第15章

AtthesametimetheyknewverywellthattheEmperor，ifhe，wished，couldeffecttheEmancipationinspiteofthem，andthat，resistanceontheirpartwoulddrawdownuponthemtheImperial，displeasure，withoutaffordinganycompensatingadvantage。They，knew，too，thattherewasadangerfrombelow，sothatanyuseless，showofoppositionwouldbelikeplayingwithmatchesinapowder-

magazine。TheserfswouldsoonhearthattheTsardesiredtoset，themfree，andtheymight，iftheysuspectedthattheproprietors，weretryingtofrustratetheTsar’sbenevolentintentions，use，violentmeasurestogetridoftheopposition。Theideaof，agrarianmassacreshadalreadytakenpossessionofmanytimid，minds。Besidesthis，allclassesoftheproprietorsfeltthatif，theworkwastobedone，itshouldbedonebytheNoblesseandnot，bythebureaucracy。Ifitwereeffectedbythenoblesthe，interestsoftheland-ownerswouldbedulyconsidered，butifit，wereeffectedbytheAdministrationwithouttheirconcurrenceand，co-operationtheirinterestswouldbeneglected，andtherewould，inevitablybeanenormousamountofjobberyandcorruption。In，accordancewiththisview，theNoblessecorporationsofthevarious，provincessuccessivelyrequestedpermissiontoformcommitteesfor，theconsiderationofthequestion，andduringtheyear1858a，committeewasopenedinalmosteveryprovinceinwhichserfage，existed。

Inthiswaythequestionwasapparentlyhandedoverforsolutionto，thenobles，butinrealitytheNoblessewascalleduponmerelyto，advise，andnottolegislate。TheGovernmenthadnotonlylaid，downthefundamentalprinciplesofthescheme;itcontinually，supervisedtheworkofconstruction，anditreservedtoitselfthe，rightofmodifyingorrejectingtheprojectsproposedbythe，committees。

Accordingtothesefundamentalprinciplestheserfsshouldbe，emancipatedgradually，sothatforsometimetheywouldremain，attachedtotheglebeandsubjecttotheauthorityofthe，proprietors。Duringthistransitionperiodtheyshouldredeemby，moneypaymentsorlabourtheirhousesandgardens，andenjoyin，usufructacertainquantityofland，sufficienttoenablethemto，supportthemselvesandtofulfiltheirobligationstotheStateas，wellastotheproprietor。Inreturnforthislandtheyshouldpay，ayearlyrentinmoney，produceorlabouroverandabovetheyearly，sumpaidfortheredemptionoftheirhousesandgardens。Asto，whatshouldbedoneaftertheexpiryofthetransitionperiod，the，Governmentseemstohavehadnoclearlyconceivedintentions。

Probablyithopedthatbythattimetheproprietorsandtheir，emancipatedserfswouldhaveinventedsomeconvenientmodus，vivendi，andthatnothingbutalittlelegislativeregulationwould，benecessary。Butradicallegislationisliketheletting-outof，water。Thesefundamentalprinciples，adoptedatfirstwithaview，tomereimmediatepracticalnecessity，soonacquiredavery，differentsignificance。Tounderstandthiswemustreturntothe，periodicalliterature。

Untiltheserfquestioncametobediscussed，thereform，aspirationswereveryvague，andconsequentlytherewasa，remarkableunanimityamongtheirrepresentatives。Thegreat，majorityoftheeducatedclasseswereunanimouslyofopinionthat，RussiashouldatonceadoptfromtheWestallthoseliberal，principlesandinstitutionstheexclusionofwhichhadprevented，thecountryfromrisingtotheleveloftheWesternnations。But，verysoonsymptomsofaschismbecameapparent。Whilstthe，literatureingeneralwasstillpreachingthedoctrinethatRussia，shouldadopteverythingthatwas“liberal，“afewvoicesbeganto，beheardwarningtheunwarythatmuchwhichborethenameof，liberalwasinrealityalreadyantiquatedandworthless——that，Russiaoughtnottofollowblindlyinthefootstepsofother，nations，butoughtrathertoprofitbytheirexperience，andavoid，theerrorsintowhichtheyhadfallen。Thechiefoftheseerrors，was，accordingtothesenewteachers，theabnormaldevelopmentof，individualism——theadoptionofthatprincipleoflaissezfaire，whichformsthebasisofwhatmaybecalledtheOrthodoxSchoolof，PoliticalEconomists。Individualismandunrestrictedcompetition，itwassaid，havenowreachedintheWestanabnormalandmonstrous，development。Supportedbythelaissezfaireprinciple，theyhave，led——andmustalwayslead——totheoppressionoftheweak，the，tyrannyofcapital，theimpoverishmentofthemassesforthe，benefitofthefew，andtheformationofahungry，dangerous，Proletariat！，Thishasalreadybeenrecognisedbythemostadvanced，thinkersofFranceandGermany。Iftheoldercountriescannotat，oncecurethoseevils，thatisnoreasonforRussiatoinoculate，herselfwiththem。Sheisstillatthecommencementofhercareer，anditwouldbefollyforhertowandervoluntarilyforagesinthe，Desert，whenadirectroutetothePromisedLandhasbeenalready，discovered。

Inordertoconveysomeideaoftheinfluencewhichthisteaching，exercised，Imusthererecall，attheriskofrepeatingmyself，whatIsaidinaformerchapter。TheRussians，asIhavethere，pointedout，haveapeculiarwayoftreatingpoliticalandsocial，questions。Havingreceivedtheirpoliticaleducationfrombooks，theynaturallyattributetotheoreticalconsiderationsan，importancewhichseemstousexaggerated。Whenanyimportantor，trivialquestionarises，theyatoncelaunchintoaseaof，philosophicalprinciples，andpaylessattentiontothelittle，objectscloseathandthantothebigonesthatappearonthe，distanthorizonofthefuture。Andwhentheysettoworkatany，politicalreformtheybeginabovo。Astheyhavenotraditional，prejudicestofetterthem，andnotraditionalprinciplestolead，them，theynaturallytakefortheirguidancethelatestconclusions，ofpoliticalphilosophy。

Bearingthisinmind，letusseehowitaffectedtheEmancipation，question。TheProletariat——describedasadangerousmonsterwhich，wasabouttoswallowupsocietyinWesternEurope，andwhichmight，atanymomentcrossthefrontierunlesskeptoutbyvigorous，measures——tookpossessionofthepopularimagination，andaroused，thefearsofthereadingpublic。Tomanyitseemedthatthebest，meansofpreventingtheformationofaProletariatinRussiawas，thesecuringoflandfortheemancipatedserfsandthecareful，preservationoftheruralCommune。”Nowisthemoment，“itwas，said，“fordecidingtheimportantquestionwhetherRussiaisto，fallaprey，liketheWesternnations，tothisterribleevil，or，whethersheistoprotectherselfforeveragainstit。Inthe，decisionofthisquestionliesthefuturedestinyofthecountry。

Ifthepeasantsbeemancipatedwithoutland，orifthoseCommunal，institutionswhichgivetoeverymanashareofthesoilandsecure，thisinestimableboonforthegenerationsstillunbornbenow，abolished，aProletariatwillberapidlyformed，andthepeasantry，willbecomeadisorganisedmassofhomelesswandererslikethe，Englishagriculturallabourers。If，onthecontrary，afairshare，oflandbegrantedtothem，andiftheCommunebemadeproprietor，ofthelandceded，thedangerofaProletariatisforeverremoved，andRussiawilltherebysetanexampletothecivilisedworld！

Neverhasanationhadsuchanopportunityofmakinganenormous，leapforwardontheroadofprogress，andneveragainwillthe，opportunityoccur。TheWesternnationshavediscoveredtheirerror，whenitistoolate——whenthepeasantryhavebeenalreadydeprived，oftheirland，andthelabouringclassesofthetownshavealready，fallenapreytotheinsatiablecupidityofthecapitalists。In，vaintheirmosteminentthinkerswarnandexhort。Ordinary，remediesarenolongerofanyavail。ButRussiamayavoidthese，dangers，ifshebutactwiselyandprudentlyinthisgreatmatter。

Thepeasantsarestillinactual，ifnotlegal，possessionofthe，land，andthereisasyetnoProletariatinthetowns。Allthatis，necessary，therefore，istoabolishthearbitraryauthorityofthe，proprietorswithoutexpropriatingthepeasants，andwithout，disturbingtheexistingCommunalinstitutions，whichformthebest，barrieragainstpauperism。”

Theseideaswerewarmlyespousedbymanyproprietors，andexercised，averygreatinfluenceonthedeliberationsoftheProvincial，Committees。Inthesecommitteesthereweregenerallytwogroups。

Themajorities，whilstmakinglargeconcessionstotheclaimsof，justiceandexpediency，endeavouredtodefend，asfaraspossible，theinterestsoftheirclass;theminorities，thoughbynomeans，indifferenttotheinterestsoftheclasstowhichtheybelonged，allowedthemoreabstracttheoreticalconsiderationstobe，predominant。Atfirstthemajoritiesdidallintheirpowerto，evadethefundamentalprincipleslaiddownbytheGovernmentas，muchtoofavourabletothepeasantry;butwhentheyperceivedthat，publicopinion，asrepresentedbythePress，wentmuchfurtherthan，theGovernment，theyclungtothesefundamentalprinciples——which，securedatleastthefeesimpleoftheestatetothelandlord——as，theiranchorofsafety。Betweenthetwopartiesarosenaturallya，strongspiritofhostility，andtheGovernment，whichwishedto，havethesupportoftheminorities，founditadvisablethatboth，shouldpresenttheirprojectsforconsideration。

AstheProvincialCommitteesworkedindependently，therewas，considerablediversityintheconclusionsatwhichtheyarrived。

Thetaskofcodifyingtheseconclusions，andelaboratingoutof，themageneralschemeofEmancipation，wasentrustedtoaspecial，ImperialCommission，composedpartlyofofficialsandpartlyof，landedproprietorsnamedbytheEmperor。*，Thosewhobelievedthat，thequestionhadreallybeenhandedovertotheNoblesseassumed，thatthisCommissionwouldmerelyarrangethematerialspresented，bytheProvincialCommittees，andthattheEmancipationLawwould，thereafterbeelaboratedbyaNationalAssemblyofdeputieselected，bythenobles。InrealitytheCommission，workinginSt。

