerthanthosewhoreproachus。’，Andwhenatgreat，reviewsthestatelyregimentsmarchedpastwithwavingstandards，glitteringhelmets，andsparklingbayonets，whenweheardtheloud，hurrahwithwhichthetroopsgreetedtheEmperor，thenourhearts，swelledwithpatrioticpride，andwewerereadytorepeatthewords，ofthepoet——
“Strongisournativecountry，andgreattheRussianTsar。”
ThenBritishstatesmen，incompanywiththecrownedconspiratorof，France，andwithtreacherousAustria，raisedWesternEuropeagainst，us，butwelaughedscornfullyatthecomingstorm。’Letthe，nationsrave，’wesaid;’wehavenocausetobeafraid。TheTsar，doubtlessforesawall，andhaslongsincemadethenecessary，preparations。’，Boldlywewentforthtofight，andconfidently，awaitedthemomentofthestruggle。
“Andlo！afterallourboastingweweretakenbysurprise，and，caughtunawares，asbyarobberinthedark。Thesleepofinnate，stupidityblindedourAmbassadors，andourForeignMinistersoldus，toourenemies。*，Wherewereourmillionsofsoldiers？，Wherewas，thewell-consideredplanofdefence？，Onecourierbroughttheorder，toadvance;anotherbroughttheordertoretreat;andthearmy，wanderedaboutwithoutdefiniteaimorpurpose。Withlossand，shameweretreatedfromthefortsofSilistria，andtheprideof，RussiawashumbledbeforetheHapsburgeagle。Thesoldiersfought，well，buttheparade-admiral(Menshikof)——theamphibiousheroof，lostbattles——didnotknowthegeographyofhisowncountry，and，senthistroopstocertaindestruction。
*ManypeopleatthattimeimaginedthatCountNesselrode，whowas，thenMinisterforForeignAffairs，wasatraitortohisadopted，country。
“Awake，ORussia！，Devouredbyforeignenemies，crushedbyslavery，shamefullyoppressedbystupidauthoritiesandspies，awakenfrom，yourlongsleepofignoranceandapathy！，Youhavebeenlongenough，heldinbondagebythesuccessorsoftheTartarKhan。Stand，forwardcalmlybeforethethroneofthedespot，anddemandfromhim，anaccountofthenationaldisaster。Saytohimboldlythathis，throneisnotthealtarofGod，andthatGoddidnotcondemnusto，beslaves。Russiaentrustedtoyou，OTsar，thesupremepower，and，youwereasaGoduponearth。Andwhathaveyoudone？，Blindedby，ignoranceandpassion，youhavelustedafterpowerandhave，forgottenRussia。Youhavespentyourlifeinreviewingtroops，in，modifyinguniforms，andinappendingyoursignaturetothe，legislativeprojectsofignorantcharlatans。Youcreatedthe，despicableraceofPresscensors，inordertosleepinpeace——in，ordernottoknowthewantsandnottohearthegroansofthe，people——inordernottolistentoTruth。YouburiedTruth，rolled，agreatstonetothedoorofthesepulchre，placedastrongguard，overit，andsaidintheprideofyourheart：Forherthereisno，resurrection！，Butthethirddayhasdawned，andTruthhasarisen，fromthedead。
“Standforward，OTsar，beforethejudgment-seatofhistoryandof，God！，YouhavemercilesslytrampledTruthunderfoot，youhave，deniedFreedom，youhavebeentheslaveofyourownpassions。By，yourprideandobstinacyyouhaveexhaustedRussiaandraisedthe，worldinarmsagainstus。Bowdownbeforeyourbrethrenandhumble，yourselfinthedust！，Cravepardonandaskadvice！，Throwyourself，intothearmsofthepeople！，Thereisnownoothersalvation！”
Theinnumerabletiradesofwhichtheaboveisafairspecimenwere，notveryremarkableforliterarymeritorpoliticalwisdom。For，themostparttheyweresimplybitsofbombasticrhetoriccouched，indoggerelrhyme，andtheyhaveconsequentlybeenlongsince，consignedtowell-meritedoblivion——socompletelythatitisnow，difficulttoobtaincopiesofthem。*，Theyhave，however，an，historicalinterest，becausetheyexpressinamoreorless，exaggeratedformthepublicopinionandprevalentideasofthe，educatedclassesatthatmoment。Inordertocomprehendtheirreal，significance，wemustrememberthatthewritersandreaderswere，notabandofconspirators，butordinary，respectable，well-
