第5章

Theintervalsvariedfromsixtoforty-oneyears。

Butwhy，itmaybesaid，shouldthewidownotacceptprovisionally，thefiveshares，andlettoothersthepartwhichshedoesnot，require？，Thebalanceofrentafterpaymentofthetaxesmighthelp，hertobringupheryoungfamily。

Soitseemstooneacquaintedonlywiththeruraleconomyof，England，wherelandisscarce，andalwaysgivesarevenuemorethan，sufficienttodefraythetaxes。ButinRussiathepossessionofa，shareofCommunallandisoftennotaprivilege，butaburden。In，someCommunesthelandissopoorandabundantthatitcannotbe，letatanyprice。Inothersthesoilwillrepaycultivation，buta，fairrentwillnotsufficetopaythetaxesanddues。

Toobviatetheseinconvenientresultsofthesimplersystem，many，Communeshaveadoptedtheexpedientofallottingtheland，not，accordingtothenumberofrevisionsouls，butaccordingtothe，workingpowerofthefamilies。Thus，intheinstanceabove，supposed，thewidowwouldreceiveperhapstwoshares，andthelarge，household，containingfiveworkers，wouldreceiveperhapssevenor，eight。Sincethebreaking-upofthelargefamilies，such，inequalityasIhavesupposedis，ofcourse，rare;butinequality，ofalessextremekinddoesstilloccur，andjustifiesadeparture，fromthesystemofallotmentaccordingtotherevision-lists。

Eveniftheallotmentbefairandequitableatthetimeofthe，revision，itmaysoonbecomeunfairandburdensomebythenatural，fluctuationsofthepopulation。Birthsanddeathsmayinthe，courseofaveryfewyearsentirelyaltertherelativeworking，powerofthevariousfamilies。Thesonsofthewidowmaygrowup，tomanhood，whilsttwoorthreeable-bodiedmembersoftheother，familymaybecutoffbyanepidemic。Thus，longbeforeanew，revisiontakesplace，thedistributionofthelandmaybenolonger，inaccordancewiththewantsandcapacitiesofthevariousfamilies，composingtheCommune。Tocorrectthis，variousexpedientsare，employed。SomeCommunestransferparticularlotsfromonefamily，toanother，ascircumstancesdemand;whilstothersmakefromtime，totime，duringtheintervalsbetweentherevisions，acomplete，redistributionandreallotmentoftheland。Ofthesetwosystems，theformerisnowmorefrequentlyemployed。

Thesystemofallotmentadopteddependsentirelyonthewillofthe，particularCommune。InthisrespecttheCommunesenjoythemost，completeautonomy，andnopeasanteverdreamsofappealingagainst，aCommunaldecree。*，Thehigherauthoritiesnotonlyabstainfrom，allinterferenceintheallotmentoftheCommunallands，butremain，inprofoundignoranceastowhichsystemtheCommuneshabitually，adopt。ThoughtheImperialAdministrationhasamostvoracious，appetiteforsymmetricallyconstructedstatisticaltables——manyof，themformedchieflyoutofmaterialssuppliedbythemysterious，innerconsciousnessofthesubordinateofficials——noattempthas，yetbeenmade，sofarasIknow，tocollectstatisticaldatawhich，mightthrowlightonthisimportantsubject。Inspiteofthe，systematicandpersistenteffortsofthecentralisedbureaucracyto，regulateminutelyalldepartmentsofthenationallife，therural，Communes，whichcontainaboutfive-sixthsofthepopulation，remain，inmanyrespectsentirelybeyonditsinfluence，andevenbeyondits，sphereofvision！，Butletnotthereaderbeastonishedovermuch。

HewilllearnintimethatRussiaisthelandofparadoxes;and，meanwhileheisabouttoreceiveastillmorestartlingbitof，information。In“thegreatstrongholdofCaesariandespotismand，centralisedbureaucracy，“theseVillageCommunes，containingabout，five-sixthsofthepopulation，arecapitalspecimensof，representativeConstitutionalgovernmentoftheextremedemocratic，type！

*Thishasbeensomewhatmodifiedbyrecentlegislation。According，totheEmancipationLawof1861，redistributionofthelandcould，takeplaceatanytimeprovideditwasvotedbyamajorityoftwo-

thirdsattheVillageAssembly。Byalawof1893redistribution，cannottakeplaceoftenerthanonceintwelveyears，andmust，receivethesanctionofcertainlocalauthorities。

WhenIsaythattheruralCommuneisagoodspecimenof，Constitutionalgovernment，IusethephraseintheEnglish，andnot，intheContinentalsense。IntheContinentallanguagesa，Constitutionalregimeimpliestheexistenceofalong，formal，document，inwhichthefunctionsofthevariousinstitutions，the，powersofthevariousauthorities，andthemethodsofprocedureare，carefullydefined。SuchadocumentwasneverheardofinRussian，VillageCommunes，exceptthosebelongingtotheImperialDomains，andthespeciallegislationwhichformerlyregulatedtheiraffairs，wasrepealedatthetimeoftheEmancipation。Atthepresentday，theConstitutionofalltheVillageCommunesisoftheEnglish，type——abodyofunwritten，traditionalconceptions，whichhave，grownupandmodifiedthemselvesundertheinfluenceofever-

changingpracticalnecessity。Nodoubtcertaindefinitionsofthe，functionsandmutualrelationsoftheCommunalauthoritiesmightbe，extractedfromtheEmancipationLawandsubsequentofficial，documents，butasaruleneithertheVillageEldernorthemembers，oftheVillageAssemblyeverheardofsuchdefinitions;andyet，everypeasantknows，asifbyinstinct，whateachofthese，authoritiescandoandcannotdo。TheCommuneis，infact，a，livinginstitution，whosespontaneousvitalityenablesitto，dispensewiththeassistanceandguidanceofthewrittenlaw，and，itsconstitutionisthoroughlydemocratic。TheElderrepresents，merelytheexecutivepower。Therealauthorityresidesinthe，Assembly，ofwhichallHeadsofHouseholdsaremembers。*

*AnattemptwasmadebyAlexanderIII。in1884tobringtherural，Communesundersupervisionandcontrolbytheappointmentofrural，officialscalledZemskiyeNatchalniki。Ofthisso-calledreformI

shallhaveoccasiontospeaklater。

Thesimpleprocedure，orrathertheabsenceofallformal，procedure，attheAssemblies，illustratesadmirablytheessentially，practicalcharacteroftheinstitution。Themeetingsareheldin，theopenair，becauseinthevillagethereisnobuilding——except，thechurch，whichcanbeusedonlyforreligiouspurposes——large，enoughtocontainallthemembers;andtheyalmostalwaystake，placeonSundaysorholidays，whenthepeasantshaveplentyof，leisure。AnyopenspacemayserveasaForum。Thediscussionsare，occasionallyveryanimated，butthereisrarelyanyattemptat，speech-making。Ifanyyoungmembershouldshowaninclinationto，indulgeinoratory，heissuretobeunceremoniouslyinterruptedby，someoftheoldermembers，whohaveneveranysympathywithfine，talking。Theassemblagehastheappearanceofacrowdofpeople，whohaveaccidentallycometogetherandarediscussinginlittle，groupssubjectsoflocalinterest。Graduallysomeonegroup，containingtwoorthreepeasantswhohavemoremoralinfluencethan，theirfellows，attractstheothers，andthediscussionbecomes，general。Twoormorepeasantsmayspeakatatime，andinterrupt，eachotherfreely——usingplain，unvarnishedlanguage，notatall，parliamentary——andthediscussionmaybecomeaconfused，unintelligibledin;butatthemomentwhenthespectatorimagines，thattheconsultationisabouttobetransformedintoafreefight，thetumultspontaneouslysubsides，orperhapsageneralroarof，laughterannouncesthatsomeonehasbeensuccessfullyhitbya，strongargumentumadhominem，orbitingpersonalremark。Inany，casethereisnodangerofthedisputantscomingtoblows。No，classofmenintheworldaremoregood-naturedandpacificthan，theRussianpeasantry。Whensobertheyneverfight，andevenwhen，undertheinfluenceofalcoholtheyaremorelikelytobeviolently，affectionatethandisagreeablyquarrelsome。Iftwoofthemtaketo，drinkingtogether，theprobabilityisthatinafewminutes，though，theymayneverhaveseeneachotherbefore，theywillbeexpressing，inverystrongtermstheirmutualregardandaffection，confirming，theirwordswithanoccasionalfriendlyembrace。

Theoreticallyspeaking，theVillageParliamenthasaSpeaker，in，thepersonoftheVillageElder。ThewordSpeakeris，etymologicallylessobjectionablethanthetermPresident，forthe，personageinquestionneversitsdown，butminglesinthecrowd，liketheordinarymembers。Objectionmaybetakentothewordon，thegroundthattheElderspeaksmuchlessthanmanyothermembers，butthismaylikewisebesaidoftheSpeakeroftheHouseof，Commons。Whateverwemaycallhim，theElderisofficiallythe，principalpersonageinthecrowd，andwearstheinsigniaofoffice，intheformofasmallmedalsuspendedfromhisneckbyathin，brasschain。Hisduties，however，areextremelylight。Tocallto，orderthosewhointerruptthediscussionisnopartofhis，functions。Ifhecallsanhonourablemember“Durak“(blockhead)，orinterruptsanoratorwithalaconic“Moltchi！”(holdyour，tongue！)，hedoessoinvirtueofnospecialprerogative，but，simplyinaccordancewithatime-honouredprivilege，whichis，equallyenjoyedbyallpresent，andmaybeemployedwithimpunity，againsthimself。Indeed，itmaybesaidingeneralthatthe，phraseologyandtheprocedurearenotsubjectedtoanystrict，rules。TheEldercomesprominentlyforwardonlywhenitis，necessarytotakethesenseofthemeeting。Onsuchoccasionshe，maystandbackalittlefromthecrowdandsay，“Well，orthodox，haveyoudecidedso？”andthecrowdwillprobablyshout，“Ladno！

ladno！”thatistosay，“Agreed！agreed！”