PetersburgunderthedirectguidanceandcontroloftheGovernment，fulfilledaverydifferentandmuchmoreimportantfunction。Using，thecombinedprojectsmerelyasastorehousefromwhichitcould，drawtheproposalsitdesired，itformedanewprojectofitsown，whichultimatelyreceived，afterundergoingmodificationindetail，theImperialassent。Insteadofbeingamerechancellerie，asmany，expected，itbecameinacertainsensetheauthorofthe，EmancipationLaw。

*KnownastheRedaktsionnayaKomissiya，orElaborationCommission。

Strictlyspeaking，thereweretwo，buttheyarecommonlyspokenof，asone。

Therewas，aswehaveseen，innearlyalltheProvincialCommittees，amajorityandaminority，theformerofwhichstrovetodefendthe，interestsoftheproprietors，whilstthelatterpaidmoreattention，totheoreticalconsiderations，andendeavouredtosecureforthe，peasantryalargeamountoflandandCommunalself-government。In，theCommissiontherewerethesametwoparties，buttheirrelative，strengthwasverydifferent。Herethemenoftheory，insteadof，formingaminority，weremorenumerousthantheiropponents，and，enjoyedthesupportoftheGovernment，whichregulatedthe，proceedings。Initsinstructionsweseehowmuchthequestionhad，ripenedundertheinfluenceofthetheoreticalconsiderations。

ThereisnolongeranytraceoftheideathattheEmancipation，shouldbegradual;onthecontrary，itisexpresslydeclaredthat，theimmediateeffectofthelawshouldbethecompleteabolitionof，theproprietor’sauthority。Thereisevenevidenceofaclear，intentionofpreventingtheproprietorasfaraspossiblefrom，exercisinganyinfluenceoverhisformerserfs。Thesharp，distinctionbetweenthelandoccupiedbythevillageandthearable，landtobecededinusufructlikewisedisappears，anditismerely，saidthateffortsshouldbemadetoenablethepeasantstobecome，proprietorsofthelandtheyrequired。

TheaimoftheGovernmenthadthusbecomeclearandwelldefined。

Thetasktobeperformedwastotransformtheserfsatonce，and，withtheleastpossibledisturbanceoftheexistingeconomic，conditions，intoaclassofsmallCommunalproprietors——thatisto，say，aclassoffreepeasantspossessingahouseandgardenanda，shareoftheCommunalland。Toeffectthisitwasmerelynecessary，todeclaretheserfpersonallyfree，todrawaclearlineof，demarcationbetweentheCommunallandandtherestoftheestate，andtodeterminethepriceorrentwhichshouldbepaidforthis，Communalproperty，inclusiveofthelandonwhichthevillagewas，built。

Thelawwaspreparedinstrictaccordancewiththeseprinciples。

Astotheamountoflandtobeceded，itwasdecidedthatthe，existingarrangements，foundedonexperience，should，asageneral，rule，bepreserved——inotherwords，thelandactuallyenjoyedby，thepeasantsshouldberetainedbythem;andinordertoprevent，extremecasesofinjustice，amaximumandaminimumwerefixedfor，eachdistrict。Inlikemanner，astothedues，itwasdecidedthat，theexistingarrangementsshouldbetakenasthebasisofthe，calculation，butthatthesumshouldbemodifiedaccordingtothe，amountoflandceded。Atthesametimefacilitiesweretobegiven，forthetransformingofthelabourduesintoyearlymoneypayments，andforenablingthepeasantstoredeemthem，withtheassistance，oftheGovernment，intheformofcredit。

Thisideaofredemptioncreated，atfirst，afeelingofalarmamong，theproprietors。Itwasbadenoughtobeobligedtocedealarge，partoftheestatesinusufruct，butitseemedtobemuchworseto，havetosellit。Redemptionappearedtobeaspeciesofwholesale，confiscation。Butverysoonitbecameevidentthattheredeeming，ofthelandwasprofitableforbothparties。Cessioninperpetual，usufructwasfelttobeinrealitytantamounttoalienationofthe，land，whilsttheimmediateredemptionwouldenabletheproprietors，whohadgenerallylittleornoreadymoneytopaytheirdebts，to，cleartheirestatesfrommortgages，andtomaketheoutlays，necessaryforthetransitiontofreelabour。Themajorityofthe，proprietors，therefore，saidopenly：“LettheGovernmentgiveusa，suitablecompensationinmoneyforthelandthatistakenfromus，sothatwemaybeatoncefreedfromallfurthertroubleand，annoyance。”

WhenitbecameknownthattheCommissionwasnotmerelyarranging，andcodifyingthematerials，butelaboratingalawofitsownand，regularlysubmittingitsdecisionsforImperialconfirmation，a，feelingofdissatisfactionappearedalloverthecountry。The，noblesperceivedthatthequestionwasbeingtakenoutoftheir，hands，andwasbeingsolvedbyasmallbodycomposedofbureaucrats，andnomineesoftheGovernment。Afterhavingmadeavoluntary，sacrificeoftheirrights，theywerebeingunceremoniouslypushed，aside。Theyhadstill，however，themeansofcorrectingthis。The，Emperorhadpubliclypromisedthatbeforetheprojectshouldbecome，lawdeputiesfromtheProvincialCommitteesshouldbesummonedto，St。Petersburgtomakeobjectionsandproposeamendments。

TheCommissionandtheGovernmentwouldhavewillinglydispensed，withallfurtheradvicefromthenobles，butitwasnecessaryto，redeemtheImperialpromise。Deputieswerethereforesummonedto，thecapital，buttheywerenotallowedtoform，astheyhoped，a，publicassemblyforthediscussionofthequestion。Alltheir，effortstoholdmeetingswerefrustrated，andtheywererequired，merelytoanswerinwritingalistofprintedquestionsregarding，mattersofdetail。Thefundamentalprinciples，theyweretold，had，alreadyreceivedtheImperialsanction，andwereconsequently，removedfromdiscussion。Thosewhodesiredtodiscussdetailswere，invitedindividuallytoattendmeetingsoftheCommission，where，theyfoundoneortwomembersreadytoengagewiththeminalittle，dialecticalfencing。This，ofcourse，didnotgivemuch，satisfaction。Indeed，theironicaltoneinwhichthefencingwas，toooftenconductedservedtoincreasetheexistingirritation。It，wasonlytooevidentthattheCommissionhadtriumphed，andsomeof，thememberscouldjustlyboastthattheyhaddrownedthedeputies，ininkandburiedthemunderreamsofpaper。

Believing，oratleastprofessingtobelieve，thattheEmperorwas，beingdeceivedinthismatterbytheAdministration，severalgroups，ofdeputiespresentedpetitionstohisMajestycontaininga，respectfulprotestagainstthemannerinwhichtheyhadbeen，treated。Butbythisacttheysimplylaidthemselvesopento“the，mostunkindestcutofall。”，Thosewhohadsignedthepetitions，receivedaformalreprimandthroughthepolice。

Thistreatmentofthedeputies，and，aboveall，thisgratuitous，insult，producedamongthenoblesastormofindignation。They，feltthattheyhadbeenentrapped。TheGovernmenthadartfully，inducedthemtoformprojectsfortheemancipationoftheirserfs，andnow，afterhavingbeenusedasacat’s-pawintheworkoftheir，ownspoliation，theywerebeingunceremoniouslypushedasideasno，longernecessary。Thosewhohadindulgedinthehopeofgaining，politicalrightsfelttheblowmostkeenly。Afirstgentleand，respectfulattemptatremonstrancehadbeenansweredbya，dictatorialreprimandthroughthepolice！，Insteadofbeingcalled，totakeanactivepartinhomeandforeignpolitics，theywere，beingtreatedasnaughtyschoolboys。Inviewofthisinsultall，differencesofopinionwereforthemomentforgotten，andall，partiesresolvedtojoininavigorousprotestagainstthe，insolenceandarbitraryconductofthebureaucracy。

Aconvenientopportunityofmakingthisprotestinalegalwaywas，offeredbythetriennialProvincialAssembliesoftheNoblesse，abouttobeheldinseveralprovinces。Soatleastitwasthought，buthereagaintheNoblessewascheckmatedbytheAdministration。

BeforetheopeningoftheAssembliesacircularwasissued，excludingtheEmancipationquestionfromtheirdeliberations。Some，Assembliesevadedthisorder，andsucceededinmakingalittle，demonstrationbysubmittingtohisMajestythatthetimehad，arrivedforotherreforms，suchastheseparationofthe，administrativeandjudicialpowers，andthecreationoflocalself-

government，publicjudicialprocedure，andtrialbyjury。

AllthesereformswerevoluntarilyeffectedbytheEmperorafew，yearslater，butthemannerinwhichtheyweresuggestedseemedto，savourofinsubordination，andwasaflagrantinfractionofthe，principlethatallinitiativeinpublicaffairsshouldproceedfrom，thecentralGovernment。Newmeasuresofrepressionwere，accordinglyused。SomeMarshalsofNoblessewerereprimandedand，othersdeposed。Oftheconspicuousleaders，twowereexiledto，distantprovincesandothersplacedunderthesupervisionofthe，police。Worstofall，thewholeagitationstrengthenedthe，CommissionbyconvincingtheEmperorthatthemajorityofthe，nobleswerehostiletohisbenevolentplans。*

*Thiswasamisinterpretationofthefacts。Verymanyofthose，whojoinedintheprotestsincerelysympathisedwiththeideaof，Emancipation，andwerereadytobeevenmore“liberal“thanthe，Government。

WhentheCommissionhadfinisheditslabours，itsproposalspassed，tothetwohigherinstances——theCommitteeforPeasantAffairsand，theCouncilofState——andinbothofthesetheEmperordeclared，plainlythathecouldallownofundamentalchanges。Fromallthe，membershedemandedacompleteforgetfulnessofformerdifferences，andaconscientiousexecutionofhisorders;“Foryoumust，remember，“hesignificantlyadded，“thatinRussialawsaremadeby，theAutocraticPower。”，Fromanhistoricalreviewofthequestion，hedrewtheconclusionthat“theAutocraticPowercreatedserfage，andtheAutocraticPoweroughttoabolishit。”，OnMarch3d，(February19th，oldstyle)，1861，thelawwassigned，andbythat，actmorethantwentymillionsofserfswereliberated。*，A