intentionedpeople，whoneverforamomentdreamedofembarkingin，revolutionarydesigns。Itwasthesamesocietythathadbeenafew，monthsbeforesoindifferenttoallpoliticalquestions，andeven，nowtherewasnoclearconceptionastohowtheloud-sounding，phrasescouldbetranslatedintoaction。Wecanimaginethe，comicaldiscomfitureofthosewhoreadandlistenedtothese，appeals，ifthe“despot“hadobeyedtheirsummons，andsuddenly，appearedbeforethem。
*IamindebtedforthecopieswhichIpossesstofriendswho，copiedandcollectedthesepamphletsatthetime。
Wasthemovement，then，merelyanoutburstofchildishpetulance？
Certainlynot。Thepublicwerereallyandseriouslyconvincedthat，thingswereallwrong，andtheywereseriouslyandenthusiastically，desirousthatanewandbetterorderofthingsshouldbe，introduced。Itmustbesaidtotheirhonourthattheydidnot，contentthemselveswithaccusingandlampooningtheindividualswho，weresupposedtobethechiefculprits。Onthecontrary，they，lookedrealityboldlyintheface，madeapublicconfessionof，theirpastsins，soughtconscientiouslythecauseswhichhad，producedtherecentdisasters，andendeavouredtofindmeansby，whichsuchcalamitiesmightbepreventedinthefuture。Thepublic，feelingandaspirationswerenotstrongenoughtoconquerthe，traditionalrespectfortheImperialwillandcreateanopen，oppositiontotheAutocraticPower，buttheywerestrongenoughto，dogreatthingsbyaidingtheGovernment，iftheEmperor，voluntarilyundertookaseriesofradicalreforms。
WhatNicholaswouldhavedone，hadhelived，infaceofthis，nationalawakening，itisdifficulttosay。Hedeclared，indeed，thathecouldnotchange，andwecanreadilybelievethathisproud，spiritwouldhavescornedtomakeconcessionstotheprinciples，whichhehadalwayscondemned;buthegavedecidedindicationsin，thelastdaysofhislifethathisoldfaithinhissystemwas，somewhatshaken，andhedidnotexhorthissontopersevereinthe，pathalongwhichhehimselfhadforcedhiswaywithsuchobstinate，consistency。Itisuseless，however，tospeculateon，possibilities。WhilsttheGovernmenthadstilltoconcentrateall，itsenergiesonthedefenceofthecountry，theIronTsardied，and，wassucceededbyhisson，amanofaverydifferenttype。
Ofakind-hearted，humanedisposition，sincerelydesirousof，maintainingthenationalhonour，butsingularlyfreefrommilitary，ambitionandimbuedwithnofanaticalbeliefinthedrill-sergeant，systemofgovernment，AlexanderII。wasbynomeansinsensibleto，thespiritofthetime。Hehad，however，noneofthesentimental，enthusiasmforliberalinstitutionswhichhadcharacterisedhis，uncle，AlexanderI。Onthecontrary，hehadinheritedfromhis，fatherastrongdisliketosentimentalismandrhetoricofall，kinds。Thisdislike，joinedtoagoodlyportionofsobercommon-
sense，alimitedconfidenceinhisownjudgment，anda，consciousnessofenormousresponsibility，preventedhimfrombeing，carriedawaybytheprevailingexcitement。Withallthatwas，generousandhumaneinthemovementhethoroughlysympathised，and，heallowedthepopularideasandaspirationstofindfree，utterance;buthedidnotatoncecommithimselftoanydefinite，policy，andcarefullyrefrainedfromallexaggeratedexpressionsof，reformingzeal。
Assoon，however，aspeacehadbeenconcluded，therewere，unmistakablesymptomsthattherigorouslyrepressivesystemof，Nicholaswasabouttobeabandoned。Inthemanifestoannouncing，theterminationofhostilitiestheEmperorexpressedhisconviction，thatbythecombinedeffortsoftheGovernmentandthepeople，the，publicadministrationwouldbeimproved，andthatjusticeandmercy，wouldreigninthecourtsoflaw。Apparentlyasapreparationfor，thisgreatwork，tobeundertakenbytheTsarandhispeoplein，common，theministersbegantotakethepublicintotheir，confidence，andsubmittedtopubliccriticismmanyofficialdata，whichhadhithertobeenregardedasStatesecrets。TheMinisterof，theInterior，forinstance，inhisannualreport，spokealmostin，thetoneofapenitent，andconfessedopenlythatthemoralityof，theofficialsunderhisordersleftmuchtobedesired。He，declaredthattheEmperornowshowedapaternalconfidenceinhis，people，andasaproofofthishementionedthesignificantfact，that9，000personshadbeenliberatedfrompolicesupervision。