Communalmeasuresaregenerallycarriedinthiswaybyacclamation;

butitsometimeshappensthatthereissuchadiversityofopinion，thatitisdifficulttotellwhichofthetwopartieshasa，majority。InthiscasetheElderrequeststheonepartytostand，totherightandtheothertotheleft。Thetwogroupsarethen，counted，andtheminoritysubmits，fornooneeverdreamsof，opposingopenlythewilloftheMir。

DuringthereignofNicholasI。anattemptwasmadetoregulateby，thewrittenlawtheprocedureofVillageAssembliesamongstthe，peasantryoftheStateDomains，andamongotherreformsvotingby，ballotwasintroduced;butthenewcustomneverstruckroot。The，peasantsdidnotregardwithfavourthenewmethod，andpersisted，incallingit，contemptuously，“playingatmarbles。”，Here，again，wehaveoneofthosewonderfulandapparentlyanomalousfactswhich，frequentlymeetthestudentofRussianaffairs：theEmperor，NicholasI。theincarnationofautocracyandthechampionofthe，ReactionaryPartythroughoutEurope，forcestheballot-box，the，ingeniousinventionofextremeradicals，onseveralmillionsofhis，subjects！

Inthenorthernprovinces，whereaconsiderableportionofthemale，populationisalwaysabsent，theVillageAssemblygenerally，includesagoodmanyfemalemembers。Thesearewomenwho，on，accountoftheabsenceordeathoftheirhusbands，happentobefor，themomentHeadsofHouseholds。Assuchtheyareentitledtobe，present，andtheirrighttotakepartinthedeliberationsisnever，calledinquestion。Inmattersaffectingthegeneralwelfareof，theCommunetheyrarelyspeak，andiftheydoventuretoenouncean，opiniononsuchoccasionstheyhavelittlechanceofcommanding，attention，fortheRussianpeasantryareasyetlittleimbuedwith，themoderndoctrinesoffemaleequality，andexpresstheiropinion，offemaleintelligencebythehomelyadage：“Thehairislong，but，themindisshort。”，Accordingtooneproverb，sevenwomenhave，collectivelybutonesoul，and，accordingtoastillmoreungallant，popularsaying，womenhavenosoulsatall，butonlyavapour。

Woman，therefore，aswoman，isnotdeservingofmuchconsideration，butaparticularwoman，asHeadofaHousehold，isentitledto，speakonallquestionsdirectlyaffectingthehouseholdunderher，care。If，forinstance，itbeproposedtoincreaseordiminishher，household’sshareofthelandandtheburdens，shewillbeallowed，tospeakfreelyonthesubject，andeventoindulgeinpersonal，invectiveagainsthermaleopponents。Shetherebyexposesherself，itistrue，touncomplimentaryremarks;butanywhichshehappens，toreceivesheisprettysuretorepaywithinterest——referring，perhaps，withpertinentvirulencetothedomesticaffairsofthose，whoattackher。Andwhenargumentandinvectivefail，shecantry，theeffectofpatheticappeal，supportedbycopioustears。

AstheVillageAssemblyisreallyarepresentativeinstitutionin，thefullsenseoftheterm，itreflectsfaithfullythegoodandthe，badqualitiesoftheruralpopulation。Itsdecisionsaretherefore，usuallycharacterisedbyplain，practicalcommonsense，butitis，subjecttooccasionalunfortunateaberrationsinconsequenceof，perniciousinfluences，chieflyofanalcoholickind。Aninstance，ofthisfactoccurredduringmysojournatIvanofka。Thequestion，underdiscussionwaswhetherakabak，orgin-shop，shouldbe，establishedinthevillage。Atraderfromthedistricttown，desiredtoestablishone，andofferedtopaytotheCommunea，yearlysumforthenecessarypermission。Themoreindustrious，respectablemembersoftheCommune，backedbythewholefemale，population，werestronglyopposedtotheproject，knowingfullwell，thatakabakwouldcertainlyleadtotheruinofmorethanone，household;buttheenterprisingtraderhadstrongarguments，wherewithtoseducealargenumberofthemembers，andsucceededin，obtainingadecisioninhisfavour。

TheAssemblydiscussesallmattersaffectingtheCommunalwelfare，and，asthesemattershaveneverbeenlegallydefined，its，recognisedcompetenceisverywide。Itfixesthetimeformaking，thehay，andthedayforcommencingtheploughingofthefallow，field;itdecreeswhatmeasuresshallbeemployedagainstthosewho，donotpunctuallypaytheirtaxes;itdecideswhetheranewmember，shallbeadmittedintotheCommune，andwhetheranoldmembershall，beallowedtochangehisdomicile;itgivesorwithholdspermission，toerectnewbuildingsontheCommunalland;itpreparesandsigns，allcontractswhichtheCommunemakeswithoneofitsownmembers，orwithastranger;itinterfereswheneveritthinksnecessaryin，thedomesticaffairsofitsmembers;itelectstheElder——aswell，astheCommunaltax-collectorandwatchman，wheresuchoffices，exist——andtheCommunalherd-boy;aboveall，itdividesandallots，theCommunallandamongthemembersasitthinksfit。

OfallthesevariousproceedingstheEnglishreadermaynaturally，assumethattheelectionsarethemostnoisyandexciting。In，realitythisisamistake。Theelectionsproducelittle，excitement，forthesimplereasonthat，asarule，noonedesires，tobeelected。Once，itissaid，apeasantwhohadbeenguiltyof，somemisdemeanorwasinformedbyanArbiterofthePeace——aspecies，ofofficialofwhichIshallhaveoccasiontospeakinthesequel——

thathewouldbenolongercapableoffillinganyCommunaloffice;

andinsteadofregrettingthisdiminutionofhiscivilrights，he，bowedverylow，andrespectfullyexpressedhisthanksforthenew，privilegewhichhehadacquired。Thisanecdotemaynotbetrue，butitillustratestheundoubtedfactthattheRussianpeasant，regardsofficeasaburdenratherthanasanhonour。Thereisno，civicambitioninthoselittleruralcommonwealths，whilstthe，privilegeofwearingabronzemedal，whichcommandsnorespect，and，thereceptionofafewroublesassalaryaffordnoadequate，compensationforthetrouble，annoyance，andresponsibilitywhicha，VillageElderhastobear。Theelectionsarethereforegenerally，verytameanduninteresting。Thefollowingdescriptionmayserve，asanillustration：

ItisaSundayafternoon。Thepeasants，maleandfemale，have，turnedoutinSundayattire，andthebrightcostumesofthewomen，helpthesunshinetoputalittlerichcolourintothescene，which，isatordinarytimesmonotonouslygrey。Slowlythecrowdcollects，ontheopenspaceatthesideofthechurch。Allclassesofthe，populationarerepresented。Ontheextremeoutskirtsareabandof，fair-haired，merrychildren——someofthemstandingorlyingonthe，grassandgazingattentivelyattheproceedings，andothersrunning，aboutandamusingthemselves。Closetothesestandagroupof，younggirls，convulsedwithhalf-suppressedlaughter。Thecauseof，theirmerrimentisayouthofsomeseventeensummers，evidentlythe，wagofthevillage，whostandsbesidethemwithanaccordioninhis，hand，andrelatestotheminahalf-whisperhowheisabouttobe，electedElder，andwhatmadprankshewillplayinthatcapacity。

Whenoneofthegirlshappenstolaughoutright，thematronswho，arestandingnearturnroundandscowl;andoneofthem，stepping，forward，orderstheoffender，inatoneofauthority，togohomeat，onceifshecannotbehaveherself。Crestfallen，theculprit，retires，andtheyouthwhoisthecauseofthemerrimentmakesthe，incidentthesubjectofanewjoke。Meanwhilethedeliberations，havebegun。Themajorityofthemembersarechattingtogether，or，lookingatalittlegroupcomposedofthreepeasantsandawoman，whoarestandingalittleapartfromtheothers。Herealonethe，matterinhandisbeingreallydiscussed。Thewomanisexplaining，withtearsinhereyes，andwithavastamountofuseless，repetition，thather“oldman，“whoisElderforthetimebeing，is，veryill，andcannotfulfilhisduties。

“Buthehasnotyetservedayear，andhe’llgetbetter，“remarks，onepeasant，evidentlytheyoungestofthelittlegroup。

“Whoknows？”repliesthewoman，sobbing。”ItisthewillofGod，butIdon’tbelievethathe’lleverputhisfoottotheground，again。TheFeldsherhasbeenfourtimestoseehim，andthedoctor，himselfcameonce，andsaidthathemustbebroughttothe，hospital。”

“Andwhyhashenotbeentakenthere？”

“Howcouldhebetaken？，Whoistocarryhim？，Doyouthinkhe’sa，baby？，Thehospitalisfortyverstsoff。Ifyouputhiminacart，hewoulddiebeforehehadgoneaverst。Andthen，whoknowswhat，theydowithpeopleinthehospital？”Thislastquestioncontained，probablythetruereasonwhythedoctor’sordershadbeen，disobeyed。