Manifestocontainingthefundamentalprinciplesofthelawwasat，oncesentalloverthecountry，andanorderwasgiventhatit，shouldbereadinallthechurches。

*Itissometimessaidthatfortymillionsofserfshavebeen，emancipated。Thestatementistrue，ifweregardtheState，peasantsasserfs。Theyheld，asIhavealreadyexplained，an，intermediatepositionbetweenserfageandfreedom。Thepeculiar，administrationunderwhichtheylivedwaspartlyabolishedby，ImperialOrdersofSeptember7th，1859，andOctober23d，1861。In，1866theywereplaced，asregardsadministration，onalevelwith，theemancipatedserfsoftheproprietors。Asageneralrule，they，receivedrathermorelandandhadtopaysomewhatlighterduesthan，theemancipatedserfsinthenarrowersenseoftheterm。

Thethreefundamentalprincipleslaiddownbythelawwere：——

1。Thattheserfsshouldatoncereceivethecivilrightsofthe，freeruralclasses，andthattheauthorityoftheproprietorshould，bereplacedbyCommunalself-government。

2。ThattheruralCommunesshouldasfaraspossibleretainthe，landtheyactuallyheld，andshouldinreturnpaytotheproprietor，certainyearlyduesinmoneyorlabour。

3。ThattheGovernmentshouldbymeansofcreditassistthe，Communestoredeemthesedues，or，inotherwords，topurchasethe，landscededtotheminusufruct。

Withregardtothedomesticserfs，itwasenactedthattheyshould，continuetoservetheirmastersduringtwoyears，andthat，thereaftertheyshouldbecompletelyfree，buttheyshouldhaveno，claimtoashareoftheland。

Itmightbereasonablysupposedthattheserfsreceivedwith，boundlessgratitudeanddelighttheManifestoproclaimingthese，principles。Hereatlastwastherealisationoftheirlong-

cherishedhopes。Libertywasaccordedtothem;andnotonly，liberty，butagoodlyportionofthesoil——abouthalfofallthe，arablelandpossessedbytheproprietors。

InrealitytheManifestocreatedamongthepeasantryafeelingof，disappointmentratherthandelight。Tounderstandthisstrange，factwemustendeavourtoplaceourselvesatthepeasant’spointof，view。

Inthefirstplaceitmustberemarkedthatallvague，rhetorical，phrasesaboutfreelabour，humandignity，nationalprogress，and，thelike，whichmayreadilyproduceamongeducatedmenacertain，amountoftemporaryenthusiasm，fallontheearsoftheRussian，peasantlikedropsofrainonagraniterock。Thefashionable，rhetoricofphilosophicalliberalismisasincomprehensibletohim，astheflowerycircumlocutionarystyleofanOrientalscribewould，betoakeencitymerchant。Theideaoflibertyintheabstract，andthementionofrightswhichliebeyondthesphereofhis，ordinaryeverydaylifeawakennoenthusiasminhisbreast。Andfor，merenameshehasaprofoundindifference。Whatmattersittohim，thatheisofficiallycalled，nota“serf，“buta“freevillage-

inhabitant，“ifthechangeinofficialterminologyisnot，accompaniedbysomeimmediatematerialadvantage？，Whathewantsis，ahousetolivein，foodtoeat，andraimentwherewithaltobe，clothed，andtogainthesefirstnecessariesoflifewithaslittle，labouraspossible。Helookedatthequestionexclusivelyfromtwo，pointsofview——thatofhistoricalrightandthatofmaterial，advantage;andfrombothofthesetheEmancipationLawseemedto，himveryunsatisfactory。

Onthesubjectofhistoricalrightthepeasantryhadtheirown，traditionalconceptions，whichwerecompletelyatvariancewiththe，writtenlaw。AccordingtothepositivelegislationtheCommunal，landformedpartoftheestate，andconsequentlybelongedtothe，proprietor;butaccordingtotheconceptionsofthepeasantryit，belongedtotheCommune，andtherightoftheproprietorconsisted，merelyinthatpersonalauthorityovertheserfswhichhadbeen，conferredonhimbytheTsar。Thepeasantscouldnot，ofcourse，puttheseconceptionsintoastrictlegalform，buttheyoften，expressedthemintheirownhomelylaconicwaybysayingtotheir，master，“Muivashinozemlyanasha“——thatistosay。”Weare，yours，butthelandisours。”，Anditmustbeadmittedthatthis，view，thoughlegallyuntenable，hadacertainhistorical，justification。*

*Seeprecedingchapter。

InoldentimestheNoblessehadheldtheirlandbyfeudaltenure，andwereliabletobeejectedassoonastheydidnotfulfiltheir，obligationstotheState。Theseobligationshadbeenlongsince，abolished，andthefeudaltenuretransformedintoanunconditional，rightofproperty，butthepeasantsclungtotheoldideasinaway，thatstrikinglyillustratesthevitalityofdeep-rootedpopular，conceptions。Intheirmindstheproprietorsweremerelytemporary，occupants，whowereallowedbytheTsartoexactlabouranddues，fromtheserfs。What，then，wasEmancipation？，Certainlythe，abolitionofallobligatorylabourandmoneydues，andperhapsthe，completeejectmentoftheproprietors。Onthislatterpointthere，wasadifferenceofopinion。Allassumed，asamatterofcourse，thattheCommunallandwouldremainthepropertyoftheCommune，butitwasnotsoclearwhatwouldbedonewiththerestofthe，estate。Somethoughtthatitwouldberetainedbytheproprietor，butverymanybelievedthatallthelandwouldbegiventothe，Communes。InthiswaytheEmancipationwouldbeinaccordancewith，historicalrightandwiththematerialadvantageofthepeasantry，forwhoseexclusivebenefit，itwasassumed，thereformhadbeen，undertaken。

Insteadofthisthepeasantsfoundthattheywerestilltopay，dues，evenfortheCommunallandwhichtheyregardedas，unquestionablytheirown。Soatleastsaidtheexpoundersofthe，law。Butthethingwasincredible。Eithertheproprietorsmustbe，concealingormisinterpretingthelaw，orthiswasmerelya，preparatorymeasure，whichwouldbefollowedbythereal，Emancipation。Thuswereawakenedamongthepeasantryaspiritof，mistrustandsuspicionandawidespreadbeliefthattherewouldbe，asecondImperialManifesto，bywhichallthelandwouldbedivided，andalltheduesabolished。

OnthenoblestheManifestomadeaverydifferentimpression。The，factthattheyweretobeentrustedwiththeputtingofthelaw，intoexecution，andtheflatteringallusionsmadetothespiritof，generousself-sacrificewhichtheyhadexhibited，kindledamongst，thementhusiasmenoughtomakethemforgetforatimetheirjust，grievancesandtheirhostilitytowardsthebureaucracy。Theyfound，thattheconditionsonwhichtheEmancipationwaseffectedwereby，nomeanssoruinousastheyhadanticipated;andtheEmperor’s，appealtotheirgenerosityandpatriotismmademanyofthemthrow，themselveswithardourintotheimportanttaskconfidedtothem。

Unfortunatelytheycouldnotatoncebeginthework。Thelawhad，beensohurriedthroughthelaststagesthatthepreparationsfor，puttingitintoexecutionwerebynomeanscompletewhenthe，Manifestowaspublished。Thetaskofregulatingthefuture，relationsbetweentheproprietorsandthepeasantrywasentrusted，tolocalproprietorsineachdistrict，whoweretobecalled，ArbitersofthePeace(MirovuiyePosredniki);butthreemonths，elapsedbeforetheseArbiterscouldbeappointed。Duringthattime，therewasnoonetoexplainthelawtothepeasantsandsettlethe，disputesbetweenthemandtheproprietors;andtheconsequenceof，thiswasthatmanycasesofinsubordinationanddisorderoccurred。

Themuzhiknaturallyimaginedthat，assoonastheTsarsaidhewas，free，hewasnolongerobligedtoworkforhisoldmaster——thatall，obligatorylabourceasedassoonastheManifestowasread。In，vaintheproprietorendeavouredtoconvincehimthat，inregardto，labour，theoldrelationsmustcontinue，asthelawenjoined，until，anewarrangementhadbeenmade。Toallexplanationsand，exhortationsheturnedadeafear，andtotheeffortsoftherural，policehetoooftenopposedadogged，passiveresistance。

Inmanycasesthesimpleappearanceofthehigherauthorities，sufficedtorestoreorder，forthepresenceofoneoftheTsar’s，servantsconvincedmanythattheordertoworkforthepresentas，formerlywasnotamereinventionoftheproprietors。Butnot，infrequentlythebirchhadtobeapplied。Indeed，Iaminclinedto，believe，fromthenumerousdescriptionsofthistimewhichI

receivedfromeye-witnesses，thatrarely，ifever，hadtheserfs，seenandexperiencedsomuchfloggingasduringthesefirstthree，monthsaftertheirliberation。Sometimeseventhetroopshadtobe，calledout，andonthreeoccasionstheyfiredonthepeasantswith，ballcartridge。Inthemostseriouscase，whereayoungpeasant，hadsetupforaprophetanddeclaredthattheEmancipationLawwas，aforgery，fifty-onepeasantswerekilledandseventy-sevenwere，moreorlessseriouslywounded。Inspiteoftheselamentable，incidents，therewasnothingwhicheventhemostviolentalarmist，coulddignifywiththenameofaninsurrection。Nowherewasthere，anythingthatcouldbecalledorganisedresistance。Eveninthe，caseabovealludedto，thethreethousandpeasantsonwhomthe，troopsfiredwereentirelyunarmed，madenoattempttoresist，and，dispersedintheutmosthasteassoonastheydiscoveredthatthey，werebeingshotdown。Hadthemilitaryauthoritiesshownalittle，morejudgment，tact，andpatience，thehistoryoftheEmancipation，wouldnothavebeenstainedevenwiththosethreesolitarycasesof，unnecessarybloodshed。

Thisinterregnumbetweentheerasofserfageandlibertywas，broughttoanendbytheappointmentoftheArbitersofthePeace。

Theirfirstdutywastoexplainthelaw，andtoorganisethenew，peasantself-government。Thelowestinstance，orprimaryorganof，thisself-government，theruralCommune，alreadyexisted，andat，oncerecoveredmuchofitsancientvitalityassoonasthe，authorityandinterferenceoftheproprietorswereremoved。The，secondinstance，theVolost——aterritorialadministrativeunit，comprisingseveralcontiguousCommunes——hadtobecreated，for，nothingofthekindhadpreviouslyexistedontheestatesofthe，nobles。Ithadexisted，however，fornearlyaquarterofacentury，amongthepeasantsoftheDomains，anditwasthereforenecessary，merelytocopyanexistingmodel。

