第11章

ThefatherofVictorAlexandr’itchwasalandedproprietorwhohad，madeasuccessfulcareerinthecivilservice，anddesiredthathis，sonshouldfollowthesameprofession。ForthispurposeVictorwas，firstcarefullytrainedathome，andthensenttotheUniversityof，Moscow，wherehespentfouryearsasastudentoflaw。Fromthe，UniversityhepassedtotheMinistryoftheInteriorinSt。

Petersburg，buthefoundthemonotonousroutineofofficiallife，notatallsuitedtohistaste，andverysoonsentinhis，resignation。Thedeathofhisfatherhadmadehimproprietorofan，estate，andthitherheretired，hopingtofindthereplentyof，occupationmorecongenialthanthewritingofofficialpapers。

AttheUniversityofMoscowhehadattendedlecturesonhistoryand，philosophy，andhadgotthroughalargeamountofdesultory，reading。Thechiefresultofhisstudieswastheacquisitionof，manyill-digestedgeneralprinciples，andcertainvague，generous，humanitarianaspirations。Withthisintellectualcapitalhehoped，toleadausefullifeinthecountry。Whenhehadrepairedand，furnishedthehousehesethimselftoimprovetheestate。Inthe，courseofhispromiscuousreadinghehadstumbledonsome，descriptionsofEnglishandTuscanagriculture，andhadthere，learnedwhatwondersmightbeeffectedbyarationalsystemof，farming。WhyshouldnotRussiafollowtheexampleofEnglandand，Tuscany？，Byproperdrainage，plentifulmanure，goodploughs，and，thecultivationofartificialgrasses，theproductionmightbe，multipliedtenfold;andbytheintroductionofagricultural，machinesthemanuallabourmightbegreatlydiminished。Allthis，seemedassimpleasasuminarithmetic，andVictorAlexandr’itch，morescholarumreifamiliarisignarus，withoutamoment’s，hesitationexpendedhisreadymoneyinprocuringfromEnglanda，threshing-machine，ploughs，harrows，andotherimplementsofthe，newestmodel。

Thearrivalofthesewasaneventthatwaslongremembered。The，peasantsexaminedthemwithattention，notunmixedwithwonder，but，saidnothing。Whenthemasterexplainedtothemtheadvantagesof，thenewinstruments，theystillremainedsilent。Onlyoneoldman，gazingatthethreshing-machine，remarked，inanaudible“aside，“

“Acunningpeople，theseGermans！”*，Onbeingaskedfortheir，opinion，theyrepliedvaguely，“Howshouldweknow？，ItOUGHTtobe，so。”，Butwhentheirmasterhadretired，andwasexplainingtohis，wifeandtheFrenchgovernessthatthechiefobstacletoprogress，inRussiawastheapatheticindolenceandconservativespiritof，thepeasantry，theyexpressedtheiropinionsmorefreely。”These，maybeallverywellfortheGermans，buttheywon’tdoforus。

Howareourlittlehorsestodragthesebigploughs？，Andasfor，that[thethreshing-machine]，it’sofnouse。”，Furtherexamination，andreflectionconfirmedthisfirstimpression，anditwas，unanimouslydecidedthatnogoodwouldcomeofthenew-fangled，inventions。

*TheRussianpeasantcomprehendsalltheinhabitantsofWestern，EuropeunderthetermNyemtsi，whichinthelanguageofthe，educateddesignatesonlyGermans。Therestofhumanityiscomposed，ofPravoslavniye(GreekOrthodox)，Busurmanye(Mahometans)，and，Poliacki(Poles)。

Theseapprehensionsprovedtobeonlytoowellfounded。The，ploughsweremuchtooheavyforthepeasants’smallhorses，andthe，threshing-machinebrokedownatthefirstattempttouseit。For，thepurchaseoflighterimplementsorstrongerhorsestherewasno，readymoney，andfortherepairingofthethreshing-machinethere，wasnotanengineerwithinaradiusofahundredandfiftymiles。

Theexperimentwas，inshort，acompletefailure，andthenew，purchaseswereputawayoutofsight。

ForsomeweeksafterthisincidentVictorAlexandr’itchfeltvery，despondent，andspokemorethanusualabouttheapathyand，stupidityofthepeasantry。Hisfaithininfalliblesciencewas，somewhatshaken，andhisbenevolentaspirationswereforatime，laidaside。Butthiseclipseoffaithwasnotoflongduration。

Graduallyherecoveredhisnormalcondition，andbegantoformnew，schemes。Fromthestudyofcertainworksonpoliticaleconomyhe，learnedthatthesystemofcommunalpropertywasruinoustothe，fertilityofthesoil，andthatfreelabourwasalwaysmore，productivethanserfage。Bythelightoftheseprincipleshe，discoveredwhythepeasantryinRussiaweresopoor，andbywhat，meanstheirconditioncouldheameliorated。TheCommunalland，shouldhedividedintofamilylots，andtheserfs，insteadofbeing，forcedtoworkfortheproprietor，shouldpayayearlysumasrent。

Theadvantagesofthischangeheperceivedclearly——asclearlyas，hehadformerlyperceivedtheadvantagesofEnglishagricultural，implements——andhedeterminedtomaketheexperimentonhisown，estate。

Hisfirststepwastocalltogetherthemoreintelligentand，influentialofhisserfs，andtoexplaintothemhisproject;but，hiseffortsatexplanationwereeminentlyunsuccessful。Evenwith，regardtoordinarycurrentaffairshecouldnotexpresshimselfin，thatsimple，homelylanguagewithwhichalonethepeasantsare，familiar，andwhenhespokeonabstractsubjectshenaturally，becamequiteunintelligibletohisuneducatedaudience。Theserfs，listenedattentively，butunderstoodnothing。Hemightaswell，havespokentothem，asheoftendidinanotherkindofsociety，aboutthecomparativeexcellenceofItalianandGermanmusic。Ata，secondattempthehadrathermoresuccess。Thepeasantscameto，understandthatwhathewishedwastobreakuptheMir，orrural，Commune，andtoputthemallonobrok——thatistosay，makethem，payayearlysuminsteadofgivinghimacertainamountof，agriculturallabour。Muchtohisastonishment，hisschemedidnot，meetwithanysympathy。Astobeingputonobrok，theserfsdid，notmuchobject，thoughtheypreferredtoremainastheywere;but，hisproposaltobreakuptheMirastonishedandbewilderedthem。

Theyregardeditasasea-captainmightregardtheproposalofa，scientificwiseacretoknockaholeintheship’sbottominorder，tomakehersailfaster。Thoughtheydidnotsaymuch，hewas，intelligentenoughtoseethattheywouldofferastrenuouspassive，resistance，andashedidnotwishtoacttyrannically，heletthe，matterdrop。Thusasecondbenevolentschemewasshipwrecked。

Manyotherschemeshadasimilarfate，andVictorAlexandr’itch，begantoperceivethatitwasverydifficulttodogoodinthis，world，especiallywhenthepersonstobebenefitedwereRussian，peasants。

Inrealitythefaultlaylesswiththeserfsthanwiththeir，master。VictorAlexandr’itchwasbynomeansastupidman。Onthe，contrary，hehadmorethanaveragetalents。Fewmenweremore，capableofgraspinganewideaandformingaschemeforits，realisation，andfewmencouldplaymoredexterouslywithabstract，principles。Whathewantedwasthepowerofdealingwithconcrete，facts。TheprincipleswhichhehadacquiredfromUniversity，lecturesanddesultoryreadingwerefartoovagueandabstractfor，practicaluse。Hehadstudiedabstractsciencewithoutgainingany，technicalknowledgeofdetails，andconsequentlywhenhestoodface，tofacewithreallifehewaslikeastudentwho，havingstudied，mechanicsintext-books，issuddenlyplacedinaworkshopand，orderedtoconstructamachine。Onlytherewasonedifference：