The，otherbranchesoftheAdministrationunderwentasimilar，transformation。Thehaughty，dictatorialtonewhichhadhitherto，beenusedbysuperiorstotheirsubordinates，andbyallranksof，officialstothepublic，wasreplacedbyoneofconsiderate，politeness。AboutthesametimethoseoftheDecembristswhowere，stillalivewerepardoned。Therestrictionsregardingthenumber，ofstudentsineachuniversitywereabolished，thedifficultyof，obtainingforeignpassportswasremoved，andthePresscensors，becamesingularlyindulgent。Thoughnodecidedchangehadbeen，madeinthelaws，itwasuniversallyfeltthatthespiritof，Nicholaswasnomore。
Thepublic，anxiouslyseekingafterasign，readilytookthese，symptomsofchangeasacompleteconfirmationoftheirardent，hopes，andleapedatoncetotheconclusionthatavast，all-
embracingsystemofradicalreformwasabouttobeundertaken——not，secretlybytheAdministration，ashadbeenthecustominthe，precedingreignwhenanylittlechangeshadtobemade，but，publicly，bytheGovernmentandthepeopleincommon。”Theheart，trembleswithjoy，“saidoneoftheleadingorgansofthePress，“inexpectationofthegreatsocialreformsthatareabouttobe，effected——reformsthatarethoroughlyinaccordancewiththe，spirit，thewishes，andtheexpectationsofthepublic。”，“Theold，harmonyandcommunityoffeeling，“saidanother，“whichhasalways，existedbetweenthegovernmentandthepeople，saveduringshort，exceptionalperiods，hasbeenfullyre-established。Theabsenceof，allsentimentofcaste，andthefeelingofcommonoriginand，brotherhoodwhichbindsallclassesoftheRussianpeopleintoa，homogeneouswhole，willenableRussiatoaccomplishpeacefullyand，withouteffortnotonlythosegreatreformswhichcostEurope，centuriesofstruggleandbloodshed，butalsomanywhichthe，nationsoftheWestarestillunabletoaccomplish，inconsequence，offeudaltraditionsandcasteprejudices。”，Thepastwasdepicted，intheblackestcolours，andthenationwascalledupontobegina，newandgloriousepochofitshistory。”Wehavetostruggle，“it，wassaid，“inthenameofthehighesttruthagainstegotismandthe，punyinterestsofthemoment;andweoughttoprepareourchildren，fromtheirinfancytotakepartinthatstrugglewhichawaitsevery，honestman。Wehavetothankthewarforopeningoureyestothe，darksidesofourpoliticalandsocialorganisation，anditisnow，ourdutytoprofitbythelesson。Butitmustnotbesupposedthat，theGovernmentcan，single-handed，remedythedefects。The，destiniesofRussiaare，asitwere，astrandedvesselwhichthe，captainandcrewcannotmove，andwhichnothing，indeed，butthe，risingtideofthenationallifecanraiseandfloat。”
Heartsbeatquickeratthesoundofthesecallstoaction。Many，heardthisnewteaching，ifwemaybelieveacontemporary，authority，“withtearsintheireyes“;then，“raisingboldlytheir，heads，theymadeasolemnvowthattheywouldacthonourably，perseveringly，fearlessly。”，Someofthosewhohadformerlyyielded，totheforceofcircumstancesnowconfessedtheirmisdemeanours，withbitternessofheart。”Tearsofrepentance，“saidapopular，poet，“giverelief，andcallustonewexploits。”，Russiawas，comparedtoastronggiantwhoawakesfromsleep，stretcheshis，brawnylimbs，collectshisthoughts，andpreparestoatoneforhis，longinactivitybyfeatsofuntoldprowess。Allbelieved，orat，leastassumed，thattherecognitionofdefectswouldnecessarily，entailtheirremoval。WhenanactorinoneoftheSt。Petersburg，theatresshoutedfromthestage，“Letusproclaimthroughoutall，Russiathatthetimehascomefortearingupevilbytheroots！”
theaudiencegavewaytothemostfranticenthusiasm。”Altogether，ajoyfultime，“saysonewhotookpartintheexcitement，“aswhen，afterthelongwinter，thegenialbreathofspringglidesoverthe，cold，petrifiedearth，andnatureawakensfromherdeathlikesleep。
Speech，longrestrainedbypoliceandcensorialregulations，now，flowssmoothly，majestically，likeamightyriverthathasjust，beenfreedfromice。”