AssoonasalltheVolostsinhisdistricthadbeenthusorganised，theArbiterhadtoundertakethemuchmorearduoustaskof，regulatingtheagrarianrelationsbetweentheproprietorsandthe，Communes——withtheindividualpeasants，beitremembered，the，proprietorshadnodirectrelationswhatever。Ithadbeenenacted，bythelawthatthefutureagrarianrelationsbetweenthetwo，partiesshouldbeleft，asfaraspossible，tovoluntarycontract;

andaccordinglyeachproprietorwasinvitedtocometoanagreement，withtheCommuneorCommunesonhisestate。Onthegroundofthis，agreementastatute-charter(ustavnayagramota)wasprepared，specifyingthenumberofmaleserfs，thequantityoflandactually，enjoyedbythem，anyproposedchangesinthisamount，thedues，proposedtobelevied，andotherdetails。IftheArbiterfound，thattheconditionswereinaccordancewiththelawandclearly，understoodbythepeasants，heconfirmedthecharter，andthe，arrangementwascomplete。Whenthetwopartiescouldnotcometo，anagreementwithinayear，hepreparedacharteraccordingtohis，ownjudgment，andpresenteditforconfirmationtothehigher，authorities。

Thedissolutionofpartnership，ifitbeallowabletousesucha，term，betweentheproprietorandhisserfswassometimesveryeasy，andsometimesverydifficult。Onmanyestatesthecharterdid，littlemorethanlegalisetheexistingarrangements，butinmany，instancesitwasnecessarytoaddto，orsubtractfrom，theamount，ofCommunalland，andsometimesitwasevennecessarytoremovethe，villagetoanotherpartoftheestate。Inallcasestherewere，of，course，conflictinginterestsandcomplicatedquestions，sothat，theArbiterhadalwaysabundanceofdifficultwork。Besidesthis，hehadtoactasmediatorinthosedifferenceswhichnaturally，aroseduringthetransitionperiod，whentheauthorityofthe，proprietorhadbeenabolishedbuttheseparationofthetwoclasses，hadnotyetbeeneffected。Theunlimitedpatriarchalauthority，whichhadbeenformerlywieldedbytheproprietororhissteward，nowpassedwithcertainrestrictionintothehandsoftheArbiter，andthesepeacemakershadtospendagreatpartoftheirtimein，drivingaboutfromoneestatetoanothertoputanendtoalleged，casesofinsubordination——someofwhich，itmustbeadmitted，existedonlyintheimaginationoftheproprietors。

Atfirsttheworkofamicablesettlementproceededslowly。The，proprietorsgenerallyshowedaconciliatoryspirit，andsomeof，themgenerouslyproposedconditionsmuchmorefavourabletothe，peasantsthanthelawdemanded;butthepeasantswerefilledwith，vaguesuspicions，andfearedtocommitthemselvesby“puttingpen，topaper。”，Eventhehighlyrespectedproprietors，whoimagined，thattheypossessedtheunboundedconfidenceofthepeasantry，were，suspectedliketheothers，andtheirgenerousofferswereregarded，aswell-baitedtraps。OftenIhaveheardoldmen，sometimeswith，tearsintheireyes，describethedistrustandingratitudeofthe，muzhikatthistime。Manypeasantsstillbelievedthatthe，proprietorswerehidingtherealEmancipationLaw，andimaginative，orill-intentionedpersonsfosteredthisbeliefbyprofessingto，knowwhatthereallawcontained。Themostabsurdrumourswere，afloat，andwholevillagessometimesacteduponthem。

IntheprovinceofMoscow，forinstance，oneCommunesenta，deputationtotheproprietortoinformhimthat，ashehadalways，beenagoodmaster，theMirwouldallowhimtoretainhishouseand，gardenduringhislifetime。Inanotherlocalityitwasrumoured，thattheTsarsatdailyonagoldenthroneintheCrimea，receiving，allpeasantswhocametohim，andgivingthemasmuchlandasthey，desired;andinordertotakeadvantageoftheImperialliberality，alargebodyofpeasantssetoutfortheplaceindicated，andhad，tohestoppedbythemilitary。

Asanillustrationoftheillusionsinwhichthepeasantryindulged，atthistime，Imaymentionhereoneofthemanycharacteristic，incidentsrelatedtomebygentlemenwhohadservedasArbitersof，thePeace。

IntheprovinceofRiazantherewasoneCommunewhichhadacquired，acertainlocalnotorietyfortheobstinacywithwhichitrefused，allarrangementswiththeproprietor。Myinformant，whowas，Arbiterforthelocality，wasatlastobligedtomakeastatute-

charterforitwithoutitsconsent。Hewished，however，thatthe，peasantsshouldvoluntarilyacceptthearrangementheproposed，and，accordinglycalledthemtogethertotalkwiththemonthesubject。

Afterexplainingfullythepartofthelawwhichrelatedtotheir，case，heaskedthemwhatobjectiontheyhadtomakeafaircontract，withtheiroldmaster。Forsometimehereceivednoanswer，but，graduallybyquestioningindividualshediscoveredthecauseof，theirobstinacy：theywerefirmlyconvincedthatnotonlythe，Communalland，butalsotherestoftheestate，belongedtothem。

Toeradicatethisfalseideahesethimselftoreasonwiththem，andthefollowingcharacteristicdialogueensued：——

Arbiter：“IftheTsargaveallthelandtothepeasantry，what，compensationcouldhegivetotheproprietorstowhomtheland，belongs？”

Peasant：“TheTsarwillgivethemsalariesaccordingtotheir，service。”

Arbiter：“Inordertopaythesesalarieshewouldrequireagreat，dealmoremoney。Wherecouldhegetthatmoney？，Hewouldhaveto，increasethetaxes，andinthatwayyouwouldhavetopayallthe，same。”

Peasant：“TheTsarcanmakeasmuchmoneyashelikes。”

Arbiter：“IftheTsarcanmakeasmuchmoneyashelikes，whydoes，hemakeyoupaythepoll-taxeveryyear？”

Peasant：“ItisnottheTsarthatreceivesthetaxeswepay。”

Arbiter：“Who，then，receivesthem？”

Peasant(afteralittlehesitation，andwithaknowingsmite)：“The，officials，ofcourse！”

Gradually，throughtheeffortsoftheArbiters，thepeasantscame，toknowbettertheirrealposition，andtheworkbegantoadvance，morerapidly。Butsoonitwascheckedbyanotherinfluence。By，theendofthefirstyearthe“liberal，“patrioticenthusiasmof，thenobleshadcooled。Thesentimental，idyllictendencieshad，meltedawayatthefirsttouchofreality，andthosewhohad，imaginedthatlibertywouldhaveanimmediatelysalutaryeffecton，themoralcharacteroftheserfsconfessedthemselvesdisappointed。

Manycomplainedthatthepeasantsshowedthemselvesgreedyand，obstinate，stolewoodfromtheforest，allowedtheircattleto，wanderontheproprietor’sfields，failedtofulfiltheirlegal，obligations，andbroketheirvoluntaryengagements。Atthesame，timethefearsofanagrarianrisingsubsided，sothateventhe，timidweretranquillised。Fromthesecausestheconciliatory，spiritoftheproprietorsdecreased。

Theworkofconciliatingandregulatingbecameconsequentlymore，difficult，butthegreatmajorityoftheArbitersshowedthemselves，equaltothetask，anddisplayedanimpartiality，tactandpatience，beyondallpraise。TothemRussiaisingreatpartindebtedfor，thepeacefulcharacteroftheEmancipation。Hadtheysacrificed，thegeneralgoodtotheinterestsoftheirclass，orhadthey，habituallyactedinthatstern，administrative，militaryspirit，whichcausedtheinstancesofbloodshedabovereferredto，the，propheciesofthealarmistswould，inallprobability，havebeen，realised，andthehistorianoftheEmancipationwouldhavehada，terriblelistofjudicialmassacrestorecord。Fortunatelythey，playedthepartofmediators，astheirnamesignified，ratherthan，thatofadministratorsinthebureaucraticsenseoftheterm，and，theywereanimatedwithajustandhumaneratherthanamerely，legalspirit。Insteadofsimplylayingdownthelaw，andordering，theirdecisionstobeimmediatelyexecuted，theywereeverreadyto，spendhoursintryingtoconquer，bypatientandlaborious，reasoning，theunjustclaimsofproprietorsorthefalse，conceptionsandignorantobstinacyofthepeasants。Itwasanew，spectacleforRussiatoseeapublicfunctionfulfilledby，conscientiousmenwhohadtheirheartintheirwork，whosought，neitherpromotionnordecorations，andwhopaidlessattentionto，thepunctiliousobservanceofprescribedformalitiesthantothe，realobjectsinview。

Therewere，itistrue，afewmentowhomthisdescriptiondoesnot，apply。Someofthesewereundulyundertheinfluenceofthe，feelingsandconceptionscreatedbyserfage。Some，onthe，contrary，erredontheotherside。Desirousofsecuringthefuture，welfareofthepeasantryandofgainingforthemselvesacertain，kindofpopularity，andatthesametimeanimatedwithaviolent，spiritofpseudo-liberalism，theselatteroccasionallyforgotthat，theirdutywastobe，notgenerous，butjust，andthattheyhadno，righttopractisegenerosityatotherpeople’sexpense。AllthisI

amquiteawareof——IcouldevennameoneortwoArbiterswhowere，guiltyofpositivedishonesty——butIholdthatthesewererare，exceptions。Thegreatmajoritydidtheirdutyfaithfullyandwell。

Theworkofconcludingcontractsfortheredemptionofthedues，or，inotherwords，forthepurchaseofthelandcededinperpetual，usufruct，proceededslowly。Thearrangementwasasfollows：——