“Verywell，that’senough;holdyourtongue，“saysthegrey-beard，ofthelittlegrouptothewoman;andthen，turningtotheother，peasants，remarks，“Thereisnothingtobedone。TheStanovoi，[officerofruralpolice]willbehereoneofthesedays，andwill，makearowagainifwedon’telectanewElder。Whomshallwe，choose？”

Assoonasthisquestionisaskedseveralpeasantslookdowntothe，ground，ortryinsomeotherwaytoavoidattractingattention，lesttheirnamesshouldbesuggested。Whenthesilencehas，continuedaminuteortwo，thegreybeardsays，“ThereisAlexei，Ivanof;hehasnotservedyet！”

“Yes，yes，AlexeiIvanof！”shouthalf-a-dozenvoices，belonging，probablytopeasantswhofeartheymaybeelected。

Alexeiprotestsinthestrongestterms。Hecannotsaythatheis，ill，becausehisbigruddyfacewouldgivehimtheliedirect，but，hefindshalf-a-dozenotherreasonswhyheshouldnotbechosen，andaccordinglyrequeststobeexcused。Buthisprotestationsare，notlistenedto，andtheproceedingsterminate。AnewVillage，Elderhasbeendulyelected。

Farmoreimportantthantheelectionsistheredistributionofthe，Communalland。ItcanmatterbutlittletotheHeadofaHousehold，howtheelectionsgo，providedhehimselfisnotchosen。Hecan，acceptwithperfectequanimityAlexei，orIvan，orNikolai，because，theoffice-bearershaveverylittleinfluenceinCommunalaffairs。

Buthecannotremainapassive，indifferentspectatorwhenthe，divisionandallotmentofthelandcometobediscussed，forthe，materialwelfareofeveryhouseholddependstoagreatextenton，theamountoflandandofburdenswhichitreceives。

Inthesouthernprovinces，wherethesoilisfertile，andthetaxes，donotexceedthenormalrent，theprocessofdivisionand，allotmentiscomparativelysimple。Hereeachpeasantdesiresto，getasmuchlandaspossible，andconsequentlyeachhousehold，demandsallthelandtowhichitisentitled——thatistosay，a，numberofsharesequaltothenumberofitsmembersinscribedin，thelastrevisionlist。TheAssemblyhasthereforenodifficult，questionstodecide。TheCommunalrevisionlistdeterminesthe，numberofsharesintowhichthelandmustbedivided，andthe，numberofsharestobeallottedtoeachfamily。Theonly，difficultylikelytoariseisastowhichparticularsharesa，particularfamilyshallreceive，andthisdifficultyiscommonly，obviatedbythecustomofdrawinglots。Theremaybe，itistrue，somedifferenceofopinionastowhenaredistributionshouldbe，made，butthisquestioniseasilydecidedbyavoteofthe，Assembly。

Verydifferentistheprocessofdivisionandallotmentinmany，Communesofthenorthernprovinces。Herethesoilisoftenvery，unfertileandthetaxesexceedthenormalrent，andconsequentlyit，mayhappenthatthepeasantsstrivetohaveaslittlelandas，possible。Inthesecasessuchscenesasthefollowingmayoccur：

IvanisbeingaskedhowmanysharesoftheCommunallandhewill，take，andrepliesinaslow，contemplativeway，“Ihavetwosons，andthereismyself，soI’lltakethreeshares，orsomewhatless，ifitisyourpleasure。”

“Less！”exclaimsamiddle-agedpeasant，whoisnottheVillage，Elder，butmerelyaninfluentialmember，andtakestheleadingpart，intheproceedings。”Youtalknonsense。Yourtwosonsarealready，oldenoughtohelpyou，andsoontheymaygetmarried，andsobring，youtwonewfemalelabourers。”

“Myeldestson，“explainsIvan，“alwaysworksinMoscow，andthe，otheroftenleavesmeinsummer。”

“Buttheybothsendorbringhomemoney，andwhentheygetmarried，thewiveswillremainwithyou。”

“Godknowswhatwillbe，“repliesIvan，passingoverinsilencethe，firstpartofhisopponent’sremark。”Whoknowsiftheywill，marry？”

“Youcaneasilyarrangethat！”

“ThatIcannotdo。Thetimesarechangednow。Theyoungpeopledo，astheywish，andwhentheydogetmarriedtheyallwishtohave，housesoftheirown。Threeshareswillbeheavyenoughforme！”

“No，no。Iftheywishtoseparatefromyou，theywilltakesome，landfromyou。Youmusttakeatleastfour。Theoldwivesthere，whohavelittlechildrencannottakesharesaccordingtothenumber，ofsouls。”

“Heisarichmuzhik！”saysavoiceinthecrowd。”Layonhimfive，souls！”(thatistosay，givehimfivesharesofthelandandof，theburdens)。

“FivesoulsIcannot！，ByGod，Icannot！”

“Verywell，youshallhavefour，“saystheleadingspirittoIvan;

andthen，turningtothecrowd，inquires，“Shallitbeso？”

“Four！four！”murmursthecrowd;andthequestionissettled。

Nextcomesoneoftheoldwivesjustreferredto。Herhusbandisa，permanentinvalid，andshehasthreelittleboys，onlyoneofwhom，isoldenoughforfieldlabour。Ifthenumberofsoulsweretaken，asthebasisofdistribution，shewouldreceivefourshares;but，shewouldneverbeabletopayfoursharesoftheCommunalburdens。

Shemustthereforereceivelessthanthatamount。Whenaskedhow，manyshewilltake，shereplieswithdowncasteyes，“AstheMir，decides，sobeit！”

“Thenyoumusttakethree。”

“Whatdoyousay，littlefather？”criesthewoman，throwingoff，suddenlyherairofsubmissiveobedience。”Doyouhearthat，ye，orthodox？，Theywanttolayuponmethreesouls！，Wassuchathing，everheardof？，SinceSt。Peter’sDaymyhusbandhasbeen，bedridden——bewitched，itseems，fornothingdoeshimgood。He，cannotputafoottotheground——allthesameasifheweredead;

onlyheeatsbread！”

“Youtalknonsense，“saysaneighbour;“hewasinthekabak[gin-

shop]lastweek。”

“Andyou！”retortsthewoman，wanderingfromthesubjectinhand;

“whatdidYOUdolastparishfete？，Wasitnotyouwhogotdrunk，andbeatyourwifetillsherousedthewholevillagewithher，shrieking？，AndnofurthergonethanlastSunday——pfu！”

“Listen！”saystheoldman，sternlycuttingshortthetorrentof，invective。”Youmusttakeatleasttwosharesandahalf。Ifyou，cannotmanageityourself，youcangetsomeonetohelpyou。”

“Howcanthatbe？，WhereamItogetthemoneytopayalabourer？”

asksthewoman，withmuchwailingandafloodoftears。”Have，pity，yeorthodox，onthepoororphans！，Godwillrewardyou！”and，soon，andsoon。

Ineednotworrythereaderwithafurtherdescriptionofthese，scenes，whicharealwaysverylongandsometimesviolent。All，presentaredeeplyinterested，fortheallotmentofthelandisby，farthemostimportanteventinRussianpeasantlife，andthe，arrangementcannotbemadewithoutendlesstalkinganddiscussion。

Afterthenumberofsharesforeachfamilyhasbeendecided，the，distributionofthelotsgivesrisetonewdifficulties。The，familieswhohaveplentifullymanuredtheirlandstrivetogetback，theiroldlots，andtheCommunerespectstheirclaimssofaras，theseareconsistentwiththenewarrangement;butoftenithappens，thatitisimpossibletoconciliateprivaterightsandCommunal，interests，andinsuchcasestheformeraresacrificedinaway，thatwouldnotbetoleratedbymenofAnglo-Saxonrace。This，leads，however，tonoseriousconsequences。Thepeasantsare，accustomedtoworktogetherinthisway，tomakeconcessionsfor，theCommunalwelfare，andtobowunreservedlytothewillofthe，Mir。Iknowofmanyinstanceswherethepeasantshavesetat，defiancetheauthorityofthepolice，oftheprovincialgovernor，andofthecentralGovernmentitself，butIhaveneverheardofany，instancewherethewilloftheMirwasopenlyopposedbyoneofits，members。

IntheprecedingpagesIhaverepeatedlyspokenabout“sharesof，theCommunalland。”，TopreventmisconceptionImustexplain，carefullywhatthisexpressionmeans。Asharedoesnotmeansimply，aplotorparcelofland;onthecontrary，italwayscontainsat，leastfour，andmaycontainalargenumberofdistinctplots。We，havehereanewpointofdifferencebetweentheRussianvillageand，thevillagesofWesternEurope。

CommunallandinRussiaisofthreekinds：thelandonwhichthe，villageisbuilt，thearableland，andthemeadoworhay-field，if，thevillageisfortunateenoughtopossessone。Onthefirstof，theseeachfamilypossessesahouseandgarden，whicharethe，hereditarypropertyofthefamily，andareneveraffectedbythe，periodicalredistributions。Theothertwokindsarebothsubject，toredistribution，butonsomewhatdifferentprinciples。