VictorAlexandr’itchwasnotorderedtodoanything。Voluntarily，withoutanyapparentnecessity，hesethimselftoworkwithtools，whichhecouldnothandle。Itwasthisthatchieflypuzzledthe，peasants。Whyshouldhetroublehimselfwiththesenewschemes，whenhemightlivecomfortablyashewas？，Insomeofhisprojects，theycoulddetectadesiretoincreasetherevenue，butinothers，theycoulddiscovernosuchmotive。Intheselatterthey，attributedhisconducttopurecaprice，andputitintothesame，categoryasthosemadpranksinwhichproprietorsofjovialhumour，sometimesindulged。

Inthelastyearsofserfagetherewereagoodmanylanded，proprietorslikeVictorAlexandr’itch——menwhowishedtodo，somethingbeneficent，anddidnotknowhowtodoit。Whenserfage，wasbeingabolishedthemajorityofthesementookanactivepart，inthegreatworkandrenderedvaluableservicetotheircountry。

VictorAlexandr’itchactedotherwise。Atfirsthesympathised，warmlywiththeproposedemancipationandwroteseveralarticleson，theadvantagesoffreelabour，butwhentheGovernmenttookthe，matterintoitsownhandshedeclaredthattheofficialshad，deceivedandslightedtheNoblesse，andhewentovertothe，opposition。BeforetheImperialEdictwassignedhewentabroad，andtravelledforthreeyearsinGermany，France，andItaly。

Shortlyafterhisreturnhemarriedapretty，accomplishedyoung，lady，thedaughterofaneminentofficialinSt。Petersburg，and，sincethattimehehaslivedinhiscountry-house。

Thoughamanofeducationandculture，VictorAlexandr’itchspends，histimeinalmostasindolentawayasthemenoftheoldschool。

Herisessomewhatlater，andinsteadofsittingbytheopenwindow，andgazingintothecourtyard，heturnsoverthepagesofabookor，periodical。Insteadofdiningatmiddayandsuppingatnine，o’clock，hetakesdejeunerattwelveanddinesatfive。Hespends，lesstimeinsittingintheverandahandpacingupanddownwith，hishandsbehindhisback，forhecanvarytheoperationoftime-

killingbyoccasionallywritingaletter，orbystandingbehindhis，wifeatthepianowhilesheplaysselectionsfromMozartand，Beethoven。Butthesepeculiaritiesaremerelyvariationsin，detail。Ifthereisanyessentialdifferencebetweenthelivesof，VictorAlexandr’itchandofIvanIvan’itch，itisinthefactthat，theformernevergoesoutintothefieldstoseehowtheworkis，done，andnevertroubleshimselfwiththestateoftheweather，the，conditionofthecrops，andcognatesubjects。Heleavesthe，managementofhisestateentirelytohissteward，andrefersto，thatpersonageallpeasantswhocometohimwithcomplaintsor，petitions。Thoughhetakesadeepinterestinthepeasantasan，impersonal，abstractentity，andlovestocontemplateconcrete，examplesofthegenusintheworksofcertainpopularauthors，he，doesnotliketohaveanydirectrelationswithpeasantsinthe，flesh。Ifhehastospeakwiththemhealwaysfeelsawkward，and，suffersfromtheodouroftheirsheepskins。IvanIvan’itchisever，readytotalkwiththepeasants，andgivethemsound，practical，adviceorsevereadmonitions;andintheoldtimeshewasapt，in，momentsofirritation，tosupplementhisadmonitionsbyafreeuse，ofhisfists。VictorAlexandr’itch，onthecontrary，nevercould，giveanyadviceexceptvaguecommonplace，andastousinghisfist，hewouldhaveshrunkfromthat，notonlyfromrespectto，humanitarianprinciples，butalsofrommotiveswhichbelongtothe，regionofaestheticsensitiveness。

Thisdifferencebetweenthetwomenhasanimportantinfluenceon，theirpecuniaryaffairs。Thestewardsofbothstealfromtheir，masters;butthatofIvanIvan’itchstealswithdifficulty，andto，averylimitedextent，whereasthatofVictorAlexandr’itchsteals，regularlyandmethodically，andcountshisgains，notbykopecks，butbyroubles。Thoughthetwoestatesareofaboutthesamesize，andvalue，theygiveaverydifferentrevenue。Therough，practicalmanhasamuchlargerincomethanhiselegant，well-

educatedneighbour，andatthesametimespendsverymuchless。

Theconsequencesofthis，ifnotatpresentvisible，mustsomeday，becomepainfullyapparent。IvanIvan’itchwilldoubtlessleaveto，hischildrenanunencumberedestateandacertainamountof，capital。ThechildrenofVictorAlexandr’itchhaveadifferent，prospect。Hehasalreadybeguntomortgagehispropertyandtocut，downthetimber，andhealwaysfindsadeficitattheendofthe，year。Whatwillbecomeofhiswifeandchildrenwhentheestate，comestobesoldforpaymentofthemortgage，itisdifficultto，predict。Hethinksverylittleofthateventuality，andwhenhis，thoughtshappentowanderinthatdirectionheconsoleshimself，withthethoughtthatbeforethecrashcomeshewillhaveinherited，afortunefromarichunclewhohasnochildren。

Theproprietorsoftheoldschoolleadthesameuniform，monotonous，lifeyearafteryear，withverylittlevariation。Victor，Alexandr’itch，onthecontrary，feelstheneedofaperiodical，returnto“civilisedsociety，“andaccordinglyspendsafewweeks，everywinterinSt。Petersburg。Duringthesummermonthshehas，thesocietyofhisbrother——unhommetoutafaitcivilise——who，possessesanestateafewmilesoff。

Thisbrother，VladimirAlexandr’itch，waseducatedintheSchoolof，LawinSt。Petersburg，andhassincerisenrapidlyintheservice。

HeholdsnowaprominentpositioninoneoftheMinistries，andhas，thehonourarycourttitleof“ChambellandesaMajeste。”，Heisa，markedmaninthehighercirclesoftheAdministration，andwill，itisthought，somedaybecomeMinister。Thoughanadherentof，enlightenedviews，andaprofessed“Liberal，“hecontrivestokeep，onverygoodtermswiththosewhoimaginethemselvestobe，“Conservatives。”，Inthisheisassistedbyhissoft，oilymanner。

Ifyouexpressanopiniontohimhewillalwaysbeginbytelling，youthatyouarequiteright;andifheendsbyshowingyouthat，youarequitewrong，hewillatleastmakeyoufeelthatyourerror，isnotonlyexcusable，butinsomewayhighlycreditabletoyour，intellectualacutenessorgoodnessofheart。Inspiteofhis，LiberalismheisastaunchMonarchist，andconsidersthatthetime，hasnotyetcomefortheEmperortograntaConstitution。He，recognisesthatthepresentorderofthingshasitsdefects，but，thinksthat，onthewhole，itactsverywell，andwouldactmuch，betterifcertainhighofficialswereremoved，andmoreenergetic，menputintheirplaces。LikeallgenuineSt。Petersburg，tchinovniks(officials)，hehasgreatfaithinthemiraculouspower，ofImperialukazesandMinisterialcirculars，andbelievesthat，nationalprogressconsistsinmultiplyingthesedocuments，and，centralisingtheAdministration，soastogivethemmoreeffect。

Asasupplementarymeansofprogresshehighlyapprovesof，aestheticculture，andhecanspeakwithsomeeloquenceofthe，humanisinginfluenceofthefinearts。Forhisownpartheiswell，acquaintedwithFrenchandEnglishclassics，andparticularly，admiresMacaulay，whomhedeclarestohavebeennotonlyagreat，writer，butalsoagreatstatesman。Amongwritersoffictionhe，givesthepalmtoGeorgeEliot，andspeaksofthenovelistsofhis，owncountry，and，indeed，ofRussianliteratureasawhole，inthe，mostdisparagingterms。