Thedueswerecapitalisedatsixpercent。andtheGovernmentpaid，atoncetotheproprietorsfour-fifthsofthewholesum。The，peasantsweretopaytotheproprietortheremainingfifth，either，atonceorininstallments，andtotheGovernmentsixpercent。for，forty-nineyearsonthesumadvanced。Theproprietorswillingly，adoptedthisarrangement，foritprovidedthemwithasumofready，money，andfreedthemfromthedifficulttaskofcollectingthe，dues。Butthepeasantsdidnotshowmuchdesiretoundertakethe，operation。SomeofthemstillexpectedasecondEmancipation，and，thosewhodidnottakethispossibilityintotheircalculations，werelittledisposedtomakepresentsacrificesfordistant，prospectiveadvantageswhichwouldnotberealisedforhalfa，century。Inmostcasestheproprietorwasobligedtoremit，in，wholeorinpart，thefifthtobepaidbythepeasants。Many，Communesrefusedtoundertaketheoperationonanyconditionsand，inconsequenceofthisnotafewproprietorsdemandedtheso-called，obligatoryredemption，accordingtowhichtheyacceptedthefour-

fifthsfromtheGovernmentasfullpayment，andtheoperationwas，thuseffectedwithoutthepeasantsbeingconsulted。Thetotal，numberofmaleserfsemancipatedwasaboutninemillionsandthree-

quarters，*andofthese，onlyaboutsevenmillionsandaquarter，had，atthebeginningof1875，maderedemptioncontracts。Ofthe，contractssignedatthattime，aboutsixty-threepercent，were，“obligatory。”，In1887theredemptionwasmadeobligatoryforboth，parties，sothatallCommunesarenowproprietorsoftheland，previouslyheldinperpetualusufruct;andin1932thedebtwill，havebeenextinguishedbythesinkingfund，andallredemption，paymentswillhaveceased。

*Thisdoesnotincludethedomesticserfswhodidnotreceive，land。

Theserfswerethusnotonlyliberated，butalsomadepossessorsof，landandputontheroadtobecomingCommunalproprietors，andthe，oldCommunalinstitutionswerepreservedanddeveloped。Inanswer，tothequestion，Whoeffectedthisgiganticreform？wemaysaythat，thechiefmeritundoubtedlybelongstoAlexanderII。Hadhenot，possessedaverygreatamountofcouragehewouldneitherhave，raisedthequestionnorallowedittoberaisedbyothers，andhad，henotshownagreatdealmoredecisionandenergythanwas，expected，thesolutionwouldhavebeenindefinitelypostponed。

Amongthemembersofhisownfamilyhefoundanableandenergetic，assistantinhisbrother，theGrandDukeConstantine，andawarm，sympathiserwiththecauseintheGrandDuchessHelena，aGerman，Princessthoroughlydevotedtothewelfareofheradoptedcountry。

Butwemustnotoverlooktheimportantpartplayedbythenobles。

Theirconductwasverycharacteristic。Assoonasthequestionwas，raisedalargenumberofthemadoptedtheliberalideaswith，enthusiasm;andassoonasitbecameevidentthatEmancipationwas，inevitable，allmadeaholocaustoftheirancientrightsand，demandedtobeliberatedatoncefromallrelationswiththeir，serfs。Moreover，whenthelawwaspasseditwastheproprietors，whofaithfullyputitintoexecution。Lastly，weshouldremember，thatpraiseisduetothepeasantryfortheirpatienceunder，disappointmentandfortheirorderlyconductassoonasthey，understoodthelawandrecognisedittobethewilloftheTsar。

ThusitmayjustlybesaidthattheEmancipationwasnotthework，ofoneman，oroneparty，oroneclass，butofthenationasa，whole。*

*ThenamesmostcommonlyassociatedwiththeEmancipationare，GeneralRostoftsef，Lanskoi(MinisteroftheInterior)，Nicholas，Milutin，PrinceTchererkassky，G。Samarin，Koshelef。Manyothers，suchasI。A。Solovief，Zhukofski，Domontovitch，Giers——brotherof，M。Giers，afterwardsMinisterforForeignAffairs——arelessknown，butdidvaluablework。Toallofthese，withtheexceptionofthe，firsttwo，whodiedbeforemyarrivalinRussia，Ihavetoconfess，myobligations。ThelateNicholasMilutinrenderedmespecial，servicebyputtingatmydisposalnotonlyalltheofficialpapers，inhispossession，butalsomanydocumentsofamoreprivatekind。

ByhisearlyandlamenteddeathRussialostoneofthegreatest，statesmenshehasyetproduced。

CHAPTERXXX

THELANDEDPROPRIETORSSINCETHEEMANCIPATION

TwoOppositeOpinions——DifficultiesofInvestigation——TheProblem，Simplified——DirectandIndirectCompensation——TheDirect，CompensationInadequate——WhattheProprietorsHaveDonewiththe，RemainderofTheirEstates——ImmediateMoralEffectoftheAbolition，ofSerfage——TheEconomicProblem——TheIdealSolutionandthe，DifficultyofRealisingIt——MorePrimitiveArrangements——The，NorthernAgriculturalZone——TheBlack-earthZone——TheLabour，Difficulty——TheImpoverishmentoftheNoblesseNotaNew，Phenomenon——MortgagingofEstates——GradualExpropriationofthe，Noblesse-RapidIncreaseintheProductionandExportofGrain——How，FarthisHasBenefitedtheLandedProprietors。

WhentheEmancipationquestionwasraisedtherewasaconsiderable，diversityofopinionastotheeffectwhichtheabolitionof，serfagewouldhaveonthematerialinterestsofthetwoclasses，directlyconcerned。ThePressand“theyounggeneration“tookan，optimisticview，andendeavouredtoprovethattheproposedchange，wouldbebeneficialaliketoproprietorsandtopeasants。Science，itwassaid，haslongsincedecidedthatfreelabourisimmensely，moreproductivethanslaveryorserfage，andtheprinciplehasbeen，alreadyprovedtodemonstrationinthecountriesofWesternEurope。

Inallthosecountriesmodernagriculturalprogressbeganwiththe，emancipationoftheserfs，andincreasedproductivitywas，everywheretheimmediateresultofimprovementsinthemethodof，culture。ThusthepoorlightsoilsofGermany，France，andHolland，havebeenmadetoproducemorethanthevaunted“blackearth“of，Russia。Andfromtheseameliorationstheland-owningclasshas，everywherederivedthechiefadvantages。Arenotthelanded，proprietorsofEngland——thecountryinwhichserfagewasfirst，abolished——therichestintheworld？，Andisnottheproprietorof，afewhundredmorgeninGermanyoftenricherthantheRussiannoble，whohasthousandsofdessyatins？，Bytheseandsimilarplausible，argumentsthePressendeavouredtoprovetotheproprietorsthat，theyought，evenintheirowninterest，toundertakethe，emancipationoftheserfs。Manyproprietors，however，showed，littlefaithintheabstractprinciplesofpoliticaleconomyand，thevagueteachingsofhistoryasinterpretedbythecontemporary，periodicalliterature。Theycouldnotalwaysrefutetheingenious，argumentsadducedbythemenofmoresanguinetemperament，butthey，feltconvincedthattheirprospectswerenotnearlysobrightas，thesemenrepresentedthemtobe。TheybelievedthatRussiawasa，peculiarcountry，andtheRussiansapeculiarpeople。Thelower，classesinEngland，France，Holland，andGermanywerewellknownto，belaboriousandenterprising，whiletheRussianpeasantwas，notoriouslylazy，andwouldcertainly，iflefttohimself，notdo，moreworkthanwasabsolutelynecessarytokeephimfromstarving。

Freelabourmightbemoreprofitablethanserfageincountries，wheretheupperclassespossessedtraditionalpracticalknowledge，andabundanceofcapital，butinRussiatheproprietorshadneither，thepracticalknowledgenorthereadymoneynecessarytomakethe，proposedameliorationsinthesystemofagriculture。Toallthis，itwasaddedthatasystemofemancipationbywhichthepeasants，shouldreceivelandandbemadecompletelyindependentofthe，landedproprietorshadnowherebeentriedonsuchalargescale。

Therewerethustwodiametricallyoppositeopinionsregardingthe，economicresultsoftheabolitionofserfage，andwehavenowto，examinewhichofthesetwoopinionshasbeenconfirmedby，experience。

Letuslookatthequestionfirstfromthepointofviewofthe，land-owners。

Thereaderwhohasneverattemptedtomakeinvestigationsofthis，kindmaynaturallyimaginethatthequestioncanbeeasilydecided，bysimplyconsultingalargenumberofindividualproprietors，and，drawingageneralconclusionfromtheirevidence。InrealityI

foundthetaskmuchmoredifficult。Afterroamingaboutthe，countryforfiveyears(1870-75)，collectinginformationfromthe，bestavailablesources，Ihesitatedtodrawanysweeping，conclusions，andmystateofmindatthattimewasnaturally，reflectedintheearlyeditionsofthiswork。Asarulethe，proprietorscouldnotstateclearlyhowmuchtheyhadlostor，gained，andwhendefiniteinformationwasobtainedfromthemitwas，notalwaystrustworthy。Inthetimeofserfageveryfewofthem，hadbeeninthehabitofkeepingaccurateaccounts，oraccountsof，anykind，andwhentheylivedontheirestatestherewereavery，largenumberofitemswhichcouldnotpossiblybereducedto，figures。Ofcourse，eachproprietorhadageneralideaasto，whetherhispositionwasbetterorworsethanithadbeeninthe，oldtimes，butthevaguestatementsmadebyindividualsregarding，theirformerandtheiractualrevenueshadlittleornoscientific，value。Somanyconsiderationswhichhadnothingtodowithpurely，agrarianrelationsenteredintothecalculationsthatthe，conclusionsdidnothelpmemuchtoestimatetheeconomicresults，oftheEmancipationasawhole。Nor，itmustbeconfessed，wasthe，testimonybyanymeansalwaysunbiassed。Notafewspokeofthe，greatreforminanepicordithyrambictone，andamongtheseI

easilydistinguishedtwocategories：theonedesiredtoprovethat，themeasurewasacompletesuccessineveryway，andthatall，classeswerebenefitedbyit，notonlymorally，butalso，materially;whilsttheothersstrovetorepresenttheproprietors，ingeneral，andthemselvesinparticular，astheself-sacrificing，victimsofagreatandnecessarypatrioticreform——asmartyrsin，thecauseoflibertyandprogress。Idonotforamomentsuppose，thatthesetwogroupsofwitnesseshadaclearlyconceived，intentionofdeceivingormisleading，butasacautious，investigatorIhadtomakeallowancefortheiridealisingand，sentimentaltendencies。