Undertheseinfluencesamultitudeofnewspapersandperiodicals，werefounded，andthecurrentliteratureentirelychangedits，character。Thepurelyliteraryandhistoricalquestionswhichhad，hithertoengagedtheattentionofthereadingpublicwerethrown，asideandforgotten，unlesstheycouldbemadetoillustratesome，principleofpoliticalorsocialscience。Criticismsonstyleand，diction，explanationsofaestheticprinciples，metaphysical，discussions——allthisseemedmiserabletriflingtomenwhowished，todevotethemselvestogiganticpracticalinterests。”Science，“
itwassaid，“hasnowdescendedfromtheheightsofphilosophic，abstractionintothearenaofreallife。”，Theperiodicalswere，accordinglyfilledwitharticlesonrailways，banks，free-trade，education，agriculture，communalinstitutions，localself-
government，joint-stockcompanies，andwithcrushingphilippics，againstpersonalandnationalvanity，inordinateluxury，administrativetyranny，andthehabitualpeculationofthe，officials。Thislast-namedsubjectreceivedspecialattention。
Duringtheprecedingreignanyattempttocriticisepubliclythe，characteroractsofanofficialwasregardedasaveryheinous，offence;nowtherewasadelugeofsketches，tales，comedies，and，monologues，describingthecorruptionoftheAdministration，and，explainingtheingeniousdevicesbywhichthetchinovniksincreased，theirscantysalaries。Thepublicwouldreadnothingthathadnot，adirectorindirectbearingonthequestionsoftheday，and，whateverhadsuchabearingwasreadwithinterest。Itdidnot，seematallstrangethatadramashouldbewrittenindefenceof，free-trade，orapoeminadvocacyofsomepeculiarmodeof，taxation;thatanauthorshouldexpoundhispoliticalideasina，tale，andhisantagonistreplybyacomedy。Afewmenoftheold，schoolprotestedfeeblyagainstthis“prostitutionofart，“but，theyreceivedlittleattention，andthedoctrinethatartshouldbe，cultivatedforitsownsakewasscoutedasaninventionof，aristocraticindolence。Hereisanipsapinxitoftheliterature，ofthetime：“LiteraturehascometolookatRussiawithherown，eyes，andseesthattheidyllicromanticpersonageswhichthepoets，formerlylovedtodescribehavenoobjectiveexistence。Having，takenoffherFrenchglove，sheoffersherhandtotherude，hard-
workinglabourer，andobservinglovinglyRussianvillagelife，she，feelsherselfinhernativeland。Thewritersofthepresenthave，analysedthepast，and，havingseparatedthemselvesfrom，aristocraticlitterateursandaristocraticsociety，havedemolished，theirformeridols。”
Byfarthemostinfluentialperiodicalatthecommencementofthe，movementwastheKolokol，orBell，afortnightlyjournalpublished，inLondonbyHerzen，whowasatthattimeanimportantpersonage，amongthepoliticalrefugees。Herzenwasamanofeducationand，culture，withultra-radicalopinions，andnotaversetousing，revolutionarymethodsofreformwhenheconsideredthemnecessary。
HisintimaterelationswithmanyoftheleadingmeninRussia，enabledhimtoobtainsecretinformationofthemostimportantand，variedkind，andhissparklingwit，bitingsatire，andclear，terse，brilliantstylesecuredhimalargenumberofreaders。He，seemedtoknoweverythingthatwasdoneintheministriesandeven，intheCabinetoftheEmperor，*andheexposedmostmercilessly，everyabusethatcametohisknowledge。Wewhoareaccustomedto，freepoliticaldiscussioncanhardlyformaconceptionofthe，aviditywithwhichhisarticleswereread，andtheeffectwhich，theyproduced。ThoughstrictlyprohibitedbythePresscensure，theKolokolfounditswayacrossthefrontierinthousandsof，copies，andwaseagerlyperusedandcommentedonbyallranksof，theeducatedclasses。TheEmperorhimselfreceiveditregularly，andhigh-priceddelinquentsexamineditwithfearandtrembling。
InthiswayHerzenwasforsomeyears，thoughanexile，an，importantpoliticalpersonage，anddidmuchtoawakenandkeepup，thereformenthusiasm。