AverydifferentestimateofRussianliteratureisheldby，AlexanderIvan’itchN——，formerlyarbiterinpeasantaffairs，and，afterwardsjusticeofthepeace。Discussionsonthissubjectoften，takeplacebetweenthetwo。TheadmirerofMacaulaydeclaresthat，Russiahas，properlyspeaking，noliteraturewhatever，andthatthe，workswhichbearthenamesofRussianauthorsarenothingbuta，feebleechooftheliteratureofWesternEurope。”Imitators，“he，iswonttosay，“skilfulimitators，wehaveproducedinabundance。

Butwhereisthereamanoforiginalgenius？，Whatisourfamous，poetZhukofski？，Atranslator。WhatisPushkin？，Acleverpupilof，theromanticschool。WhatisLermontoff？，Afeebleimitatorof，Byron。WhatisGogol？”

AtthispointAlexanderIvan’itchinvariableintervenes。Heis，readytosacrificeallthepseudo-classicandromanticpoetry，and，infact，thewholeofRussianliteratureanteriortoabouttheyear，1840，buthewillnotallowanythingdisrespectfultobesaidof，Gogol，whoaboutthattimefoundedtheRussianrealisticschool。

“Gogol，“heholds，“wasagreatandoriginalgenius。Gogolnot，onlycreatedanewkindofliterature;heatthesametime，transformedthereadingpublic，andinauguratedanewerainthe，intellectualdevelopmentofthenation。Byhishumorous，satirical，sketcheshesweptawaythemetaphysicaldreamingandfoolish，romanticaffectationtheninfashion，andtaughtmentoseetheir，countryasitwas，inallitshideousugliness。Withhishelpthe，younggenerationperceivedtherottennessoftheAdministration，andthemeanness，stupidity，dishonesty，andworthlessnessofthe，landedproprietors，whomhemadethespecialbuttofhisridicule。

Therecognitionofdefectsproducedadesireforreform。From，laughingattheproprietorstherewasbutonesteptodespising，them，andwhenwelearnedtodespisetheproprietorswenaturally，cametosympathisewiththeserfs。ThustheEmancipationwas，preparedbytheliterature;andwhenthegreatquestionhadtobe，solved，itwastheliteraturethatdiscoveredasatisfactory，solution。”

ThisisasubjectonwhichAlexanderIvan’itchfeelsverystrongly，andonwhichhealwaysspeakswithwarmth。Heknowsagooddeal，regardingtheintellectualmovementwhichbeganabout1840，and，culminatedinthegreatreformsofthesixties。AsaUniversity，studenthetroubledhimselfverylittlewithseriousacademicwork，buthereadwithintenseinterestalltheleadingperiodicals，and，adoptedthedoctrineofBelinskithatartshouldnotbecultivated，foritsownsake，butshouldbemadesubservienttosocial，progress。ThisbeliefwasconfirmedbyaperusalofsomeofGeorge，Sand’searlierworks，whichwereforhimakindofrevelation。

Socialquestionsengrossedhisthoughts，andallothersubjects，seemedpunybycomparison。WhentheEmancipationquestionwas，raisedhesawanopportunityofapplyingsomeofhistheories，and，threwhimselfenthusiasticallyintothenewmovementasanardent，abolitionist。Whenthelawwaspassedhehelpedtoputitinto，executionbyservingforthreeyearsasanArbiterofthePeace。

Nowheisanoldman，buthehaspreservedsomeofhisyouthful，enthusiasm，attendsregularlytheannualassembliesoftheZemstvo，andtakesalivelyinterestinallpublicaffairs。

Asanardentpartisanoflocalself-governmenthehabituallyscoffs，atthecentralisedbureaucracy，whichheproclaimstobethegreat，baneofhisunhappycountry。”Thesetchinovniks，“heiswontto，sayinmomentsofexcitement，“wholiveinSt。Petersburgand，governtheEmpire，knowaboutasmuchofRussiaastheydoof，China。Theyliveinaworldofofficialdocuments，andare，hopelesslyignorantoftherealwantsandinterestsofthepeople。

Solongasalltherequiredformalitiesaredulyobservedtheyare，perfectlysatisfied。Thepeoplemaybeallowedtodieof，starvationifonlythefactdonotappearintheofficialreports。

Powerlesstodoanygoodthemselves，theyarepowerfulenoughto，preventothersfromworkingforthepublicgood，andareextremely，jealousofallprivateinitiative。Howhavetheyacted，for，instance，towardstheZemstvo？，TheZemstvoisreallyagood，institution，andmighthavedonegreatthingsifithadbeenleft，alone，butassoonasitbegantoshowalittleindependentenergy，theofficialsatonceclippeditswingsandthenstrangledit。

TowardsthePresstheyhaveactedinthesameway。Theyareafraid，ofthePress，becausetheyfearaboveallthingsahealthypublic，opinion，whichthePressalonecancreate。Everythingthat，disturbsthehabitualroutinealarmsthem。Russiacannotmakeany，realprogresssolongassheisruledbythesecursedtchinovniks。”

Scarcelylessperniciousthanthetchinovnik，intheeyesofour，would-bereformer，isthebaritch——thatistosay，thepampered，capricious，spoiledchildofmatureyears，whoselifeisspentin，elegantindolenceandfinetalking。OurfriendVictor，Alexandr’itchiscommonlyselectedasarepresentativeofthis，type。”Lookathim！”exclaimsAlexanderIvan’itch。”Whata，useless，contemptiblememberofsociety！，Inspiteofhisgenerous，aspirationsheneversucceedsindoinganythingusefultohimself，ortoothers。Whenthepeasantquestionwasraisedandtherewas，worktobedone，hewentabroadandtalkedliberalisminParisand，Baden-Baden。Thoughhereads，oratleastprofessestoread，books，onagriculture，andisalwaysreadytodiscourseonthebestmeans，ofpreventingtheexhaustionofthesoil，heknowslessoffarming，thanapeasant-boyoftwelve，andwhenhegoesintothefieldshe，canhardlydistinguishryefromoats。Insteadofbabblingabout，GermanandItalianmusic，hewoulddowelltolearnalittleabout，practicalfarming，andlookafterhisestate。”

WhilstAlexanderIvan’itchthuscensureshisneighbours，heis，himselfnotwithoutdetractors。Somestaidoldproprietorsregard，himasadangerousman，andquoteexpressionsofhiswhichseemto，indicatethathisnotionsofpropertyaresomewhatloose。Many，considerthathisliberalismisofaveryviolentkind，andthathe，hasstrongrepublicansympathies。InhisdecisionsasJusticehe，oftenleaned，itissaid，tothesideofthepeasantsagainstthe，proprietors。Thenhewasalwaystryingtoinducethepeasantsof，theneighbouringvillagestofoundschools，andhehadwonderful，ideasaboutthebestmethodofteachingchildren。Theseand，similarfactsmakemanypeoplebelievethathehasveryadvanced，ideas，andoneoldgentlemanhabituallycallshim——halfinjokeand，halfinearnest——“ourfriendthecommunist。”

InrealityAlexanderIvan’itchhasnothingofthecommunistabout，him。Thoughheloudlydenouncesthetchinovnikspirit——or，aswe，shouldsay，red-tapeinallitsforms——andisanardentpartisanof，localself-government，heisoneofthelastmenintheworldto，takepartinanyrevolutionarymovement，hewouldliketoseethe，CentralGovernmentenlightenedandcontrolledbypublicopinionand，byanationalrepresentation，buthebelievesthatthiscanonlybe，effectedbyvoluntaryconcessionsonthepartoftheautocratic，power。Hehas，perhaps，asentimentalloveofthepeasantry，and，isalwaysreadytoadvocateitsinterests;buthehascometoomuch，incontactwithindividualpeasantstoacceptthoseidealised，descriptionsinwhichsomepopularwritersindulge，anditmay，safelybeassertedthattheaccusationofhisvoluntarilyfavouring，peasantsattheexpenseoftheproprietorsiswhollyunfounded。