Sincethattimethesituationhasbecomemuchclearer，andduring，recentvisitstoRussiaIhavebeenabletoarriveatmuchmore，definiteconclusions。TheseInowproceedtocommunicatetothe，reader。

TheEmancipationcausedtheproprietorsofallclassestopass，throughasevereeconomiccrisis。Periodsoftransitionalways，involvemuchsuffering，andtheamountofsufferingisgenerallyin，theinverseratiooftheprecautionstakenbeforehand。InRussia，theprecautionshadbeenneglected。Notoneproprietorina，hundredhadmadeanyseriouspreparationsfortheinevitable，change。OntheeveoftheEmancipationtherewereaboutten，millionsofmaleserfsonprivateproperties，andofthesenearly，sevenmillionsremainedundertheoldsystemofpayingtheirdues，inlabour。Ofcourse，everybodyknewthatEmancipationmustcome，soonerorlater，butfore-thought，prudence，andreadinesstotake，timebytheforelockarenotamongtheprominenttraitsofthe，Russiancharacter。Hencemostoftheland-ownersweretaken，unawares。Butwhileallsuffered，thereweredifferencesof，degree。Somewerecompletelyshipwrecked。Solongasserfage，existedalltherelationsoflifewereill-definedandextremely，elastic，sothatamanwhowashopelesslyinsolventmightcontrive，withverylittleeffort，tokeephisbeadabovewaterforhalfa，lifetime。ForsuchmentheEmancipation，likeacrisisinthe，commercialworld，broughtadayofreckoning。Itdidnotreally，ruinthem，butitshowedthemandtheworldatlargethattheywere，ruined，andtheycouldnolongercontinuetheiroldmodeoflife。

Forothersthecrisiswasmerelytemporary。Theseemergedwitha，largerincomethantheyeverhadbefore，butIamnotpreparedto，saythattheirmaterialconditionhasimproved，becausethesocial，habitshavechanged，thecostoflivinghasbecomemuchgreater，andtheworkofadministeringestatesisincomparablymore，complicatedandlaboriousthanintheoldpatriarchaltimes。

Wemaygreatlysimplifytheproblembyreducingittotwodefinite，questions：

1。Howfarweretheproprietorsdirectlyindemnifiedfortheloss，ofserflabourandforthetransferinperpetualusufructofa，largepartoftheirestatestothepeasantry？

2。Whathavetheproprietorsdonewiththeremainderoftheir，estates，andhowfarhavetheybeenindirectlyindemnifiedbythe，economicchangeswhichhavetakenplacesincetheEmancipation？

WiththefirstofthesequestionsIshalldealverybriefly，becauseitisacontroversialsubjectinvolvingverycomplicated，calculationswhichonlyaspecialistcanunderstand。The，conclusionatwhichIhavearrived，aftermuchpatientresearch，is，thatinmostprovincesthecompensationwasinadequate，andthis，conclusionisconfirmedbyexcellentnativeauthorities。M。

Bekhteyev，forexample，oneofthemostlaboriousandconscientious，investigatorsinthisfieldofresearch，andtheauthorofan，admirableworkontheeconomicresultsoftheEmancipation，*told，merecently，incourseofconversation，thatinhisopinionthe，peasantduesfixedbytheEmancipationLawrepresented，throughout，theBlack-earthZone，onlyaboutahalfofthevalueofthelabour，previouslysuppliedbytheserfs。TothisImustaddthatthe，compensationwasinrealitynotnearlysogreatasitseemedtobe，accordingtothetermsofthelaw。Astheproprietorsfoundit，extremelydifficulttocollecttheduesfromtheemancipatedserfs，andastheyrequiredacertainamountofcapitaltoreorganisethe，estateonthenewbasisoffreelabour，mostofthemwere，practicallycompelledtodemandtheobligatoryredemptionofthe，land(obiazatelnyvuikup)，andinadoptingthisexpedienttheyhad，tomakeconsiderablesacrifices。Notonlyhadtheytoacceptas，fullpaymentfour-fifthsofthenormalsum，butofthisamountthe，greaterportionwaspaidinTreasurybonds，whichfellatonceto，80percent。oftheirnominalvalue。

*“KhozaistvenniyeItogiistekshagoSorokoletiya。”St。Petersburg，1902。

Letusnowpasstothesecondpartoftheproblem：Whathavethe，proprietorsdonewiththepartoftheirestateswhichremainedto，themaftercedingtherequiredamountoflandtotheCommunes？

Havetheybeenindirectlyindemnifiedforthelossofserflabour，bysubsequenteconomicchanges？，Howfarhavetheysucceededin，makingthetransitionfromserfagetofreelabour，andwhat，revenuesdotheynowderivefromtheirestates？，Theanswerto，thesequestionswillnecessarilycontainsomeaccountofthe，presenteconomicpositionoftheproprietors。

OnallproprietorstheEmancipationhadatleastonegoodeffect：

itdraggedthemforciblyfromtheoldpathofindolenceandroutine，andcompelledthemtothinkandcalculateregardingtheiraffairs。

Thehereditarylistlessnessandapathy，thetraditionalhabitof，lookingontheestatewithitsserfsasakindofself-acting，machinewhichmustalwaysspontaneouslysupplytheownerwiththe，meansofliving，theinveteratepracticeofspendingallready，moneyandoftakinglittleheedforthemorrow——allthis，withmuch，thatresultedfromit，wasrudelysweptawayandbecameathingof，thepast。

Thebroad，easyroadonwhichtheproprietorshadhithertolet，themselvesbebornealongbytheforceofcircumstancessuddenly，splitupintoanumberofnarrow，arduous，thornypaths。Eachone，hadtousehisjudgementtodeterminewhichofthepathsheshould，adopt，and，havingmadehischoice，hehadtostrugglealongashe，bestcould。Irememberonceaskingaproprietorwhateffectthe，Emancipationhadhadontheclasstowhichhebelonged，andhegave，meananswerwhichisworthrecording。”Formerly，“hesaid，“we，keptnoaccountsanddrankchampagne;nowwekeepaccountsand，contentourselveswithkvass。”，Likeallepigrammaticsayings，this，laconicreplyisfarfromgivingacompletedescriptionofreality，butitindicatesinagraphicwayachangethathasunquestionably，takenplace。Assoonasserfagewasabolisheditwasnolonger，possibletolivelike“theflowersofthefield。”，Manya，proprietorwhohadformerlyvegetatedinapatheticeasehadtoask，himselfthequestion：HowamItogainaliving？，Allhadto，considerwhatwasthemostprofitablewayofemployingtheland，thatremainedtothem。

Theidealsolutionoftheproblemwasthatassoonasthepeasant-

landhadbeendemarcated，theproprietorshouldtaketofarmingthe，remainderofhisestatebymeansofhiredlabourandagricultural，machinesinWestEuropeanorAmericanfashion。Unfortunately，this，solutioncouldnotbegenerallyadopted，becausethegreatmajority，ofthelandlords，evenwhentheyhadtherequisitepractical，knowledgeofagriculture，hadnottherequisitecapital，andcould，noteasilyobtainit。Whereweretheytofindmoneyforbuying，cattle，horses，andagriculturalimplements，forbuildingstables，andcattle-sheds，andfordefrayingalltheotherinitialexpenses？

Andsupposingtheysucceededinstartingthenewsystem，wherewas，theworkingcapitaltocomefrom？，TheoldGovernmentinstitution，inwhichestatescouldbemortgagedaccordingtothenumberof，serfswaspermanentlyclosed，andthenewland-creditassociations，hadnotyetcomeintoexistence。Toborrowfromprivate，capitalistswasnottobethoughtof，formoneywassoscarcethan，tenpercent。wasconsidereda“friendly“rateofinterest。

Recoursemightbehad，itistrue，totheredemptionoperation，but，inthatcasetheGovernmentwoulddeducttheunpaidportionofany，outstandingmortgage，andwouldpaythebalanceindepreciated，Treasurybonds。Inthesecircumstancestheproprietorscouldnot，asarule，adoptwhatIhavecalledtheidealsolution，andhadto，contentthemselveswithsomesimplerandmoreprimitive，arrangement。Theycouldemploythepeasantsoftheneighbouring，villagestopreparethelandandreapthecropseitherforafixed，sumperacreoronthemetayagesystem，ortheycouldlettheir，landtothepeasantsforone，threeorsixyearsatamoderate，rent。

Inthenorthernagriculturalzone，wherethesoilispoorand，primitivefarmingwithfreelabourcanhardlybemadetopay，the，proprietorshadtolettheirlandatasmallrent，andthoseof，themwhocouldnotfindplacesintheruraladministrationmigrated，tothetownsandsoughtemploymentinthepublicserviceorinthe，numerouscommercialandindustrialenterpriseswhichwerespringing，upatthattime。Theretheyhavesinceremained。Theircountry-

houses，ifinhabitedatall，areoccupiedonlyforafewmonthsin，summer，andtoooftenpresentamelancholyspectacleofneglectand，dilapidation。IntheBlack-earthZone，onthecontrary，wherethe，soilstillpossessesenoughofitsnaturalfertilitytomake，farmingonalargescaleprofitable，theestatesareinavery，differentcondition。Theownerscultivateatleastapartoftheir，property，andcaneasilylettothepeasantsatafairrentthe，landwhichtheydonotwishtofarmthemselves。Somehaveadopted，themetayagesystem;othersgetthefield-workdonebythepeasants，atsomuchperacre。Themoreenergetic，whohavecapitalenough，attheirdisposal，organisefarmswithhiredlabourersonthe，Europeanmodel。Iftheyarenotsowelloffasformerly，itis，becausetheyhaveadoptedalesspatriarchalandmoreexpensive，styleofliving。Theirlandhasdoubledandtrebledinvalue，duringthelastthirtyyears，andtheirrevenueshaveincreased，if，notinproportion，atleastconsiderably。In1903Ivisiteda，numberofestatesinthisregionandfoundtheminavery，prosperouscondition，withagriculturalmachinesoftheEnglishor，Americantypes，anincreasingvarietyintherotationofcrops，greatlyimprovedbreedsofcattleandhorses，andalltheother，symptomsofagradualtransitiontoamoreintensiveandmore，rationalsystemofagriculture。