ThewholeoftheCommunalarablelandisfirstofalldividedinto，threefields，tosuitthetriennialrotationofcropsalready，described，andeachfieldisdividedintoanumberoflongnarrow，strips——correspondingtothenumberofmalemembersintheCommune——

asnearlyaspossibleequaltoeachotherinareaandquality。

Sometimesitisnecessarytodividethefieldintoseveral，portions，accordingtothequalityofthesoil，andthento，subdivideeachoftheseportionsintotherequisitenumberof，strips。Thusinallcaseseveryhouseholdpossessesatleastone，stripineachfield;andinthosecaseswheresubdivisionis，necessary，everyhouseholdpossessesastripineachofthe，portionsintowhichthefieldissubdivided。Itoftenhappens，therefore，thatthestripsareverynarrow，andtheportions，belongingtoeachfamilyverynumerous。Stripssixfeetwideare，bynomeansrare。In124villagesoftheprovinceofMoscow，regardingwhichIhavespecialinformation，theyvariedinwidth，from3to45yards，withanaverageof11yards。Ofthesenarrow，stripsahouseholdmaypossessasmanyasthirtyinasinglefield！

Thecomplicatedprocessofdivisionandsubdivisionisaccomplished，bythepeasantsthemselves，withtheaidofsimplemeasuring-rods，andtheaccuracyoftheresultistrulymarvellous。

Themeadow，whichisreservedfortheproductionofhay，isdivided，intothesamenumberofsharesasthearableland。There，however，thedivisionanddistributiontakeplace，notatirregular，intervals，butannually。Everyyear，onadayfixedbythe，Assembly，thevillagersproceedinabodytothispartoftheir，property，anddivideitintotherequisitenumberofportions。

Lotsarethencast，andeachfamilyatoncemowstheportion，allottedtoit。InsomeCommunesthemeadowismownbyallthe，peasantsincommon，andthehayafterwardsdistributedbylotamong，thefamilies;butthissystemisbynomeanssofrequentlyused。

AsthewholeoftheCommunallandthusresemblestosomeextenta，bigfarm，itisnecessarytomakecertainrulesconcerning，cultivation。Afamilymaysowwhatitlikesinthelandallotted，toit，butallfamiliesmustatleastconformtotheaccepted，systemofrotation。Inlikemanner，afamilycannotbeginthe，autumnploughingbeforetheappointedtime，becauseitwould，therebyinterferewiththerightsoftheotherfamilies，whouse，thefallowfieldaspasturage。

Itisnotalittlestrangethatthisprimitivesystemofland，tenureshouldhavesucceededinlivingintothetwentiethcentury，andstillmoreremarkablethattheinstitutionofwhichitformsan，essentialpartshouldberegardedbymanyintelligentpeopleasone，ofthegreatinstitutionsofthefuture，andalmostasapanacea，forsocialandpoliticalevils。Theexplanationofthesefacts，willformthesubjectofthenextchapter。

CHAPTERIX

HOWTHECOMMUNEHASBEENPRESERVED，ANDWHATITISTOEFFECTINTHE

FUTURE

SweepingReformsaftertheCrimeanWar——ProtestAgainsttheLaissez，FairePrinciple——FearoftheProletariat——EnglishandRussian，MethodsofLegislationContrasted——SanguineExpectations——Evil，ConsequencesoftheCommunalSystem——TheCommuneoftheFuture——

ProletariatoftheTowns——ThePresentStateofThingsMerely，Temporary。

ThereaderisprobablyawarethatimmediatelyaftertheCrimeanWar，Russiawassubjectedtoaseriesofsweepingreforms，includingthe，emancipationoftheserfsandthecreationofanewsystemoflocal，self-government，andhemaynaturallywonderhowitcametopass，thatacurious，primitiveinstitutionliketheruralCommune，succeededinweatheringthebureaucratichurricane。Thisstrange，phenomenaInowproceedtoexplain，partlybecausethesubjectis，initselfinteresting，andpartlybecauseIhopetherebytothrow，somelightonthepeculiarintellectualconditionoftheRussian，educatedclasses。

Whenitbecameevident，in1857，thattheserfswereabouttobe，emancipated，itwasatfirstprettygenerallysupposedthatthe，ruralCommunewouldbeentirelyabolished，oratleastradically，modified。AtthattimemanyRussianswereenthusiastic，indiscriminateadmirersofEnglishinstitutions，andbelieved，in，commonwiththeorthodoxschoolofpoliticaleconomists，that，Englandhadacquiredhercommercialandindustrialsuperiorityby，adoptingtheprincipleofindividuallibertyandunrestricted，competition，or，asFrenchwriterstermit，the“laissezfaire“

principle。Thisprincipleisplainlyinconsistentwiththerural，Commune，whichcompelsthepeasantrytopossessland，preventsan，enterprisingpeasantfromacquiringthelandofhisless，enterprisingneighbours，andplacesveryconsiderablerestrictions，onthefreedomofactionoftheindividualmembers。Accordinglyit，wasassumedthattheruralCommune，beinginconsistentwiththe，modernspiritofprogress，wouldfindnoplaceinthenewregimeof，libertywhichwasabouttobeinaugurated。

NosoonerhadtheseideasbeenannouncedinthePressthanthey，calledforthstrenuousprotests。Inthecrowdofprotesterswere，twowell-definedgroups。Ontheonehandthereweretheso-called，Slavophils，asmallbandofpatriotic，highlyeducatedMoscovites，whowerestronglydisposedtoadmireeverythingspecifically，Russian，andwhohabituallyrefusedtobowthekneetothewisdom，ofWesternEurope。Thesegentlemen，inaspecialorganwhichthey，hadrecentlyfounded，pointedouttotheircountrymenthatthe，CommunewasavenerableandpeculiarlyRussianinstitution，which，hadmitigatedinthepastthebanefulinfluenceofserfage，and，wouldcertainlyinthefutureconferinestimablebenefitsonthe，emancipatedpeasantry。Theothergroupwasanimatedbyavery，differentspirit。Theyhadnosympathywithnational，peculiarities，andnoreverenceforhoaryantiquity。Thatthe，CommunewasspecificallyRussianorSlavonic，andaremnantof，primitivetimes，wasintheireyesanythingbutarecommendationin，itsfavour。Cosmopolitanintheirtendencies，andabsolutelyfree，fromallarchaeologicalsentimentality，theyregardedthe，institutionfromthepurelyutilitarianpointofview。They，agreed，however，withtheSlavophilsinthinkingthatits，preservationwouldhaveabeneficialinfluenceonthematerialand，moralwelfareofthepeasantry。

Forthesakeofconvenienceitisnecessarytodesignatethis，lattergroupbysomedefinitename，butIconfessIhavesome，difficultyinmakingachoice。Idonotwishtocallthese，gentlemenSocialists，becausemanypeoplehabituallyand，involuntarilyattachastigmatotheword，andbelievethatallto，whomthetermisappliedmustbefirst-cousinstothepetroleuses。

Toavoidmisconceptionsofthiskind，itwillbewelltodesignate，themsimplybytheorganwhichmostablyrepresentedtheirviews，andtocallthemtheadherentsofTheContemporary。

TheSlavophilsandtheadherentsofTheContemporary，though，differingwidelyfromeachotherinmanyrespects，hadthesame，immediateobjectinview，andaccordinglyworkedtogether。With，greatingenuitytheycontendedthattheCommunalsystemofland，tenurehadmuchgreateradvantages，andwasattendedwithmuch，fewerinconveniences，thanpeoplegenerallysupposed。Buttheydid，notconfinethemselvestotheseimmediatepracticaladvantages，whichhadverylittleinterestforthegeneralreader。Thewriters，inTheContemporaryexplainedthattheimportanceoftherural，Communelies，notinitsactualcondition，butinitscapabilities，ofdevelopment，andtheydrew，withpropheticeye，mostattractive，picturesofthehappyruralCommuneofthefuture。Letmegive，here，asanillustration，oneofthesepropheticdescriptions：

“Thankstothespreadofprimaryandtechnicaleducationthe，peasantshavebecomewellacquaintedwiththescienceof，agriculture，andarealwaysreadytoundertakeincommonthe，necessaryimprovements。Theynolongerexhaustthesoilby，exportingthegrain，butsellmerelycertaintechnicalproducts，containingnomineralingredients。ForthispurposetheCommunes，possessdistilleries，starch-works，andthelike，andthesoil，therebyretainsitsoriginalfertility。Thescarcityinducedby，thenaturalincreaseofthepopulationiscounteractedbyimproved，methodsofcultivation。IftheChinese，whoknownothingof，naturalscience，havesucceededbypurelyempiricalmethodsin，perfectingagriculturetosuchanextentthatawholefamilycan，supportitselfonafewsquareyardsofland，whatmaynotthe，Europeandowiththehelpofchemistry，botanicalphysiology，and，theothernaturalsciences？”

Comingbackfromthepossibilitiesofthefuturetotheactualities，ofthepresent，theseingeniousandeloquentwriterspointedout，thatintheruralCommune，Russiapossessedasurepreventive，againstthegreatestevilofWest-Europeansocialorganisation，the，Proletariat。HeretheSlavophilscouldstrikeinwiththeir，favouriterefrainabouttherottensocialconditionofWestern，Europe;andtheirtemporaryallies，thoughtheyhabituallyscoffed，attheSlavophiljeremiads，hadnoreasonforthemomentto，contradictthem。VerysoontheProletariatbecame，forthe，educatedclasses，aspeciesofbugbear，andthereadingpublicwere，convertedtothedoctrinethattheCommunalinstitutionsshouldbe，preservedasameansofexcludingthemonsterfromRussia。

ThisfearofwhatisvaguelytermedtheProletariatisstill，frequentlytobemetwithinRussia，andIhaveoftentakenpains，todiscoverpreciselywhatismeantbytheterm。Icannot，however，saythatmyeffortshavebeencompletelysuccessful。The，monsterseemstobeasvagueandshadowyastheawfulformswhich，Miltonplacedatthegateoftheinfernalregions。Atonemoment，heseemstobesimplyouroldenemyPauperism，butwhenweapproach，alittlenearerwefindthatheexpandstocolossaldimensions，so，astoincludeallwhodonotpossessinalienablelandedproperty。