AlexanderIvan’itchis，infact，aquiet，sensibleman，whois，capableofgenerousenthusiasm，andisnotatallsatisfiedwith，theexistingstateofthings;butheisnotadreameranda，revolutionnaire，assomeofhisneighboursassert。

IamafraidIcannotsayasmuchforhisyoungerbrotherNikolai，wholiveswithhim。NikolaiIvan’itchisatall，slenderman，aboutsixtyyearsofage，withemaciatedface，biliouscomplexion，andlongblackhair——evidentlyapersonofexcitable，nervous，temperament。Whenhespeakshearticulatesrapidly，andusesmore，gesticulationthaniscommonamonghiscountrymen。Hisfavourite，subjectofconversation，orratherofdiscourse，forhemore，frequentlypreachesthantalks，isthelamentablestateofthe，countryandtheworthlessnessoftheGovernment。Againstthe，Governmenthehasagreatmanycausesforcomplaint，andoneortwo，ofapersonalkind。In1861hewasastudentintheUniversityof，St。Petersburg。Atthattimetherewasagreatdealofpublic，excitementalloverRussia，andespeciallyinthecapital。The，serfshadjustbeenemancipated，andotherimportantreformshad，beenundertaken。Therewasageneralconvictionamongtheyoung，generation——anditmustbeaddedamongmanyoldermen——thatthe，autocratic，paternalsystemofgovernmentwasatanend，andthat，Russiawasabouttobereorganisedaccordingtothemostadvanced，principlesofpoliticalandsocialscience。Thestudents，sharing，thisconviction，wishedtobefreedfromallacademicalauthority，andtoorganiseakindofacademicself-government。Theydesired，especiallytherightofholdingpublicmeetingsforthediscussion，oftheircommonaffairs。Theauthoritieswouldnotallowthis，and，issuedalistofrulesprohibitingmeetingsandraisingtheclass-

fees，soaspracticallytoexcludemanyofthepoorerstudents。

Thiswasfelttobeawantoninsulttothespiritofthenewera。

Inspiteoftheprohibition，indignationmeetingswereheld，and，fieryspeechesmadebymaleandfemaleorators，firstintheclass-

rooms，andafterwardsinthecourtyardoftheUniversity。Onone，occasionalongprocessionmarchedthroughtheprincipalstreetsto，thehouseoftheCurator。Neverhadsuchaspectaclebeenseen，beforeinSt。Petersburg。Timidpeoplefearedthatitwasthe，commencementofarevolution，anddreamedaboutbarricades。At，lasttheauthoritiestookenergeticmeasures;aboutthreehundred，studentswerearrested，andofthese，thirty-twowereexpelledfrom，theUniversity。

AmongthosewhowereexpelledwasNicolaiIvan’itch。Allhishopes，ofbecomingaprofessor，ashehadintended，werethereby，shipwrecked，andhehadtolookoutforsomeotherprofession。A

literarycareernowseemedthemostpromising，andcertainlythe，mostcongenialtohistastes。Itwouldenablehimtogratifyhis，ambitionofbeingapublicman，andgivehimopportunitiesof，attackingandannoyinghispersecutors。Hehadalreadywritten，occasionallyforoneoftheleadingperiodicals，andnowhebecame，aregularcontributor。Hisstockofpositiveknowledgewasnot，verylarge，buthehadthepowerofwritingfluentlyandofmaking，hisreadersbelievethathehadanunlimitedstoreofpolitical，wisdomwhichthePress-censurepreventedhimfrompublishing。

Besidesthis，hehadthetalentofsayingsharp，satiricalthings，aboutthoseinauthority，insuchawaythatevenaPresscensor，couldnoteasilyraiseobjections。Articleswritteninthisstyle，weresureatthattimetobepopular，andhishadaverygreat，success。Hebecameaknownmaninliterarycircles，andforatime，allwentwell。Butgraduallyhebecamelesscautious，whilstthe，authoritiesbecamemorevigilant。Somecopiesofaviolent，seditiousproclamationfellintothehandsofthepolice，andit，wasgenerallybelievedthatthedocumentproceededfromthecoterie，towhichhebelonged。Fromthatmomenthewascarefullywatched，tillonenighthewasunexpectedlyrousedfromhissleepbya，gendarmeandconveyedtothefortress。

Whenamanisarrestedinthiswayforarealorsupposedpolitical，offence，therearetwomodesofdealingwithhim。Hemaybetried，beforearegulartribunal，orhemaybedealtwith“by，administrativeprocedure“(administrativnymporyadkom)。Inthe，formercasehewill，ifconvicted，becondemnedtoimprisonmentfor，acertainterm;or，iftheoffencebeofagravernature，hemaybe，transportedtoSiberiaeitherforafixedperiodorforlife。By，theadministrativeprocedureheissimplyremovedwithoutatrial，tosomedistanttown，andcompelledtolivethereunderpolice，supervisionduringhisMajesty’spleasure。NikolaiIvan’itchwas，treated“administratively，“becausetheauthorities，though，convincedthathewasadangerouscharacter，couldnotfind，sufficientevidencetoprocurehisconvictionbeforeacourtof，justice。Forfiveyearshelivedunderpolicesupervisionina，smalltownneartheWhiteSea，andthenonedayhewasinformed，withoutanyexplanation，thathemightgoandliveanywherehe，pleasedexceptinSt。PetersburgandMoscow。

Sincethattimehehaslivedwithhisbrother，andspendshistime，inbroodingoverhisgrievancesandbewailinghisshattered，illusions。Hehaslostnoneofthatfluencywhichgainedhiman，ephemeralliteraryreputation，andcanspeakbythehouron，politicalandsocialquestionstoanyonewhowilllistentohim。

Itisextremelydifficult，however，tofollowhisdiscourses，and，utterlyimpossibletoretaintheminthememory。Theybelongto，whatmaybecalledpoliticalmetaphysics——forthoughheprofesses，toholdmetaphysicsinabhorrence，heishimselfathorough，metaphysicianinhismodesofthought。Helives，indeed，ina，worldofabstractconceptions，inwhichhecanscarcelyperceive，concretefacts，andhisargumentsarealwaysakindofclever，jugglingwithsuchequivocal，conventionaltermsasaristocracy，bourgeoisie，monarchy，andthelike。Atconcretefactshearrives，notdirectlybyobservation，butbydeductionsfromgeneral，principles，sothathisfactscanneverbyanypossibility，contradicthistheories。Thenhehascertainaxiomswhichhe，tacitlyassumes，andonwhichallhisargumentsarebased;as，for，instance，thateverythingtowhichtheterm“liberal“canbe，appliedmustnecessarilybegoodatalltimesandunderall，conditions。

Amongamassofvagueconceptionswhichitisimpossibletoreduce，toanyclearlydefinedformhehasafewideaswhichareperhaps，notstrictlytrue，butwhichareatleastintelligible。Among，theseishisconvictionthatRussiahasletslipamagnificent，opportunityofdistancingallEuropeontheroadofprogress。She，might，hethinks，atthetimeoftheEmancipation，haveboldly，acceptedallthemostadvancedprinciplesofpoliticalandsocial，science，andhavecompletelyreorganisedthepoliticalandsocial，structureinaccordancewiththem。Othernationscouldnottake，suchastep，becausetheyareoldanddecrepit，filledwith，stubborn，hereditaryprejudices，andcursedwithanaristocracyand，abourgeoisie;butRussiaisyoung，knowsnothingofsocialcastes，andhasnodeep-rootedprejudicestocontendwith。Thepopulation，islikepotter’sclay，whichcanbemadetoassumeanyformthat，sciencemayrecommend。AlexanderII。beganamagnificent，sociologicalexperiment，buthestoppedhalf-way。