Itmustbeadmitted，however，thatevenintheBlack-earthZonethe，proprietorshaveformidabledifficultiestocontendwith，thechief，ofwhicharethescarcityofgoodfarm-labourers，thefrequent，droughts，thelowpriceofcereals，andthedelayingettingthe，grainconveyedtotheseaports。Oneachofthesedifficultiesand，theremediesthatmightbeappliedIcouldwriteaseparate，chapter，butIfeartoovertaxthereader’spatience，andshall，thereforeconfinemyselftoafewremarksaboutthelabour，question。Onthissubjectthecomplaintsareloudandfrequentall，overthecountry。Thepeasants，itissaid，havebecomelazy，careless，addictedtodrunkenness，andshamelesslydishonestwith，regardtotheirobligations，sothatitisdifficulttofarmeven，intheoldprimitivefashionandimpossibletointroduceradical，improvementsinthemethodsofculture。Inthesesweeping，accusationsthereisacertainamountoftruth。Thatthemuzhik，whenworkingforothers，exertshimselfaslittleaspossible;that，hepayslittleattentiontothequalityoftheworkdone;thathe，showsarecklesscarelessnesswithregardtohisemployer’s，property;thatheiscapableoftakingmoneyinadvanceandfailing，tofulfilhiscontract;thatheoccasionallygetsdrunk;andthat，heisapttocommitcertainactsofpettylarcenywhenhegetsthe，chance——allthisisundoubtedlytrue，whateverbiassedtheorists，andsentimentalpeasant-worshippersmaysaytothecontrary。*，It，wouldbeamistake，however，tosupposethatthefaultisentirely，onthesideofthepeasants，andequallyerroneoustobelievethat，theevilsmightberemedied，asisoftensuggested，bygreater，severityonthepartofthetribunals，orbyanimprovedsystemof，passports。Farmingwithfreelabour，likeeveryotherdepartment，ofhumanactivity，requiresafairamountofknowledge，judgment，prudence，andtact，whichcannotbereplacedbyingenious，legislationorjudicialseverity。Inengaginglabourersor，servantsitisnecessarytoselectthemcarefullyandmakesuch，conditionsthattheyfeelittobetotheirinteresttofulfil，theircontractloyally。Thisistoooftenoverlookedbythe，Russianland-owners。Fromfalseviewsofeconomytheyareinclined，tochoosethecheapestlabourerwithoutexaminingcloselyhisother，qualifications，ortheytakeadvantageofthepeasant’specuniary，embarrassmentsandmakewithhimacontractwhichitishardly，possibleforhimtofulfil。Inspring，forinstance，whenhis，storeofprovisionsisexhaustedandheisbeinghardpressedby，thetax-collector，theysupplyhimwithrye-mealoradvancehima，smallsumofmoneyonconditionofhisundertakingtodoa，relativelylargeamountofsummerwork。Heknowsthatthecontract，isunfairtohim，butwhatishetodo？，Hemustgetfoodfor，himselfandhisfamilyandalittlereadymoneyforhistaxes，for，theCommunalauthoritieswillprobablysellhiscowifhedoesnot，payhisarrears。**，Indesperationheacceptstheconditionsand，putsofftheevilday——consolinghimselfwiththereflectionthat，perhaps(avos’)somethingmayturnupinthemeantime——butwhenthe，timecomesforfulfillinghisengagementsthedilemmarevives。

Accordingtothecontractheoughttoworknearlythewholesummer，fortheproprietor;buthehashisownlandtoattendto，andhe，hastomakeprovisionforthewinter。Insuchcircumstancesthe，temptationtoevadethetermsofthecontractisprobablytoo，strongtoberesisted。

*Amongstthemselvesthepeasantsarenotaddictedtothieving，as，isprovedbythefactthattheyhabituallyleavetheirdoors，unlockedwhentheinmatesofthehouseareworkinginthefields;

butifthemuzhikfindsintheproprietor’sfarmyardapieceof，ironorabitofrope，oranyofthoselittlethingsthathe，constantlyrequiresandhasdifficultyinobtaining，heisveryapt，topickitupandcarryithome。Gatheringfirewoodinthe，landlord’sforesthedoesnotconsiderastheft，because“God，plantedthetreesandwateredthem，“andinthetimeofserfagehe，wasallowedtosupplyhimselfwithfirewoodinthisway。

**Untillastyear(1904)theycouldusealsocorporalpunishment，asameansofpressure，andIamnotsurethattheydonot，occasionallyuseitstill，thoughitisnolongerpermittedbylaw。

InRussia，asinothercountries，theprincipleholdstruethatfor，goodlabourafairpricemustbepaid。Severallargeproprietors，ofmyacquaintancewhohabituallyactonthisprincipleassureme，thattheyalwaysobtainasmuchgoodlabourastheyrequire。I

mustadd，however，thatthesefortunateproprietorshavethe，advantageofpossessingacomfortableamountofworkingcapital，andarethereforenotcompelled，assomanyoftheirlessfortunate，neighboursare，tomanagetheirestatesonthehand-to-mouth，principle。

Itisonly，Ifear，aminorityofthelandedproprietorsthathave，grappledsuccessfullywiththeseandotherdifficultiesoftheir，position。Asaclasstheyareimpoverishedandindebted，butthis，stateofthingsisnotdueentirelytoserf-emancipation。The，indebtednessoftheNoblesseisahereditarypeculiarityofmuch，olderdate。Bysomeauthoritiesitisattributedtothelawsof，PetertheGreat，bywhichallnobleswereobligedtospendthebest，partoftheirlivesinthemilitaryorcivilservice，andtoleave，themanagementoftheirestatestoincompetentstewards。However，thatmaybe，itiscertainthatfromthemiddleoftheeighteenth，centurydownwardsthefacthasfrequentlyoccupiedtheattentionof，theGovernment，andrepeatedattemptshavebeenmadetoalleviate，theevil。TheEmpressElizabeth，CatherineII。Paul，Alexander，I。NicholasI。AlexanderII。andAlexanderIII。tried，successively，asoneoftheolderukazesexpressedit，“tofreethe，Noblessefromdebtandfromgreedymoney-lenders，andtoprevent，hereditaryestatesfrompassingintothehandsofstrangers。”，The，meanscommonlyadoptedwasthecreationofmortgagebanksfounded，andcontrolledbytheGovernmentforthepurposeofadvancingmoney，tolandedproprietorsatacomparativelylowrateofinterest。

Theseinstitutionsmayhavebeenusefultothefewwhodesiredto，improvetheirestates，buttheycertainlydidnotcure，andrather，tendedtofoster，theinveterateimprovidenceofthemany。Onthe，eveoftheEmancipationtheproprietorswereindebtedtothe，Governmentforthesumof425millionsofroubles，and69percent。

oftheirserfsweremortgaged。Aportionofthisdebtwas，graduallyextinguishedbytheredemptionoperation，sothatin1880

over300millionshadbeenpaidoff，butinthemeantimenewdebts，werebeingcontracted。In1873-74nineprivateland-mortgagebanks，werecreated，andtherewassucharushtoobtainmoneyfromthem，thattheirpaperwasaglutinthemarket，andbecameseriously，depreciated。Whenthepricesofgrainrosein1875-80themortgage，debtwasdiminished，butwhentheybegantofallin1880itagain，increased，andin1881itstoodat396millions。Astherateof，interestwasfelttobeveryburdensometherewasastrongfeeling，amongthelandedproprietorsatthattimethattheGovernmentought，tohelpthem，andin1883thenoblesoftheprovinceofOrel，venturedtoaddresstheEmperoronthesubject。Inreplytothe，address，AlexanderIII。whohadstrongConservativeleanings，was，graciouslypleasedtodeclareinanukazthat“itwasreallytime，todosomethingtohelptheNoblesse，“andaccordinglyanewland-

mortgagebankfortheNoblessewascreated。Thefavourableterms，offeredbyitweretakenadvantageoftosuchanextentthatinthe，firstfouryearsofitsactivity(1886-90)itadvancedtothe，proprietorsover200millionroubles。Thencametwofamineyears，andin1894themortgagedebtoftheNoblesseinthatandother，creditestablishmentswasestimatedat994millions。Ithassince，probablyincreasedratherthandiminished，forinthatyearthe，pricesofgrainbegantofallsteadilyonallthecorn-exchangesof，theworld，andtheyhaveneversincerecovered。

Bymeansofmortgagessomeproprietorssucceededinweatheringthe，storm，butmanygaveupthestrugglealtogether，andsettledinthe，towns。Inthespaceofthirtyyears20，000ofthemsoldtheir，estates，andthus，between1861and1892，theareaofland，possessedbytheNoblessediminished30percent——from77，804，000

to55，500，000dessyatins。

ThisexpropriationoftheNoblesse，asitiscalled，wasevidently，nottheresultmerelyofthetemporaryeconomicdisturbancecaused，bytheabolitionofserfage，forastimewentonitbecamemore，rapid。Duringthefirsttwentyyearstheaverageannualamountof，Noblesselandsoldwas517，000dessyatins，anditrosesteadily，until1892-96，whenitreachedtheamountof785，000。AsIhave，alreadystated，thetownwardmovementoftheproprietorswas，strongestinthebarrenNorthernprovinces。Intheprovinceof，Olonetz，forexample，theyhavealreadypartedwith87percent。of，theirland。Intheblack-soilregion，onthecontrary，thereisno，provinceinwhichmorethan27percent。oftheNoblesselandhas，beenalienated，andinoneprovince(Tula)theamountisonly19

percent。

Thehabitofmortgagingandsellingestatesdoesnotnecessarily，meantheimpoverishmentofthelandlordsasaclass。Ifthe，capitalraisedinthatwayisdevotedtoagriculturalimprovements，theresultmaybeanincreaseofwealth。Unfortunately，inRussia，therealisedcapitalwasusuallynotsoemployed。Averylarge，proportionofitwasspentunproductively，partlyinluxuriesand，livingabroad，andpartlyinunprofitablecommercialandindustrial，speculations。Theindustrialandrailwayfeverwhichragedatthe，timeinducedmanytoriskandlosetheircapital，andithad，indirectlyaninjuriouseffectonallbymakingmoneyplentifulin，thetownsandcreatingamoreexpensivestyleofliving，fromwhich，thelandedgentrycouldnotholdentirelyaloof。