Inshort，heturnsouttobe，onexamination，asvagueand，undefinableasagoodbugbearoughttobe;andthisvagueness，contributedprobablynotalittletohissuccess。

TheinfluencewhichtheideaoftheProletariatexercisedonthe，publicmindandonthelegislationatthetimeoftheEmancipation，isaverynotablefact，andwellworthyofattention，becauseit，helpstoillustrateapointofdifferencebetweenRussiansand，Englishmen。

Englishmenare，asarule，toomuchoccupiedwiththemultifarious，concernsofthepresenttolookmuchaheadintothedistantfuture。

Weprofess，indeed，toregardwithhorrorthemaxim，Apresnousle，deluge！andweshouldprobablyannihilatewithourvirtuous，indignationanyonewhoshouldboldlyprofesstheprinciple。And，yetweoftenactalmostasifwewerereallypartisansofthat，heartlesscreed。Whencalledupontoconsidertheinterestsofthe，futuregenerations，wedeclaredthat“sufficientuntothedayis，theevilthereof，“andstigmatiseasvisionariesanddreamersall，whoseektowithdrawourattentionfromthepresent。Amodern，Cassandrawhoconfidentlypredictsthenearexhaustionofourcoal-

fields，orgraphicallydescribesacrushingnationaldisasterthat，mustsomedayovertakeus，mayattractsomepublicattention;but，whenwelearnthatthemisfortuneisnottotakeplaceinourtime，weplacidlyremarkthatfuturegenerationsmusttakecareof，themselves，andthatwecannotreasonablybeexpectedtobeartheir，burdens。Whenweareobligedtolegislate，weproceedina，cautious，tentativeway，andarequitesatisfiedwithanyhomely，simpleremediesthatcommonsenseandexperiencemaysuggest，withouttakingthetroubletoinquirewhethertheremedyadoptedis，inaccordancewithscientifictheories。Inshort，thereisa，certaintruthinthose“famousprophetickpictures“spokenofby，Stillingfleet，which“representthefateofEnglandbyamole，a，creatureblindandbusy，continuallyworkingunderground。”

InRussiawefindtheoppositeextreme。Therereformershavebeen，trained，notinthearenaofpracticalpolitics，butintheschool，ofpoliticalspeculation。Assoon，therefore，astheybeginto，examineanysimplematterwithaviewtolegislation，itatonce，becomesa“question，“andfliesupintotheregionofpoliticaland，socialscience。Whilstwehavebeengropingalonganunexplored，path，theRussianshave——atleastinrecenttimes——beenconstantly，mappingout，withthehelpofforeignexperience，thecountrythat，laybeforethem，andadvancingwithgiganticstridesaccordingto，thenewestpoliticaltheories。Mentrainedinthiswaycannotrest，satisfiedwithhomelyremedieswhichmerelyalleviatetheevilsof，themoment。Theywishto“tearupevilbytheroots，“andto，legislateforfuturegenerationsaswellasforthemselves。

Thistendencywaspeculiarlystrongatthetimeofthe，Emancipation。Theeducatedclasseswereprofoundlyconvincedthat，thesystemofNicholasI。hadbeenamistake，andthatanewand，brightererawasabouttodawnuponthecountry。Everythinghadto，bereformed。Thewholesocialandpoliticaledificehadtobe，reconstructedonentirelynewprinciples。

Letusimaginethepositionofamanwho，havingnopractical，acquaintancewithbuilding，suddenlyfindshimselfcalleduponto，constructalargehouse，containingallthenewestappliancesfor，convenienceandcomfort。Whatwillhisfirststepbe？，Probablyhe，willproceedatoncetostudythelatestauthoritieson，architectureandconstruction，andwhenhehasmasteredthegeneral，principleshewillcomedowngraduallytothedetails。Thisis，preciselywhattheRussiansdidwhentheyfoundthemselvescalled，upontoreconstructthepoliticalandsocialedifice。Theyeagerly，consultedthemostrecentEnglish，French，andGermanwriterson，socialandpoliticalscience，andhereitwasthattheymadethe，acquaintanceoftheProletariat。

Peoplewhoreadbooksoftravelwithouteverleavingtheirown，countryareveryapttoacquireexaggeratednotionsregardingthe，hardshipsanddangersofuncivilisedlife。Theyreadaboutsavage，tribes，daringrobbers，ferociouswildbeasts，poisonoussnakes，deadlyfevers，andthelike;andtheycannotbutwonderhowahuman，beingcanexistforaweekamongsuchdangers。Butiftheyhappen，thereaftertovisitthecountriesdescribed，theydiscovertotheir，surprisethat，thoughthedescriptionsmaynothavebeen，exaggerated，lifeundersuchconditionsismucheasierthanthey，supposed。NowtheRussianswhoreadabouttheProletariatwere，verymuchlikethepeoplewhoremainathomeanddevourbooksof，travel。Theygainedexaggeratednotions，andlearnedtofearthe，Proletariatmuchmorethanwedo，whohabituallyliveinthemidst，ofit。Ofcourseitisquitepossiblethattheirviewofthe，subjectistruerthanours，andthatwemaysomeday，likethe，peoplewholivetranquillyontheslopesofavolcano，berudely，awakenedfromourfanciedsecurity。Butthisisanentirely，differentquestion。Iamatpresentnotendeavouringtojustify，ourhabitualcallousnesswithregardtosocialdangers，butsimply，seekingtoexplainwhytheRussians，whohavelittleorno，practicalacquaintancewithpauperism，shouldhavetakensuch，elaborateprecautionsagainstit。

ButhowcanthepreservationoftheCommunalinstitutionsleadto，this“consummationdevoutlytobewished，“andhowfararethe，precautionslikelytobesuccessful？

Thosewhohavestudiedthemysteriesofsocialsciencehave，generallycometotheconclusionthattheProletariathasbeen，formedchieflybytheexpropriationofthepeasantryorsmallland-

holders，andthatitsformationmightbeprevented，oratleast，retarded，byanysystemoflegislationwhichwouldsecurethe，possessionoflandforthepeasantsandpreventthemfrombeing，uprootedfromthesoil。NowitmustbeadmittedthattheRussian，Communalsystemisadmirablyadaptedforthispurpose。Aboutone-

halfofthearablelandhasbeenreservedforthepeasantry，and，cannotbeencroachedonbythegreatlandownersorthecapitalists，andeveryadultpeasant，roughlyspeaking，hasarighttoashare，ofthisland。WhenIhavesaidthatthepeasantrycomposeabout，five-sixthsofthepopulation，andthatitisextremelydifficult，forapeasanttoseverhisconnectionwiththeruralCommune，it，willbeatonceevidentthat，ifthetheoriesofsocial，philosophersarecorrect，andifthesanguineexpectations，entertainedinmanyquartersregardingthepermanenceofthe，presentCommunalinstitutionsaredestinedtoberealised，thereis，littleornodangerofanumerousProletariatbeingformed，andthe，Russiansarejustifiedinmaintaining，astheyoftendo，thatthey，havesuccessfullysolvedoneofthemostimportantandmost，difficultofsocialproblems。

Butisthereanyreasonablechanceofthesesanguineexpectations，beingrealised？

Thisis，doubtless，amostcomplicatedanddifficultquestion，but，itcannotbeshirked。Howeverscepticalwemaybewithregardto，socialpanaceasofallsorts，wecannotdismisswithafew，hackneyedphrasesagiganticexperimentinsocialscienceinvolving，thematerialandmoralwelfareofmanymillionsofhumanbeings。

Ontheotherhand，Idonotwishtoexhaustthereader’spatience，byalongseriesofmultifariousdetailsandconflictingarguments。

WhatIproposetodo，therefore，istostateinafewwordsthe，conclusionsatwhichIhavearrived，afteracarefulstudyofthe，questioninallitsbearings，andtoindicateinageneralwayhow，Ihavearrivedattheseconclusions。

IfRussiawerecontenttoremainapurelyagriculturalcountryof，theSleepyHollowtype，andifherGovernmentweretodevoteall，itsenergiestomaintainingeconomicandsocialstagnation，the，ruralCommunemightperhapspreventtheformationofalarge，Proletariatinthefuture，asithastendedtopreventitfor，centuriesinthepast。Theperiodicalredistributionsofthe，Communallandwouldsecuretoeveryfamilyaportionofthesoil，andwhenthepopulationbecametoodense，theevilsarisingfrom，inordinatesubdivisionofthelandmightbeobviatedbyacarefully，regulatedsystemofemigrationtotheoutlying，thinlypopulated，provinces。Allthissoundsverywellintheory，butexperienceis，provingthatitcannotbecarriedoutinpractice。InRussia，as，inWesternEurope，thestruggleforlife，evenamongthe，conservativeagriculturalclasses，isbecomingyearlymoreandmore，intense，andisproducingboththedesireandthenecessityfor，greaterfreedomofindividualcharacterandeffort，sothateach，manmaymakehiswayintheworldaccordingtotheamountofhis，intelligence，energy，spiritofenterprise，andtenacityof，purpose。Whateverinstitutionstendtofettertheindividualand，maintainadeadlevelofmediocrityhavelittlechanceof，subsistingforanygreatlengthoftime，anditmustbeadmitted，thatamongsuchinstitutionstheruralCommuneinitspresentform，occupiesaprominentplace。Allitsmembersmustpossess，in，principleifnotalwaysinpractice，anequalshareofthesoiland，mustpracticethesamemethodsofagriculture，andwhenacertain，inequalityhasbeencreatedbyindividualeffortitisingreat，measurewipedoutbyaredistributionoftheCommunalland。