Someday，hebelieves，theexperimentwillbecompleted，butnotby，theautocraticpower。Inhisopinionautocracyis“playedout，“

andmustgivewaytoParliamentaryinstitutions。Forhima，Constitutionisakindofomnipotentfetish。Youmaytryto，explaintohimthataParliamentaryregime，whateveritsadvantages，maybe，necessarilyproducespoliticalpartiesandpolitical，conflicts，andisnotnearlysosuitableforgrandsociological，experimentsasagoodpaternaldespotism。Youmaytrytoconvince，himthat，thoughitmaybedifficulttoconvertanautocrat，itis，infinitelymoredifficulttoconvertaHouseofCommons。Butall，youreffortswillbeinvain。HewillassureyouthataRussian，ParliamentwouldbesomethingquitedifferentfromwhatParliaments，commonlyare。Itwouldcontainnoparties，forRussiahasno，socialcastes，andwouldbeguidedentirelybyscientific，considerations——asfreefromprejudiceandpersonalinfluencesasa，philosopherspeculatingonthenatureoftheInfinite！，Inshort，heevidentlyimaginesthatanationalParliamentwouldbecomposed，ofhimselfandhisfriends，andthatthenationwouldcalmlysubmit，totheirukazes，asithashithertosubmittedtotheukazesofthe，Tsars。

PendingtheadventofthispoliticalMillennium，whenunimpassioned，scienceistoreignsupreme，NikolaiIvan’itchallowshimselfthe，luxuryofindulginginsomeverydecidedpoliticalanimosities，and，hehateswiththefervourofafanatic。Firstlyandchiefly，he，hateswhathecallsthebourgeoisie——heisobligedtousethe，Frenchword，becausehisnativelanguagedoesnotcontainan，equivalentterm——andespeciallycapitalistsofallsortsand，dimensions。Next，hehatesaristocracy，especiallyaformof，aristocracycalledFeudalism。Totheseabstracttermshedoesnot，attachaveryprecisemeaning，buthehatestheentitieswhichthey，aresupposedtorepresentquiteasheartilyasiftheywere，personalenemies。Amongthethingswhichhehatesinhisown，country，theAutocraticPowerholdsthefirstplace。Next，asan，emanationfromtheAutocraticPower，comethetchinovniks，and，especiallythegendarmes。Thencomethelandedproprietors。

Thoughheishimselfalandedproprietor，heregardstheclassas，cumberersoftheground，andthinksthatalltheirlandshouldbe，confiscatedanddistributedamongthepeasantry。

Allproprietorshavethemisfortunetocomeunderhissweeping，denunciations，becausetheyareinconsistentwithhisidealofa，peasantEmpire，butherecognisesamongstthemdegreesof，depravity。Somearesimplyobstructive，whilstothersareactively，prejudicialtothepublicwelfare。Amongtheselatteraspecial，objectofaversionisPrinceS——，becausehenotonlypossesses，verylargeestates，butatthesametimehasaristocratic，pretensions，andcallshimselfConservative。

PrinceS——isbyfarthemostimportantmaninthedistrict。His，familyisoneoftheoldestinthecountry，buthedoesnotowehis，influencetohispedigree，forpedigreepureandsimpledoesnot，countformuchinRussia。Heisinfluentialandrespectedbecause，heisagreatland-holderwithahighofficialposition，and，belongsbybirthtothatgroupoffamilieswhichformsthe，permanentnucleusoftheever-changingCourtsociety。Hisfather，andgrandfatherwereimportantpersonagesintheAdministrationand，atCourt，andhissonsandgrandsonswillprobablyinthisrespect，followinthefootstepsoftheirancestors。Thoughintheeyeof，thelawallnoblesareequal，and，theoreticallyspeaking，promotionisgainedexclusivelybypersonalmerit，yet，inreality，thosewhohavefriendsatCourtrisemoreeasilyandmorerapidly。

ThePrincehashadaprosperousbutnotveryeventfullife。Hewas，educated，firstathome，underanEnglishtutor，andafterwardsin，theCorpsdesPages。Onleavingthisinstitutionheentereda，regimentoftheGuards，androsesteadilytohighmilitaryrank。

Hisactivity，however，hasbeenchieflyinthecivil，administration，andhenowhasaseatintheCouncilofState。

Thoughhehasalwaystakenacertaininterestinpublicaffairs，he，didnotplayanimportantpartinanyofthegreatreforms。When，thepeasantquestionwasraisedhesympathisedwiththeideaof，Emancipation，butdidnotatallsympathisewiththeideaofgiving，landtotheemancipatedserfsandpreservingtheCommunal，institutions。Whathedesiredwasthattheproprietorsshould，liberatetheirserfswithoutanypecuniaryindemnity，andshould，receiveinreturnacertainshareofpoliticalpower。Hisscheme，wasnotadopted，buthehasnotrelinquishedthehopethatthe，greatlandedproprietorsmaysomehowobtainasocialandpolitical，positionsimilartothatofthegreatland-ownersinEngland。

OfficialdutiesandsocialrelationscompelthePrincetolivefor，alargepartoftheyearinthecapital。Hespendsonlyafew，weeksyearlyonhisestate。Thehouseislarge，andfittedupin，theEnglishstyle，withaviewtocombiningeleganceandcomfort。

Itcontainsseveralspaciousapartments，alibrary，andabilliard-

room。Thereisanextensivepark，animmensegardenwithhot，houses，numeroushorsesandcarriages，andalegionofservants。

Inthedrawing-roomisaplentifulsupplyofEnglishandFrench，books，newspapers，andperiodicals，includingtheJournaldeSt。

Petersbourg，whichgivesthenewsoftheday。

Thefamilyhave，inshort，alltheconveniencesandcomfortswhich，moneyandrefinementcanprocure，butitcannotbesaidthatthey，greatlyenjoythetimespentinthecountry。ThePrincesshasno，decidedobjectiontoit。Sheisdevotedtoalittlegrandchild，is，fondofreadingandcorrespondence，amusesherselfwithaschool，andhospitalwhichshehasfoundedforthepeasantry，and，occasionallydrivesovertoseeherfriend，theCountessN——，who，livesaboutfifteenmilesoff。

ThePrince，however，findscountrylifeexcessivelydull。Hedoes，notcareforridingorshooting，andhefindsnothingelsetodo。

Heknowsnothingaboutthemanagementofhisestate，andholds，consultationswiththestewardmerelyproforma——thisestateand，theotherswhichhepossessesindifferentprovincesbeingruledby，ahead-stewardinSt。Petersburg，inwhomhehasthemostcomplete，confidence。Inthevicinitythereisnoonewithwhomhecaresto，associate。Naturallyheisnotasociableman，andhehasacquired，astiff，formal，reservedmannerthatisrarelymetwithinRussia。

Thismannerrepelstheneighbouringproprietors——afactthathe，doesnotatallregret，fortheydonotbelongtohismonde，and，theyhaveintheirmannersandhabitsafree-and-easyrusticity，whichispositivelydisagreeabletohim。Hisrelationswiththem，arethereforeconfinedtoformalcalls。Thegreaterpartofthe，dayhespendsinlistlessloitering，frequentlyyawning，regretting，theroutineofSt。Petersburglife——thepleasantchatswithhis，colleagues，theopera，theballet，theFrenchtheatre，andthe，quietrubberattheClubAnglais。Hisspiritsriseasthedayof，hisdepartureapproaches，andwhenhedrivesofftothestationhe，looksbrightandcheerful。Ifheconsultedmerelyhisowntastes，hewouldnevervisithisestatesatall，andwouldspendhissummer，holidaysinGermany，France，orSwitzerland，ashedidinhis，bachelordays;butasalargelandownerheconsidersitrightto，sacrificehispersonalinclinationstothedutiesofhisposition。