SofarIhavedweltonthedarkshadowsofthepicture，butitis，notallshadow。Inthelastfortyyearstheproductionandexport，ofgrain，whichconstitutethechiefsourceofrevenueforthe，Noblesse，haveincreasedenormously，thanksmainlytotheimproved，meansoftransport。InthefirstdecadeaftertheEmancipation，(1860-70)theaverageannualexportdidnotexceed88millionpuds;

intheseconddecade(1870-80)itleaptupto218millions;andso，itwentupsteadilyuntilinthelastdecadeofthecenturyithad，reached388millions——i。e。oversixmilliontons。Atthesame，timethehometradehadincreasedlikewiseinconsequenceofthe，rapidlygrowingpopulationofthetowns。Allthismusthave，enrichedtheland-proprietors。Nottosuchanextent，itistrue，asthefiguresseemtoindicate，becausetheoldpricescouldnot，bemaintained。Rye，forexample，whichin1868stoodat129kopeks，perpud，fellaslowas56，andduringtherestofthecentury，exceptduringashorttimein1881-82andthefamineyearsof1891-

92，whentherewasverylittlesurplustosell，itneverroseabove，80。Still，theincreaseinquantitymorethancounterbalancedthe，fallinprice。Forexample：in1881theaveragepriceofgrainper，pudwas119，andin1894ithadsunkto59;buttheamountexported，duringthattimerosefrom203to617millionpuds，andthesum，receivedforithadrisenfrom242to369millionsofroubles。

Surelythewholeofthatenormoussumwasnotsquanderedon，luxuriesandunprofitablespeculation！

Thepessimists，however——andinRussiatheirnameislegion——will，notadmitthatanypermanentadvantagehasbeenderivedfromthis，enormousincreaseinexports。Onthecontrary，theymaintainthat，itisanationalmisfortune，becauseitisleadingrapidlytoa，stateofpermanentimpoverishment。Itquicklyexhausted，theysay，thelargereservesofgraininthevillage，sothatassoonas，therewasaverybadharvesttheGovernmenthadtocometothe，rescueandfeedthestarvingpeasantry。Worsethanthis，it，compromisedthefutureprosperityofthecountry。Beingin，pecuniarydifficulties，andconsequentlyimpatienttomakemoney，theproprietorsincreasedinordinatelytheareaofgrain-producing，landattheexpenseofpasturageandforests，withtheresultthat，thelivestockandthemanuringofthelandwerediminished，the，fertilityofthesoilimpaired，andthenecessaryquantityof，moistureintheatmospheregreatlylessened。Thereissometruth，inthiscontention;butitwouldseemthatthesoilandclimate，havenotbeenaffectedsomuchasthepessimistssuppose，because，inrecentyearstherehavebeensomeverygoodharvests。

Onthewhole，then，Ithinkitmaybejustlysaidthattheefforts，ofthelandedproprietorstoworktheirestateswithoutserflabour，havenotasyetbeenbrilliantlysuccessful。Thosewhohavefailed，areinthehabitofcomplainingthattheyhavenotreceived，sufficientsupportfromtheGovernment，whichisaccusedofhaving，systematicallysacrificedtheinterestsofagriculture，the，mainstayofthenationalresources，tothecreationofartificial，andunnecessarymanufacturingindustries。Howfarsuchcomplaints，andaccusationsarewellfoundedIshallnotattempttodecide。It，isacomplicatedpolemicalquestion，intowhichthereaderwould，probablydeclinetoaccompanyme。Letusexamineratherwhat，influencetheabove-mentionedchangeshavehadonthepeasantry。

CHAPTERXXXI

THEEMANCIPATEDPEASANTRY

TheEffectsofLiberty——DifficultyofObtainingAccurate，Information——PessimistTestimonyoftheProprietors——VagueReplies，ofthePeasants——MyConclusionsin1877——NecessityofRevising，Them——MyInvestigationsRenewedin1903——RecentResearchesby，NativePoliticalEconomists——PeasantImpoverishmentUniversally，Recognised——VariousExplanationsSuggested——Demoralisationofthe，CommonPeople——PeasantSelf-government——CommunalSystemofLand，Tenure——HeavyTaxation——DisruptionofPeasantFamilies——Natural，IncreaseofPopulation——RemediesProposed——Migration——Reclamation，ofWasteLand——Land-purchasebyPeasantry——ManufacturingIndustry——

ImprovementofAgriculturalMethods——IndicationsofProgress。

AtthecommencementoflastchapterIpointedoutingeneralterms，thedifficultyofdescribingclearlytheimmediateconsequencesof，theEmancipation。Inbeginningnowtospeakoftheinfluencewhich，thegreatreformhashadonthepeasantry，Ifeelthatthe，difficultyhasreacheditsclimax。Theforeignerwhodesires，merelytogainageneralideaofthesubjectcannotbeexpectedto，takeaninterestindetails，andevenifhetookthetroubleto，examinethemattentively，hewouldderivefromthelabourlittle，realinformation。Whathewishesisaclear，concise，anddogmatic，statementofgeneralresults。Hasthematerialandmoralcondition，ofthepeasantryimprovedsincetheEmancipation？，Thatisthe，simplequestionwhichhehastoput，andhenaturallyexpectsa，simple，categoricalanswer。

Inbeginningmyresearchesinthisinterestingfieldofinquiry，I

hadnoadequateconceptionofthedifficultiesawaitingme。I

imaginedthatIhadmerelytoquestionintelligent，competentmen，whohadhadabundantopportunitiesofobservation，andtocriticise，andboildowntheinformationcollected;butwhenIputthismethod，ofinvestigationtothetestofexperienceitproved，unsatisfactory。VerysoonIcametoperceivethatmyauthorities，wereveryfarfrombeingimpartialobservers。Mostofthemwere，evidentlysufferingfromshatteredillusions。Theyhadexpected，thattheEmancipationwouldproduceinstantaneouslyawonderful，improvementinthelifeandcharacteroftheruralpopulation，and，thatthepeasantwouldbecomeatonceasober，industrious，model，agriculturist。

Theseexpectationswerenotrealised。Oneyearpassed，fiveyears，passed，tenyearspassed，andtheexpectedtransformationdidnot，takeplace。Onthecontrary，thereappearedcertainveryugly，phenomenawhichwerenotatallintheprogramme。Thepeasants，begantodrinkmoreandtoworkless，*andthepubliclifewhich，theCommunalinstitutionsproducedwasbynomeansofadesirable，kind。The“bawlers“(gorlopany)acquiredaprejudicialinfluence，intheVillageAssemblies，andinverymanyVoloststhepeasant，judges，electedbytheirfellow-villagers，acquiredabadhabitof，sellingtheirdecisionsforvodka。Thenaturalconsequenceofall，thiswasthatthosewhohadindulgedinexaggeratedexpectations，sankintoastateofinordinatedespondency，andimaginedthingsto，bemuchworsethantheyreallywere。

*Iamnotatallsurethatthepeasantsreallydrankmore，but，suchwas，andstillis，averygeneralconviction。

Fordifferentreasons，thosewhohadnotindulgedinexaggerated，expectations，andhadnotsympathisedwiththeEmancipationinthe，forminwhichitwaseffected，wereequallyinclinedtotakea，pessimisticviewofthesituation。Ineveryuglyphenomenonthey，foundaconfirmationoftheiropinions。Theresultwasprecisely，whattheyhadforetold。Thepeasantshadusedtheirlibertyand，theirprivilegestotheirowndetrimentandtothedetrimentof，others！

Theextreme“Liberals“werealsoinclined，forreasonsoftheir，own，tojoininthedolefulchorus。Theydesiredthatthe，conditionofthepeasantryshouldbefurtherimprovedby，legislativeenactments，andaccordinglytheypaintedtheevilsin，asdarkcoloursaspossible。

Thus，fromvariousreasons，themajorityoftheeducatedclasses，wereundulydisposedtorepresenttothemselvesandtoothersthe，actualconditionofthepeasantryinaveryunfavourablelight，and，Ifeltthatfromthemtherewasnohopeofobtainingthelumen，siccumwhichIdesired。Idetermined，therefore，totrythemethod，ofquestioningthepeasantsthemselves。Surelytheymustknow，whethertheirconditionwasbetterorworsethanithadbeenbefore，theirEmancipation。

AgainIwasdoomedtodisappointment。Afewmonths’experience，sufficedtoconvincemethatmynewmethodwasbynomeansso，effectualasIhadimagined。Uneducatedpeoplerarelymake，generalisationswhichhavenopracticalutility，andIfeelsure，thatveryfewRussianpeasantseverputtothemselvesthequestion：

AmIbetteroffnowthanIwasinthetimeofserfage？，Whensucha，questionisputtothemtheyfeeltakenaback。Andintruthitis，noeasymattertosumupthetwosidesoftheaccountanddrawan，accuratebalance，saveinthoseexceptionalcasesinwhichthe，proprietorflagrantlyabusedhisauthority。Thepresentmoney-dues，andtaxesareoftenmoreburdensomethanthelabour-duesintheold，times。Iftheserfshadagreatmanyill-definedobligationsto，fulfil——suchasthecartingofthemaster’sgraintomarket，the，preparingofhisfirewood，thesupplyinghimwitheggs，chickens，home-madelinen，andthelike——theyhad，ontheotherhand，agood，manyill-definedprivileges。Theygrazedtheircattleduringa，partoftheyearonthemanor-land;theyreceivedfirewoodand，occasionallylogsforrepairingtheirhuts;sometimesthe，proprietorlentthemorgavethemacoworahorsewhentheyhad，beenvisitedbythecattle-plagueorthehorse-stealer;andin，timesoffaminetheycouldlooktotheirmasterforsupport。All，thishasnowcometoanend。Theirburdensandtheirprivileges，havebeensweptawaytogether，andbeenreplacedbyclearly，defined，unbending，unelasticlegalrelations。Theyhavenowto，paythemarket-priceforeverystickoffirewoodwhichtheyburn，foreverylogwhichtheyrequireforrepairingtheirhouses，and，foreveryroodoflandonwhichtograzetheircattle。Nothingis，nowtobehadgratis。Thedemandtopayisencounteredatevery，step。Ifacowdiesorahorseisstolen，theownercannolonger，gototheproprietorwiththehopeofreceivingapresent，orat，leastaloanwithoutinterest，butmust，ifhehasnoreadymoney，applytothevillageusurer，whoprobablyconsiderstwentyor，thirtypercent，asabynomeansexorbitantrateofinterest。