Now，Iamwellawarethatinpracticetheinjusticeand，inconveniencesofthesystem，beingalwaystemperedandcorrected，byingeniouscompromisessuggestedbylongexperience，arenot，nearlysogreatasthemeretheoristmightnaturallysuppose;but，theyare，Ibelieve，quitegreatenoughtopreventthepermanent，maintenanceoftheinstitution，andalreadythereareominous，indicationsofthecomingchange，asIshallexplainmorefully，whenIcometodealwiththeconsequencesofserf-emancipation。On，theotherhandthereisnodangerofasudden，generalabolitionof，theoldsystem。Thoughthelawnowpermitsthetransitionfrom，Communaltopersonalhereditarytenure，eventheprogressive，enterprisingpeasantsareslowtoavailthemselvesofthe，permission;andthereasonIonceheardgivenforthisconservative，tendencyisworthrecording。Awell-to-dopeasantwhohadbeenin，thehabitofmanuringhislandbetterthanhisneighbours，andwho，was，consequently，aloserbytheexistingsystem，saidtome：“Of，courseIwanttokeeptheallotmentIhavegot。Butifthelandis，neveragaintobedividedmygrandchildrenmaybebeggars。Wemust，notsinagainstthosewhoaretocomeafterus。”，Thisunexpected，replygavemefoodforreflection。Surelythosemuzhikswhoareso，oftenaccusedofbeingbrutallyindifferenttomoralobligations，musthavepeculiardeep-rootedmoralconceptionsoftheirownwhich，exerciseagreatinfluenceontheirdailylife。Amanwho，hesitatestosinagainsthisgrandchildrenstillunborn，thoughhis，conceptionsofthemeumandthetuuminthepresentmaybe，occasionallyalittleconfused，mustpossesssomewheredeepdownin，hisnatureasecretfundofmoralfeelingofaveryrespectable，kind。EvenamongtheeducatedclassesinRussiathewayoflooking，atthesemattersisverydifferentfromours。Weshouldnaturally，feelinclinedtoapplaud，encourage，andassistthepeasantswho，showenergyandinitiative，andwhotrytoriseabovetheir，fellows。TotheRussianthisseemsatonceinexpedientand，immoral。Thesuccessofthefew，heexplains，isalwaysobtained，attheexpenseofthemany，andgenerallybymeanswhichthesevere，moralistcannotapproveof。Therichpeasants，forexample，have，gainedtheirfortuneandinfluencebydemoralisingandexploiting，theirweakerbrethren，bycommittingallmannerofillegalities，andbybribingthelocalauthorities。Hencetheyarestyled，Miroyedy(Commune-devourers)orKulaki(fists)，orsomething，equallyuncomplimentary。Oncethisviewisadopted，itfollows，logicallythattheCommunalinstitutions，insofarastheyforma，barriertotheactivityofsuchpersons，oughttobecarefully，preserved。Thisideaunderliesnearlyalltheargumentsinfavour，oftheCommune，andexplainswhytheyaresopopular。Russiansof，allclasseshave，infact，aleaningtowardssocialisticnotions，andverylittlesympathywithourbeliefinindividualinitiative，andunrestrictedcompetition。

EvenifitbeadmittedthattheCommunemayeffectuallypreventthe，formationofanagriculturalProletariat，thequestionisthereby，onlyhalfanswered。Russiaaspirestobecomeagreatindustrial，andcommercialcountry，andaccordinglyhertownpopulationis，rapidlyaugmenting。Wehavestilltoconsider，then，howthe，CommuneaffectstheProletariatofthetowns。InWesternEurope，thegreatcentresofindustryhaveuprootedfromthesoiland，collectedinthetownsagreatpartoftheruralpopulation。Those，whoyieldedtothisattractiveinfluenceseveredallconnection，withtheirnativevillages，becameunfitforfieldlabour，andwere，transformedintoartisansorfactory-workers。InRussiathis，transformationcouldnoteasilytakeplace。Thepeasantmightwork，duringthegreaterpartofhislifeinthetowns，buthedidnot，therebyseverhisconnectionwithhisnativevillage。Heremained，whetherhedesireditornot，amemberoftheCommune，possessinga，shareoftheCommunalland，andliableforashareoftheCommunal，burdens。Duringhisresidenceinthetownhiswifeandfamily，remainedathome，andthitherhehimselfsoonerorlaterreturned。

Inthiswayaclassofhybrids——half-peasants，half-artisans——has，beencreated，andtheformationofatownProletariathasbeen，greatlyretarded。

Theexistenceofthishybridclassiscommonlycitedasa，beneficentresultoftheCommunalinstitutions。Theartisansand，factorylabourers，itissaid，havethusalwaysahometowhich，theycanretirewhenthrownoutofworkorovertakenbyoldage，andtheirchildrenarebroughtupinthecountry，insteadofbeing，rearedamongthedebilitatinginfluencesofovercrowdedcities。

Everycommonlabourerhas，inshort，bythisingeniouscontrivance，somesmallcapitalandacountryresidence。

InthepresenttransitionalstateofRussiansocietythispeculiar，arrangementisatoncenaturalandconvenient，butamidstits，advantagesithasmanyseriousdefects。Theunnaturalseparation，oftheartisanfromhiswifeandfamilyleadstoveryundesirable，results，wellknowntoallwhoarefamiliarwiththedetailsof，peasantlifeinthenorthernprovinces。Andwhateverits，advantagesanddefectsmaybe，itcannotbepermanentlyretained。

Atthepresenttimenativeindustryisstillinitsinfancy。

Protectedbythetarifffromforeigncompetition，andtoofewin，numbertoproduceastrongcompetitionamongthemselves，the，existingfactoriescangivetotheirownersalargerevenuewithout，anystrenuousexertion。Manufacturerscanthereforeallow，themselvesmanylittleliberties，whichwouldbequiteinadmissible，ifthepriceofmanufacturedgoodswereloweredbybrisk，competition。AskaLancashiremanufacturerifhecouldallowa，largeportionofhisworkerstogoyearlytoCornwallorCaithness，tomowafieldofhayorreapafewacresofwheatoroats！，Andif，Russiaistomakegreatindustrialprogress，themanufacturersof，Moscow，Lodz，Ivanovo，andShuiwillsomedaybeashardpressedas，arethoseofBradfordandManchester。Theinvariabletendencyof，modernindustry，andthesecretofitsprogress，istheever-

increasingdivisionoflabour;andhowcanthisprinciplebe，appliediftheartisansinsistonremainingagriculturists？

Theinterestsofagriculture，too，areopposedtotheoldsystem。

Agriculturecannotbeexpectedtomakeprogress，oreventobe，tolerablyproductive，ifitisleftingreatmeasuretowomenand，children。Atpresentitisnotdesirablethatthelinkwhichbinds，thefactory-workerorartisanwiththevillageshouldbeatonce，severed，forintheneighbourhoodofthelargefactoriesthereis，oftennoproperaccommodationforthefamiliesoftheworkers，and，agriculture，asatpresentpractised，canbecarriedon，successfullythoughtheHeadoftheHouseholdhappenstobeabsent。

Butthesystemmustberegardedassimplytemporary，andthe，disruptionoflargefamilies——aphenomenonofwhichIhavealready，spoken——rendersitsapplicationmoreandmoredifficult。

CHAPTERX

FINNISHANDTARTARVILLAGES

AFinnishTribe——FinnishVillages——VariousStagesofRussification——

FinnishWomen——FinnishReligions——Methodof“Laying“Ghosts——

CuriousMixtureofChristianityandPaganism——Conversionofthe，Finns——ATartarVillage——ARussianPeasant’sConceptionof，Mahometanism——AMahometan’sViewofChristianity——Propaganda——The，RussianColonist——MigrationsofPeoplesDuringtheDarkAges。

Whentalkingonedaywithalandedproprietorwholivednear，Ivanofka，Iaccidentallydiscoveredthatinadistrictatsome，distancetothenortheasttherewerecertainvillagesthe，inhabitantsofwhichdidnotunderstandRussian，andhabitually，usedapeculiarlanguageoftheirown。Withanillogicalhastiness，worthyofagenuineethnologist，Iatonceassumedthatthesemust，betheremnantsofsomeaboriginalrace。

“Desaborigenes！”Iexclaimed，unabletorecalltheRussian，equivalentfortheterm，andknowingthatmyfriendunderstood，French。”Doubtlesstheremainsofsomeancientracewhoformerly，heldthecountry，andarenowrapidlydisappearing。Haveyouany，AboriginesProtectionSocietyinthispartoftheworld？”

Myfriendhadevidentlygreatdifficultyinimaginingwhatan，AboriginesProtectionSocietycouldbe，andpromptlyassuredme，thattherewasnothingofthekindinRussia。Onbeingtoldthat，suchasocietymightrendervaluableservicesbyprotectingthe，weakeragainstthestrongerrace，andcollectingimportant，materialsforthenewscienceofSocialEmbryology，helooked，thoroughlymystified。Astothenewscience，hehadneverheardof，it，andastoprotection，hethoughtthattheinhabitantsofthe，villagesinquestionwerequitecapableofprotectingthemselves。

“Icouldinvent，“headded，withamalicioussmile，“asocietyfor，theprotectionofALLpeasants，butIamquitesurethatthe，authoritieswouldnotallowmetocarryoutmyidea。”