Thereis，bytheway，anotherprincelymagnateinthedistrict，and，Ioughtperhapstointroducehimtomyreaders，becausehe，representsworthilyanewtype。LikePrinceS——，ofwhomIhave，justspoken，heisagreatland-ownerandadescendantofthehalf-

mythicalRurik;buthehasnoofficialrank，anddoesnotpossessa，singlegrandcordon。Inthatrespecthehasfollowedinthe，footstepsofhisfatherandgrandfather，whohadsomethingofthe，frondeurspirit，andpreferredthepositionofagrandseigneurand，acountrygentlemantothatofatchinovnikandacourtier。Inthe，LiberalcampheisregardedasaConservative，buthehaslittlein，commonwiththeKrepostnik，whodeclaresthatthereformsofthe，lasthalf-centurywereamistake，thateverythingisgoingtothe，bad，thattheemancipatedserfsareallsluggards，drunkards，and，thieves，thatthelocalself-governmentisaningeniousmachinefor，wastingmoney，andthatthereformedlaw-courtshaveconferred，benefitsonlyonthelawyers。Onthecontrary，herecognisesthe，necessityandbeneficentresultsofthereforms，andwithregardto，thefuturehehasnoneofthedespairingpessimismofthe，incorrigibleoldTory。

Butinorderthatrealprogressshouldbemade，hethinksthat，certaincurrentandfashionableerrorsmustbeavoided，andamong，theseerrorsheplaces，inthefirstrank，theviewsandprinciples，oftheadvancedLiberals，whohaveablindadmirationforWestern，Europe，andforwhattheyarepleasedtocalltheresultsof，science。LiketheLiberalsoftheWest，thesegentlemenassume，thatthebestformofgovernmentisconstitutionalism，monarchical，orrepublican，onabroaddemocraticbasis，andtowardsthe，realisationofthisidealalltheireffortsaredirected。Notso，ourConservativefriend。Whileadmittingthatdemocratic，Parliamentaryinstitutionsmaybethebestformofgovernmentfor，themoreadvancednationsoftheWest，hemaintainsthattheonly，firmfoundationfortheRussianEmpire，andtheonlysolid，guaranteeofitsfutureprosperity，istheAutocraticPower，which，isthesolegenuinerepresentativeofthenationalspirit。Looking，atthepastfromthispointofview，heperceivesthattheTsars，haveeveridentifiedthemselveswiththenation，andhavealways，understood，inpartinstinctivelyandinpartbyreflection，what，thenationreallyrequired。WhenevertheinfiltrationofWestern，ideasthreatenedtoswampthenationalindividuality，the，AutocraticPowerintervenedandavertedthedangerbytimely，precautions。Somethingofthekindmaybeobserved，hebelieves，atpresent，whentheLiberalsareclamouringforaParliamentanda，Constitution;buttheAutocraticPowerisonthealert，andis，makingitselfacquaintedwiththeneedsofthepeoplebymeansfar，moreeffectualthancouldbesuppliedbyoratoricalpoliticians。

WiththeeffortsoftheZemstvointhisdirection，andwiththe，activityoftheZemstvogenerally，thePrincehaslittlesympathy，partlybecausetheinstitutionisinthehandsoftheLiberalsand，isguidedbytheirunpracticalideas，andpartlybecauseitenables，someambitiousoutsiderstoacquiretheinfluenceinlocalaffairs，whichoughttobeexercisedbytheold-establishednoblefamilies，oftheneighbourhood。Whathewouldliketoseeisanenlightened，influentialgentryworkinginconjunctionwiththeAutocraticPower，forthegoodofthecountry。IfRussiacouldproduceafewhundred，thousandmenlikehimself，hisidealmightperhapsberealised。

Forthepresent，suchmenareextremelyrare——Ishouldhave，difficultyinnamingadozenofthem——andaristocraticideasare，extremelyunpopularamongthegreatmajorityoftheeducated，classes。WhenaRussianindulgesinpoliticalspeculation，heis，prettysuretoshowhimselfthoroughlydemocratic，withastrong，leaningtosocialism。

ThePrincebelongstothehighestrankoftheRussianNoblesse。If，wewishtogetanideaofthelowestrank，wecanfindinthe，neighbourhoodanumberofpoor，uneducatedmen，wholiveinsmall，squalidhouses，andarenoteasilytobedistinguishedfrom，peasants。Theyarenobles，likehisHighness;but，unlikehim，theyenjoynosocialconsideration，andtheirlandedproperty，consistsofafewacresoflandwhichbarelysupplythemwiththe，firstnecessariesoflife。Ifwewenttootherpartsofthe，countrywemightfindmeninthisconditionbearingthetitleof，Prince！，ThisisthenaturalresultoftheRussianlawof，inheritance，whichdoesnotrecognisetheprincipleof，primogeniturewithregardtotitlesandestates。Allthesonsofa，PrincearePrinces，andathisdeathhisproperty，movableand，immovable，isdividedamongstthem。

CHAPTERXXIII

SOCIALCLASSES

DoSocialClassesorCastesExistinRussia？——Well-markedSocial，Types——ClassesRecognisedbytheLegislationandtheOfficial，Statistics——OriginandGradualFormationoftheseClasses——

PeculiarityintheHistoricalDevelopmentofRussia——PoliticalLife，andPoliticalParties。

IntheprecedingpagesIhaverepeatedlyusedtheexpression，“socialclasses，“andprobablymorethanoncethereaderhasfelt，inclinedtoask，WhataresocialclassesintheRussiansenseof，theterm？，Itmaybewell，therefore，beforegoingfarther，to，answerthisquestion。

IfthequestionwereputtoaRussianitisnotatallunlikely，thathewouldreplysomewhatinthisfashion：“InRussiathereare，nosocialclasses，andthereneverhavebeenany。Thatfact，constitutesoneofthemoststrikingpeculiaritiesofher，historicaldevelopment，andoneofthesurestfoundationsofher，futuregreatness。Weknownothing，andhaveneverknownanything，ofthoseclassdistinctionsandclassenmitieswhichinWestern，Europehaveoftenrudelyshakensocietyinpasttimes，andimperil，itsexistenceinthefuture。”

Thisstatementwillnotbereadilyacceptedbythetravellerwho，visitsRussiawithnopreconceivedideasandformshisopinions，fromhisownobservations。Tohimitseemsthatclassdistinctions，formoneofthemostprominentcharacteristicsofRussiansociety。

Inafewdayshelearnstodistinguishthevariousclassesbytheir，outwardappearance。HeeasilyrecognisestheFrench-speaking，noblesinWest-Europeancostume;theburly，beardedmerchantin，blackclothcapandlong，shiny，double-breastedcoat;thepriest，withhisuncuthairandflowingrobes;thepeasantwithhisfull，fairbeardandunsavoury，greasysheepskin。Meetingeverywhere，thosewell-markedtypes，henaturallyassumesthatRussiansociety，iscomposedofexclusivecastes;andthisfirstimpressionwillbe，fullyconfirmedbyaglanceattheCode。Onexaminingthat，monumentalwork，hefindsthatanentirevolume——andbynomeans，thesmallest——isdevotedtotherightsandobligationsofthe，variousclasses。Fromthisheconcludesthattheclasseshavea，legalaswellasanactualexistence。Tomakeassurancedoubly，sureheturnstoofficialstatistics，andtherehefindsthe，followingtable：