*Asanillustrationofthis，thefollowinganecdoteistold：One，numberoftheKolokolcontainedaviolentattackonanimportant，personageofthecourt，andtheaccused，orsomeoneofhis，friends，considereditadvisabletohaveacopyspeciallyprinted，fortheEmperorwithouttheobjectionablearticle。TheEmperordid，notatfirstdiscoverthetrick，butshortlyafterwardshereceived，fromLondonapolitenotecontainingthearticlewhichhadbeen，omitted，andinforminghimhowhehadbeendeceived。
ButwhereweretheConservativesallthistime？，Howcameitthat，fortwoorthreeyearsnovoicewasraisedandnoprotestmadeeven，againsttherhetoricalexaggerationsofthenew-bornliberalism？
Whereweretherepresentativesoftheoldregime，whohadbeenso，thoroughlyimbuedwiththespiritofNicholas？，Wherewerethose，ministerswhohadsystematicallyextinguishedtheleastindication，ofprivateinitiative，those“satraps“whohadstampedoutthe，leastsymptomofinsubordinationordiscontent，thosePresscensors，whohaddiligentlysuppressedthemildestexpressionofliberal，opinion，thosethousandsofwell-intentionedproprietorswhohad，regardedasdangerousfree-thinkersandtreasonablerepublicansall，whoventuredtoexpressdissatisfactionwiththeexistingstateof，things？，Ashorttimebefore，theConservativescomposedatleast，nine-tenthsoftheupperclasses，andnowtheyhadsuddenlyand，mysteriouslydisappeared。
Itisscarcelynecessarytosaythatinacountryaccustomedto，politicallife，suchasudden，unopposedrevolutioninpublic，opinioncouldnotpossiblytakeplace。Thekeytothemysterylies，inthefactthatforcenturiesRussiahadknownnothingof，politicallifeorpoliticalparties。Thosewhoweresometimes，calledConservativeswereinrealitynotatallConservativesin，oursenseoftheterm。Ifwesaythattheyhadacertainamountof，conservatism，wemustaddthatitwasofthelatent，passive，unreasonedkind——thefruitofindolenceandapathy。Their，politicalcreedhadbutonearticle：ThoushaltlovetheTsarwith，allthymight，andcarefullyabstainfromallresistancetohis，will——especiallywhenithappensthattheTsarisamanofthe，Nicholastype。SolongasNicholaslivedtheyhadpassively，acquiescedinhissystem——activeacquiescencehadbeenneither，demandednordesired——butwhenhedied，thesystemofwhichhewas，thesouldiedwithhim。Whatthencouldtheyseektodefend？，They，weretoldthatthesystemwhichtheyhadbeentaughttoregardas，thesheet-anchoroftheStatewasinrealitythechiefcauseofthe，nationaldisasters;andtothistheycouldmakenoreply，because，theyhadnobetterexplanationoftheirowntooffer。Theywere，convincedthattheRussiansoldierwasthebestsoldierinthe，world，andtheyknewthatintherecentwarthearmyhadnotbeen，victorious;thesystem，therefore，mustbetoblame。Theywere，toldthataseriesofgiganticreformswasnecessaryinorderto，restoreRussiatoherproperplaceamongthenations;andtothis，theycouldmakenoanswer，fortheyhadneverstudiedsuchabstract，questions。Andonethingtheydidknow：thatthosewhohesitated，toadmitthenecessityofgiganticreformswerebrandedbythe，Pressasignorant，narrow-minded，prejudiced，andegotistical，and，werehelduptoderisionasmenwhodidnotknowthemost，elementaryprinciplesofpoliticalandeconomicscience。Freely，expressedpublicopinionwassuchanewphenomenoninRussiathat，thePresswasableforsometimetoexercisea“Liberal“tyranny，scarcelylessseverethanthe“Conservative“tyrannyofthecensors，intheprecedingreign。Menwhowouldhavestoodfiregallantlyon，thefieldofbattlequailedbeforethepoisoneddartsofHerzenin，theKolokol。Undersuchcircumstances，eventhefewwhopossessed，somevagueConservativeconvictionsrefrainedfrompublicly，expressingthem。
Themenwhohadplayedamoreorlessactivepartduringthe，precedingreign，andwhomightthereforebeexpectedtohave，cleareranddeeperconvictions，werespeciallyincapableof，offeringoppositiontotheprevailingLiberalenthusiasm。Their，Conservatismwasofquiteaslimpakindasthatofthelanded，proprietorswhowerenotinthepublicservice，forunderNicholas，thehigheramanwasplacedthelesslikelywashetohave，politicalconvictionsofanykindoutsidethesimplepolitical，creedabovereferredto。Besidesthis，theybelongedtothatclass，whichwasforthemomentundertheanathemaofpublicopinion，and，theyhaddrawndirectpersonaladvantagefromthesystemwhichwas，nowrecognisedasthechiefcauseofthenationaldisasters。