Myethnologicalcuriositywasthoroughlyaroused，andIendeavoured，toawakenasimilarfeelinginmyfriendbyhintingthatwehadat，handapromisingfieldfordiscoverieswhichmightimmortalisethe，fortunateexplorers;butmyeffortswereinvain。Theold，gentlemanwasaportly，indolentman，ofphlegmatictemperament，whothoughtmoreofcomfortthanofimmortalityintheterrestrial，senseoftheterm。Tomyproposalthatweshouldstartatonceon，anexploringexpedition，herepliedcalmlythatthedistancewas，considerable，thattheroadsweremuddy，andthattherewasnothing，tobelearned。Thevillagesinquestionwereverylikeother，villages，andtheirinhabitantslived，toallintentsandpurposes，inthesamewayastheirRussianneighbours。Iftheyhadany，secretpeculiaritiestheywouldcertainlynotdivulgethemtoa，stranger，fortheywerenotoriouslysilent，gloomy，morose，and，uncommunicative。Everythingthatwasknownaboutthem，myfriend，assuredme，mightbecommunicatedinafewwords。Theybelongedto，aFinnishtribecalledKorelli，andhadbeentransportedtotheir，presentsettlementsincomparativelyrecenttimes。Inanswertomy，questionsastohow，when，andbywhomtheyhadbeentransported，thithermyinformantrepliedthatithadbeentheworkofIvanthe，Terrible。

ThoughIknewatthattimelittleofRussianhistory，Isuspected，thatthelastassertionwasinventedonthespurofthemoment，in，ordertosatisfymytroublesomecuriosity，andaccordinglyI

determinednottoacceptitwithoutverification。Theresult，showedhowcarefulthetravellershouldbeinacceptingthe，testimonyof“intelligent，well-informednatives。”，Onfurther，investigationIdiscovered，notonlythatthestoryaboutIvanthe，Terriblewasapureinvention——whetherofmyfriendorofthe，popularimagination，whichalwaysusesheroicnamesaspegson，whichtohangtraditions，Iknownot——butalsothatmyfirsttheory，wascorrect。TheseFinnishpeasantsturnedouttobearemnantof，theaborigines，oratleastoftheoldestknowninhabitantsofthe，district。Menofthesamerace，butbearingdifferenttribal，names，suchasFinns，Korelli，Tcheremiss，Tchuvash，Mordva，Votyaks，Permyaks，Zyryanye，Voguls，aretobefoundin，considerablenumbersalloverthenorthernprovinces，fromtheGulf，ofBothniatoWesternSiberia，aswellasintheprovinces，borderingtheMiddleVolgaasfarsouthasPenza，Simbirsk，and，Tamboff。*，TheRussianpeasants，whonowcomposethegreatmassof，thepopulation，aretheintruders。

*Thesemi-official“Statesman’sHandbookforRussia，“publishedin，1896，enumeratesfourteendifferenttribes，withanaggregateof，about4，650，000souls，butthesenumbersmustnotberegardedas，havinganypretensionstoaccuracy。Thebestauthoritiesdiffer，widelyintheirestimates。

IhadlongtakenadeepinterestinwhatlearnedGermanscallthe，Volkerwanderung——thatistosay，themigrationsofpeoplesduring，thegradualdissolutionoftheRomanEmpire，andithadoften，occurredtomethatthemostapprovedauthorities，whohadexpended，aninfiniteamountoflearningonthesubject，hadnotalwaystaken，thetroubletoinvestigatethenatureoftheprocess。Itisnot，enoughtoknowthataraceortribeextendeditsdominionsor，changeditsgeographicalposition。Weoughtatthesametimeto，inquirewhetheritexpelled，exterminated，orabsorbedtheformer，inhabitants，andhowtheexpulsion，extermination，orabsorption，waseffected。Nowofthesethreeprocesses，absorptionmayhave，beenmorefrequentthaniscommonlysupposed，anditseemedtome，thatinNorthernRussiathisprocessmightbeconvenientlystudied。

AthousandyearsagothewholeofNorthernRussiawaspeopledby，Finnishpagantribes，andatthepresentdaythegreaterpartofit，isoccupiedbypeasantswhospeakthelanguageofMoscow，profess，theOrthodoxfaith，presentintheirphysiognomynostriking，peculiarities，andappeartothesuperficialobserverpure，Russians。Andwehavenoreasontosupposethattheformer，inhabitantswereexpelledorexterminated，orthattheygradually，diedoutfromcontactwiththecivilisationandvicesofahigher，race。HistoryrecordsnowholesaleFinnishmigrationslikethatof，theKalmyks，andnowarofextermination;andstatisticsprovethat，amongtheremnantsofthoseprimitiveracesthepopulation，increasesasrapidlyasamongtheRussianpeasantry。*，Fromthese，factsIconcludedthattheFinnishaborigineshadbeensimply，absorbed，orrather，werebeingabsorbed，bytheSlavonic，intruders。

*ThislatterstatementismadeontheauthorityofPopoff，(“Zyryanyeizyryanskikrai，“Moscow，1874)andTcheremshanski，(“OpisanieOrenburgskoiGubernii，“Ufa，1859)。

Thisconclusionhassincebeenconfirmedbyobservation。Duringmy，wanderingsinthesenorthernprovincesIhavefoundvillagesin，everystageofRussification。Inone，everythingseemedthoroughly，Finnish：theinhabitantshadareddish-oliveskin，veryhighcheek-

bones，obliquelyseteyes，andapeculiarcostume;noneofthe，women，andveryfewofthemen，couldunderstandRussian，andany，Russianwhovisitedtheplacewasregardedasaforeigner。Ina，second，therewerealreadysomeRussianinhabitants;theothershad，lostsomethingoftheirpureFinnishtype，manyofthemenhad，discardedtheoldcostumeandspokeRussianfluently，andaRussian，visitorwasnolongershunned。Inathird，theFinnishtypewas，stillfurtherweakened：allthemenspokeRussian，andnearlyall，thewomenunderstoodit;theoldmalecostumehadentirely，disappeared，andtheoldfemalecostumewasrapidlyfollowingit;

whileintermarriagewiththeRussianpopulationwasnolongerrare。

Inafourth，intermarriagehadalmostcompletelydoneitswork，and，theoldFinnishelementcouldbedetectedmerelyincertain，peculiaritiesofphysiognomyandpronunciation。*

*Oneofthemostcommonpeculiaritiesofpronunciationisthe，substitutionofthesoundoftsforthatoftch，whichIfound，almostuniversaloveralargearea。

TheprocessofRussificationmaybelikewiseobservedinthemanner，ofbuildingthehousesandinthemethodsoffarming，whichshow，plainlythattheFinnishracesdidnotobtainrudimentary，civilisationfromtheSlavs。Whence，then，wasitderived？，Wasit，obtainedfromsomeotherrace，orisitindigenous？，Theseare，questionswhichIhavenomeansofanswering。

APositivistpoet——orifthatbeacontradictioninterms，letus，sayaPositivistwhowroteverses——oncecomposedanappealtothe，fairsex，beginningwiththewords：

“Pourquoi，Ofemmes，restez-vousenarriere？”

Thequestionmighthavebeenaddressedtothewomeninthese，Finnishvillages。LiketheirsistersinFrance，theyaremuchmore，conservativethanthemen，andopposemuchmorestubbornlythe，Russianinfluence。Ontheotherhand，likewomeningeneral，when，theydobegintochange，theychangemorerapidly。Thisisseen，especiallyinthematterofcostume。ThemenadopttheRussian，costumeverygradually;thewomenadoptitatonce。Assoonasa，singlewomangetsagaudyRussiandress，everyotherwomaninthe，villagefeelsenviousandimpatienttillshehasdonelikewise。I

rememberoncevisitingaMordvavillagewhenthiscriticalpoint，hadbeenreached，andaverycharacteristicincidentoccurred。In，theprecedingvillagesthroughwhichIhadpassedIhadtriedin，vaintobuyafemalecostume，andIagainmadetheattempt。This，timetheresultwasverydifferent。AfewminutesafterIhad，expressedmywishtopurchaseacostume，thehouseinwhichIwas，sittingwasbesiegedbyagreatcrowdofwomen，holdingintheir，handsarticlesofwearingapparel。InordertomakeaselectionI

wentoutintothecrowd，butthedesiretofindapurchaserwasso，generalandsoardentthatIwasregularlymobbed。Thewomen，shouting“Kupi！kupi！”(“Buy！buy！”)，andstrugglingwitheach，othertogetnearme，weresoimportunatethatIhadatlastto，takerefugeinthehouse，topreventmyowncostumefrombeingtorn，toshreds。ButeventhereIwasnotsafe，forthewomenfollowed，atmyheels，andaconsiderableamountofgood-naturedviolencehad，tobeemployedtoexpeltheintruders。

Itisespeciallyinterestingtoobservethetransformationof，nationalityinthesphereofreligiousconceptions。TheFinns，remainedpaganslongaftertheRussianshadbecomeChristians，but，atthepresenttimethewholepopulation，fromtheeasternboundary，ofFinlandpropertotheUralMountains，areofficiallydescribed，asmembersoftheGreekOrthodoxChurch。Themannerinwhichthis，changeofreligionwaseffectediswellworthyofattention。