Hereditarynobles……652，887

Personalnobles……374，367

Clericalclasses……695，905

Townclasses……7，196，005

Ruralclasses……63，840，291

Militaryclasses……4，767，703

Foreigners……153，185——

77，680，293*

*Livron：“StatistitcheskoeObozrenieRossiiskoiImperii，“St。

Petersburg，1875。TheabovefiguresincludethewholeEmpire。The，figuresaccordingtothelatestcensus(1897)arenotyet，available。

Armedwiththesematerials，thetravellergoestohisRussian，friendswhohaveassuredhimthattheircountryknowsnothingof，classdistinctions。Heisconfidentofbeingabletoconvincethem，thattheyhavebeenlabouringunderastrangedelusion，buthewill，bedisappointed。Theywilltellhimthattheselawsandstatistics，provenothing，andthatthecategoriesthereinmentionedaremere，administrativefictions。

Thisapparentcontradictionistobeexplainedbytheequivocal，meaningoftheRussiantermsSosloviyaandSostoyaniya，whichare，commonlytranslated“socialclasses。”，Ifbythesetermsaremeant，“castes“intheOrientalsense，thenitmaybeconfidentlyasserted，thatsuchdonotexistinRussia。Betweenthenobles，theclergy，theburghers，andthepeasantstherearenodistinctionsofrace，andnoimpassablebarriers。Thepeasantoftenbecomesamerchant，andtherearemanycasesonrecordofpeasantsandsonsofparish，priestsbecomingnobles。Untilveryrecentlytheparishclergy，composed，aswehaveseen，apeculiarandexclusiveclass，with，manyofthecharacteristicsofacaste;butthishasbeenchanged，anditmaynowbesaidthatinRussiatherearenocastesinthe，Orientalsense。

IfthewordSosloviyabetakentomeananorganisedpoliticalunit，withanespritdecorpsandaclearlyconceivedpoliticalaim，it，maylikewisebeadmittedthattherearenoneinRussia。Asthere，hasbeenforcenturiesnopoliticallifeamongthesubjectsofthe，Tsars，therehavebeennopoliticalparties。

Ontheotherhand，tosaythatsocialclasseshaveneverexistedin，Russiaandthatthecategorieswhichappearinthelegislationand，intheofficialstatisticsaremereadministrativefictions，isa，pieceofgrossexaggeration。

FromtheverybeginningofRussianhistorywecandetect，unmistakablytheexistenceofsocialclasses，suchasthePrinces，theBoyars，thearmedfollowersofthePrinces，thepeasantry，the，slaves，andvariousothers;andoneoftheoldestlegaldocuments，whichwepossess——the“RussianRight“(RusskayaPravda)ofthe，GrandPrinceYaroslaff(1019-1054)——containsirrefragableproof，in，thepenaltiesattachedtovariouscrimes，thattheseclasseswere，formallyrecognisedbythelegislation。Sincethattimetheyhave，frequentlychangedtheircharacter，buttheyhaveneveratany，periodceasedtoexist。

Inancienttimes，whentherewasverylittleadministrative，regulation，theclasseshadperhapsnoclearlydefinedboundaries，andthepeculiaritieswhichdistinguishedthemfromeachotherwere，actualratherthanlegal——lyinginthemodeoflifeandsocial，positionratherthaninpeculiarobligationsandprivileges。But，astheautocraticpowerdevelopedandstrovetotransformthe，nationintoaStatewithahighlycentralisedadministration，the，legalelementinthesocialdistinctionsbecamemoreandmore，prominent。Forfinancialandotherpurposesthepeoplehadtobe，dividedintovariouscategories。Theactualdistinctionswereof，coursetakenasthebasisofthelegalclassification，butthe，classifyinghadmorethanamerelyformalsignificance。The，necessityofclearlydefiningthedifferentgroupsentailedthe，necessityofelevatingandstrengtheningthebarrierswhichalready，existedbetweenthem，andthedifficultyofpassingfromonegroup，toanotherwastherebyincreased。

InthisworkofclassificationPetertheGreatespecially，distinguishedhimself。Withhisinsatiablepassionforregulation，heraisedformidablebarriersbetweenthedifferentcategories，and，definedtheobligationsofeachwithmicroscopicminuteness。After，hisdeaththeworkwascarriedoninthesamespirit，andthe，tendencyreacheditsclimaxinthereignofNicholas，whenthe，numberofstudentstobereceivedintheuniversitieswas，determinedbyImperialukaz！

InthereignofCatherineanewelementwasintroducedintothe，officialconceptionofsocialclasses。Downtohertimethe，Governmenthadthoughtmerelyofclassobligations;underthe，influenceofWesternideassheintroducedtheconceptionofclass，rights。Shewished，aswehaveseen，tohaveinherEmpirea，Noblesseandtiers-etatlikethosewhichexistedinFrance，andfor，thispurposeshegranted，firsttotheDvoryanstvoandafterwards，tothetowns，anImperialCharter，orBillofRights。Succeeding，sovereignshaveactedinthesamespirit，andtheCodenowconfers，oneachclassnumerousprivilegesaswellasnumerousobligations。

Thus，wesee，theoft-repeatedassertionthattheRussiansocial，classesaresimplyartificialcategoriescreatedbythelegislature，istoacertainextenttrue，butisbynomeansaccurate。The，socialgroups，suchaspeasants，landedproprietors，andthelike，cameintoexistenceinRussia，asinothercountries，bythesimple，forceofcircumstances。Thelegislaturemerelyrecognisedand，developedthesocialdistinctionswhichalreadyexisted。Thelegal，status，obligations，andrightsofeachgroupwereminutelydefined，andregulated，andlegalbarrierswereaddedtotheactualbarriers，whichseparatedthegroupsfromeachother。

WhatispeculiarinthehistoricaldevelopmentofRussiaisthis：

untillatelysheremainedanalmostexclusivelyagriculturalEmpire，withabundanceofunoccupiedland。Herhistorypresents，therefore，fewofthoseconflictswhichresultfromthevarietyof，socialconditionsandtheintensifiedstruggleforexistence。

Certainsocialgroupswere，indeed，formedinthecourseoftime，buttheywereneverallowedtofightouttheirownbattles。The，irresistibleautocraticpowerkeptthemalwaysincheckand，fashionedthemintowhateverformitthoughtproper，defining，minutelyandcarefullytheirobligations，theirrights，their，mutualrelations，andtheirrespectivepositionsinthepolitical，organisation。HencewefindinthehistoryofRussiaalmostno，traceofthoseclasshatredswhichappearsoconspicuouslyinthe，historyofWesternEurope。*

*Thisis，Ibelieve，thetrueexplanationofanimportantfact，whichtheSlavophilsendeavouredtoexplainbyanill-authenticated，legend(videsuprap。151)。

ThepracticalconsequenceofallthisisthatinRussiaatthe，presentdaythereisverylittlecastespiritorcasteprejudice。

Withinhalf-a-dozenyearsaftertheemancipationoftheserfs，proprietorsandpeasants，forgettingapparentlytheirold，relationshipofmasterandserf，wereworkingamicablytogetherin，thenewlocaladministration，andnotafewsimilarcuriousfacts，mightbecited。TheconfidentanticipationofmanyRussiansthat，theircountrywillonedayenjoypoliticallifewithoutpolitical，partiesis，ifnotacontradictioninterms，atleastaUtopian，absurdity;butwemaybesurethatwhenpoliticalpartiesdoappear，theywillbeverydifferentfromthosewhichexistinGermany，France，andEngland。

Meanwhile，letusseehowthecountryisgovernedwithoutpolitical，partiesandwithoutpoliticallifeintheWest-Europeansenseof，theterm。Thiswillformthesubjectofournextchapter。