Foratimethenameoftchinovnikbecameatermofreproachand，derision，andthepositionofthosewhoboreitwascomically，painful。Theystrovetoprovethat，thoughtheyheldapostinthe，publicservice，theywereentirelyfreefromthetchinovnikspirit——
thattherewasnothingofthegenuinetchinovnikaboutthem。
Thosewhohadformerlyparadedtheirtchin(officialrank)onall，occasions，inseasonandoutofseason，becamehalfashamedto，admitthattheyhadtherankofGeneral;forthetitlenolonger，commandedrespect，andhadbecomeassociatedwithallthatwas，antiquated，formal，andstupid。Amongtheyounggenerationitwas，usedmostdisrespectfullyasequivalentto“pompousblockhead。”
ZealousofficialswhohadlatelyregardedtheacquisitionofStars，andOrdersasamongthechiefendsofman，werefaintoconceal，thosehard-wontrophies，lestsomecynical“Liberal“mightnotice，themandmakethemthebuttofhissatire。”Lookatthedepthof，humiliationtowhichyouhavebroughtthecountry“——suchwasthe，chorusofreproachthatwaseverringingintheirears——“withyour，redtape，yourChineseformalism，andyourprincipleoflifeless，unreasoning，mechanicalobedience！，Youassertedconstantlythat，youweretheonlytruepatriots，andbrandedwiththenameof，traitorthosewhowarnedyouoftheinsanefollyofyourconduct。
Youseenowwhatithasallcometo。Themenwhomyouhelpedto，sendtotheminesturnouttohavebeenthetruepatriots。”*
*Itwasacommonsayingatthattimethatnearlyallthebestmen，inRussiahadspentapartoftheirlivesinSiberia，anditwas，proposedtopublishabiographicaldictionaryofremarkablemen，in，whicheveryarticlewastoendthus：“Exiledto——in18。”，I
amnotawarehowfartheprojectwasseriouslyentertained，but，of，course，thebookwasneverpublished。
Andtothesereproacheswhatcouldtheyreply？，Likeachildwho，hasinhisfrolicsinadvertentlysetthehouseonfire，theycould，onlylookcontrite，andsaytheydidnotmeanit。Theyhadsimply，acceptedwithoutcriticismtheexistingorderofthings，andranged，themselvesamongthosewhowereofficiallyrecognisedas“thewell-
intentioned。”，IftheyhadalwaysavoidedtheLiberals，andperhaps，helpedtopersecutethem，itwassimplybecauseall“well-
intentioned“peoplesaidthatLiberalswere“restless“and，dangeroustotheState。Thosewhowerenotconvincedoftheir，errorssimplykeptsilence，butthegreatmajoritypassedoverto，theranksoftheProgressists，andmanyendeavouredtoredeemtheir，pastbyshowingextremezealfortheLiberalcause。
Inexplanationofthisextraordinaryoutburstofreformenthusiasm，wemustfurtherrememberthattheRussianeducatedclasses，in，spiteoftheseverenorthernclimatewhichissupposedtomakethe，bloodcirculateslowly，areextremelyimpulsive。Theyarefettered，bynovenerablehistoricalprejudices，andarewonderfully，sensitivetotheseductiveinfluenceofgrandioseprojects，especiallywhentheseexcitethepatrioticfeelings。Thenthere，wasthesimpleforceofreaction——thereboundwhichnaturally，followedtheterrificcompressionoftheprecedingreign。Without，disrespect，theRussiansofthattimemaybecomparedtoschoolboys，whohavejustescapedfromtherigorousdisciplineofasevere，schoolmaster。Inthefirstmomentsoffreedomitwassupposedthat，therewouldbenomoredisciplineorcompulsion。Theutmost，respectwastobeshownto“humandignity，“andeveryRussianwas，toactspontaneouslyandzealouslyatthegreatworkofnational，regeneration。Allthirstedforreformingactivity。Themenin，authoritywereinundatedwithprojectsofreform——someofthem，anonymous，andothersfromobscureindividuals;someofthem，practical，andverymanywildlyfantastic。Eventhegrammarians，showedtheirsympathywiththespiritofthetimebyproposingto，expelsummarilyallredundantlettersfromtheRussianalphabet！