TheoldreligionoftheFinnishtribes，ifwemayjudgefromthe，fragmentswhichstillremain，had，likethepeoplethemselves，a，thoroughlypractical，prosaiccharacter。Theirtheologyconsisted，notofabstractdogmas，butmerelyofsimpleprescriptionsforthe，ensuringofmaterialwelfare。Evenatthepresentday，inthe，districtsnotcompletelyRussified，theirprayersareplain，unadornedrequestsforagoodharvest，plentyofcattle，andthe，like，andareexpressedinatoneofchildlikefamiliaritythat，soundsstrangeinourears。Theymakenoattempttoveiltheir，desireswithmysticsolemnity，butask，insimple，straightforward，fashion，thatGodshouldmakethebarleyripenandthecowcalve，successfully，thatHeshouldpreventtheirhorsesfrombeing，stolen，andthatheshouldhelpthemtogainmoneytopaytheir，taxes。

Theirreligiousceremonieshave，sofarasIhavebeenableto，discover，nohiddenmysticalsignification，andareforthemost，partrathermagicalritesforavertingtheinfluenceofmalicious，spirits，orfreeingthemselvesfromtheunwelcomevisitsoftheir，departedrelatives。Forthislatterpurposemanyevenofthosewho，areofficiallyChristiansproceedatstatedseasonstothe，graveyardsandplaceanabundantsupplyofcookedfoodonthe，gravesoftheirrelationswhohaverecentlydied，requestingthe，departedtoacceptthismeal，andnottoreturntotheiroldhomes，wheretheirpresenceisnolongerdesired。Thoughmoreofthefood，iseatenatnightbythevillagedogsthanbythefamishedspirits，thecustomisbelievedtohaveapowerfulinfluenceinpreventing，thedeadfromwanderingaboutatnightandfrighteningtheliving。

Ifitbetrue，asIaminclinedtobelieve，thattombstoneswere，originallyusedforkeepingthedeadintheirgraves，thenitmust，beadmittedthatinthematterof“laying“ghoststheFinnshave，shownthemselvesmuchmorehumanethanotherraces。Itmay，however，besuggestedthatintheoriginalhomeoftheFinns——“le，berceaudelarace，“asFrenchethnologistssay——stonescouldnot，easilybeprocured，andthatthecustomoffeedingthedeadwas，adoptedasapisaller。Thedecisionofthequestionmustbeleft，tothosewhoknowwheretheoriginalhomeoftheFinnswas。

AstheRussianpeasantry，knowinglittleornothingoftheology，andplacingimplicitconfidenceinritesandceremonies，didnot，differverywidelyfromthepaganFinnsinthematterofreligious，conceptions，thefriendlycontactofthetworacesnaturallyledto，acuriousblendingofthetworeligions。TheRussiansadoptedmany，customsfromtheFinns，andtheFinnsadoptedstillmorefromthe，Russians。WhenYumalaandtheotherFinnishdeitiesdidnotdoas，theyweredesired，theirworshippersnaturallyappliedfor，protectionorassistancetotheMadonnaandthe“RussianGod。”，If，theirowntraditionalmagicritesdidnotsufficetowardoffevil，influences，theynaturallytriedtheeffectofcrossingthemselves，astheRussiansdoinmomentsofdanger。Allthismayseemstrange，touswhohavebeentaughtfromourearliestyearsthatreligionis，somethingquitedifferentfromspells，charms，andincantations，andthatofallthevariousreligionsintheworldonealoneis，true，alltheothersbeingfalse。Butwemustrememberthatthe，Finnshavehadaverydifferenteducation。Theydonotdistinguish，religionfrommagicrites，andtheyhaveneverbeentaughtthat，otherreligionsarelesstruethantheirown。Forthemthebest，religionistheonewhichcontainsthemostpotentspells，andthey，seenoreasonwhylesspowerfulreligionsshouldnotbeblended，therewith。Theirdeitiesarenotjealousgods，anddonotinsist，onhavingamonopolyofdevotion;andinanycasetheycannotdo，muchinjurytothosewhohaveplacedthemselvesunderthe，protectionofamorepowerfuldivinity。

Thissimple-mindedeclecticismoftenproducesasingularmixtureof，Christianityandpaganism。Thus，forinstance，attheharvest，festivals，Tchuvashpeasantshavebeenknowntoprayfirsttotheir，owndeities，andthentoSt。Nicholas，themiracle-worker，whois，thefavouritesaintoftheRussianpeasantry。Suchdualworshipis，sometimesevenrecommendedbytheYomzi——aclassofmenwho，correspondtothemedicine-menamongtheRedIndians——andthe，prayersareontheseoccasionscouchedinthemostfamiliarterms。

HereisaspecimengivenbyaRussianwhohasspeciallystudiedthe，languageandcustomsofthisinterestingpeople：*“Lookhere，O

Nicholas-god！，Perhapsmyneighbour，littleMichael，hasbeen，slanderingmetoyou，orperhapshewilldoso。Ifhedoes，don’t，believehim。Ihavedonehimnoill，andwishhimnone。Heisa，worthlessboasterandababbler。Hedoesnotreallyhonouryou，andmerelyplaysthehypocrite。ButIhonouryoufrommyheart;

and，behold，Iplaceataperbeforeyou！”Sometimesincidents，occurwhichdisplayastillmorecuriousblendingofthetwo，religions。ThusaTcheremiss，ononeoccasion，inconsequenceofa，seriousillness，sacrificedayoungfoaltoourLadyofKazan！

*Mr。Zolotnitski，“Tchuvasko-russkislovar，“p。167。

ThoughtheFinnishbeliefsaffectedtosomeextenttheRussian，peasantry，theRussianfaithultimatelyprevailed。Thiscanbe，explainedwithouttakingintoconsiderationtheinherent，superiorityofChristianityoverallformsofpaganism。TheFinns，hadnoorganisedpriesthood，andconsequentlyneveroffereda，systematicoppositiontothenewfaith;theRussians，onthe，contrary，hadaregularhierarchyinclosealliancewiththecivil，administration。IntheprincipalvillagesChristianchurcheswere，built，andsomeofthepolice-officersviedwiththeecclesiastical，officialsintheworkofmakingconverts。Atthesametimethere，wereotherinfluencestendinginthesamedirection。IfaRussian，practisedFinnishsuperstitionsheexposedhimselftodisagreeable，consequencesofatemporalkind;if，onthecontrary，aFinn，adoptedtheChristianreligion，thetemporalconsequencesthat，couldresultwerealladvantageoustohim。

ManyoftheFinnsgraduallybecameChristiansalmostunconsciously。

Theecclesiasticalauthoritieswereextremelymoderateintheir，demands。Theyinsistedonnoreligiousknowledge，andmerely，demandedthattheconvertsshouldbebaptised。Theconverts，failingtounderstandthespiritualsignificanceoftheceremony，commonlyofferednoresistance，solongastheimmersionwas，performedinsummer。Solittlerepugnance，indeed，didtheyfeel，thatonsomeoccasions，whenasmallrewardwasgiventothosewho，consented，someofthenewconvertswishedtheceremonytobe，repeatedseveraltimes。Thechiefobjectiontoreceivingthe，Christianfaithlayinthelongandseverefastsimposedbythe，GreekOrthodoxChurch;butthisdifficultywasovercomebyassuming，thattheyneednotbestrictlyobserved。Atfirst，insome，districts，itwaspopularlybelievedthattheIconsinformedthe，RussianpriestsagainstthosewhodidnotfastastheChurch，prescribed;butexperiencegraduallyexplodedthistheory。Someof，themoreprudentconverts，however，topreventallpossibletale-

telling，tooktheprecautionofturningthefaceoftheIcontothe，wallwhenprohibitedmeatswereabouttobeeaten！

ThisgradualconversionoftheFinnishtribes，effectedwithoutany，intellectualrevolutioninthemindsoftheconverts，hadvery，importanttemporalconsequences。Communityoffaithledto，intermarriage，andintermarriageledrapidlytotheblendingofthe，tworaces。

IfwecompareaFinnishvillageinanystageofRussificationwith，aTartarvillage，ofwhichtheinhabitantsareMahometans，we，cannotfailtobestruckbythecontrast。Inthelatter，though，theremaybemanyRussians，thereisnoblendingofthetworaces。

Betweenthemreligionhasraisedanimpassablebarrier。Thereare，manyvillagesintheeasternandnorth-easternprovincesof，EuropeanRussiawhichhavebeenforgenerationshalfTartarand，halfRussian，andtheamalgamationofthetwonationalitieshasnot，yetbegun。NeartheoneendstandstheChristianchurch，andnear，theotherstandsthelittlemetchet，orMahometanhouseofprayer。

ThewholevillageformsoneCommune，withoneVillageAssemblyand，oneVillageElder;but，socially，itiscomposedoftwodistinct，communities，eachpossessingitspeculiarcustomsandpeculiarmode，oflife。TheTartarmaylearnRussian，buthedoesnotonthat，accountbecomeRussianised。

Itmustnot，however，besupposedthatthetworacesareimbued，withfanaticalhatredtowardseachother。Onthecontrary，they，liveinperfectgood-fellowship，electasVillageEldersometimesa，RussianandsometimesaTartar，anddiscusstheCommunalaffairsin，theVillageAssemblywithoutreferencetoreligiousmatters。I

knowonevillagewherethegood-fellowshipwentevenastep，farther：theChristiansdeterminedtorepairtheirchurch，andthe，Mahometanshelpedthemtotransportwoodforthepurpose！，Allthis，tendstoshowthatunderatolerablygoodGovernment，whichdoes，notfavouroneraceattheexpenseoftheother，MahometanTartars，andChristianSlavscanlivepeaceablytogether。

Theabsenceoffanaticismandofthatproselytisingzealwhichis，oneofthemostprolificsourcesofreligioushatred，istobe，explainedbythepeculiarreligiousconceptionsofthesepeasants。