CHAPTERXXIV

THEIMPERIALADMINISTRATIONANDTHEOFFICIALS

TheOfficialsinNorgorodAssistMeinMyStudies——TheModern，ImperialAdministrationCreatedbyPetertheGreat，andDeveloped，byhisSuccessors——ASlavophil’sViewoftheAdministration——The，AdministrationBrieflyDescribed——TheTchinovniks，orOfficials——

OfficialTitles，andTheirRealSignificance——Whatthe，AdministrationHasDoneforRussiainthePast——ItsCharacter，DeterminedbythePeculiarRelationbetweentheGovernmentandthe，People——ItsRadicalVices——BureaucraticRemedies——Complicated，FormalProcedure——TheGendarmerie：MyPersonalRelationswiththis，BranchoftheAdministration;ArrestandRelease——AStrong，Healthy，PublicOpiniontheOnlyEffectualRemedyforBadAdministration。

MyadministrativestudieswerebeguninNovgorod。Oneofmy，reasonsforspendingawinterinthatprovincialcapitalwasthatI

mightstudytheprovincialadministration，andassoonasIhad，madetheacquaintanceoftheleadingofficialsIexplainedtothem，theobjectIhadinview。Withthekindlybonhomiewhich，distinguishestheRussianeducatedclasses，theyallvolunteeredto，givemeeveryassistanceintheirpower，butsomeofthem，on，maturereflection，evidentlysawreasontochecktheirfirst，generousimpulse。AmongthesewastheVice-Governor，agentleman，ofGermanorigin，andthereforemoreinclinedtobepedanticthana，genuineRussian。WhenIcalledonhimoneeveningandremindedhim，ofhisfriendlyoffer，Ifoundtomysurprisethathehadinthe，meantimechangedhismind。Insteadofansweringmyfirstsimple，inquiry，hestaredatmefixedly，asifforthepurposeof，detectingsomecovert，maliciousdesign，andthen，puttingonan，airofofficialdignity，informedmethatasIhadnotbeen，authorisedbytheMinistertomaketheseinvestigations，hecould，notassistme，andwouldcertainlynotallowmetoexaminethe，archives。

Thiswasnotencouraging，butitdidnotpreventmefromapplying，totheGovernor，andIfoundhimamanofaverydifferentstamp。

Delightedtomeetaforeignerwhoseemedanxioustostudyseriously，inanunbiassedframeofmindtheinstitutionsofhismuch-maligned，nativecountry，hewillinglyexplainedtomethemechanismofthe，administrationwhichhedirectedandcontrolled，andkindlyplaced，atmydisposalthebooksanddocumentsinwhichIcouldfindthe，historicalandpracticalinformationwhichIrequired。

ThisfriendlyattitudeofhisExcellencytowardsmesoonbecame，generallyknowninthetown，andfromthatmomentmydifficulties，wereatanend。Theminorofficialsnolongerhesitatedto，initiatemeintothemysteriesoftheirrespectivedepartments，and，atlasteventheVice-Governorthrewoffhisreserveandfollowed，theexampleofhiscolleagues。Theelementaryinformationthus，acquiredIhadafterwardsabundantopportunitiesofcompletingby，observationandstudyinotherpartsoftheEmpire，andInow，proposetocommunicatetothereaderafewofthemoregeneral，results。

Thegiganticadministrativemachinewhichholdstogetherallthe，variouspartsofthevastEmpirehasbeengraduallycreatedby，successivegenerations，butwemaysayroughlythatitwasfirst，designedandconstructedbyPetertheGreat。Beforehistimethe，countrywasgovernedinarude，primitivefashion。TheGrand，PrincesofMoscow，insubduingtheirrivalsandannexingthe，surroundingprincipalities，merelyclearedthegroundforagreat，homogeneousState。Wily，practicalpoliticians，ratherthan，statesmenofthedoctrinairetype，theyneverdreamedof，introducinguniformityandsymmetryintotheadministrationasa，whole。Theydevelopedtheancientinstitutionssofarasthese，wereusefulandconsistentwiththeexerciseofautocraticpower，andmadeonlysuchalterationsaspracticalnecessitydemanded。

Andthesenecessaryalterationsweremorefrequentlylocalthan，general。Specialdecisions，instructiontoparticularofficials，andchartersforparticularcommunesofproprietorsweremuchmore，commonthangenerallegislativemeasures。

Inshort，theoldMuscoviteTsarspractisedahand-to-mouthpolicy，destroyingwhatevercausedtemporaryinconvenience，andgiving，littleheedtowhatdidnotforceitselfupontheirattention。

Hence，undertheirruletheadministrationpresentednotonly，territorialpeculiarities，butalsoanill-assortedcombinationof，differentsystemsinthesamedistrict——aconglomerationof，institutionsbelongingtodifferentepochs，likeafleetcomposed，oftriremes，three-deckers，andiron-clads。

Thisirregularsystem，orratherwantofsystem，seemedhighly，unsatisfactorytothelogicalmindofPetertheGreat，andhe，conceivedthegranddesignofsweepingitaway，andputtinginits，placeasymmetricalbureaucraticmachine。Itisscarcelynecessary，tosaythatthismagnificentproject，soforeigntothetraditional，ideasandcustomsofthepeople，wasnoteasilyrealised。Imagine，aman，withouttechnicalknowledge，withoutskilledworkmen，withoutgoodtools，andwithnobettermaterialthansoft，crumblingsandstone，endeavouringtobuildapalaceonamarsh！

Theundertakingwouldseemtoreasonablemindsutterlyabsurd，and，yetitmustbeadmittedthatPeter’sprojectwasscarcelymore，feasible。Hehadneithertechnicalknowledge，northerequisite，materials，norafirmfoundationtobuildon。Withhisusual，Titanicenergyhedemolishedtheoldstructure，buthisattemptsto，constructwerelittlemorethanaseriesoffailures。Inhis，numerousukazeshehasleftusagraphicdescriptionofhis，efforts，anditisatonceinstructiveandpathetictowatchthe，greatworkertoilingindefatigablyathisself-imposedtask。His，instrumentsareconstantlybreakinginhishands。Thefoundations，ofthebuildingarecontinuallygivingway，andthelowertiers，crumblingunderthesuperincumbentweight。Nowandthenawhole，sectionisfoundtobeunsuitable，andisruthlesslypulleddown，orfallsofitsownaccord。Andyetthebuildertoilson，witha，perseveranceandanenergyofpurposethatcompeladmiration，franklyconfessinghismistakesandfailures，andpatientlyseeking，themeansofremedyingthem，neverallowingawordofdespondency，toescapehim，andneverdespairingofultimatesuccess。Andat，lengthdeathcomes，andthemightybuilderissnatchedaway，suddenlyinthemidstofhisunfinishedlabours，bequeathingtohis，successorsthetaskofcarryingonthegreatwork。

NoneofthesesuccessorspossessedPeter’sgeniusandenergy——with，theexceptionperhapsofCatherineII——buttheywereallcompelled，bytheforceofcircumstancestoadopthisplans。Areturntothe，oldrough-and-readyruleoftimelocalVoyevodswasimpossible。As，theAutocraticPowerbecamemoreandmoreimbuedwithWestern，ideas，itfeltmoreandmoretheneedofnewmeansforcarrying，themout，andaccordinglyitstrovetosystematiseandcentralise，theadministration。

Inthischangewemayperceiveacertainanalogywiththehistory，oftheFrenchadministrationfromthereignofPhilippeleBelto，thatofLouisXIV。Inbothcountriesweseethecentralpower，bringingthelocaladministrativeorgansmoreandmoreunderits，control，tillatlastitsucceedsincreatingathoroughly，centralisedbureaucraticorganisation。Butunderthissuperficial，resemblancelieprofounddifferences。TheFrenchkingshadto，strugglewithprovincialsovereigntiesandfeudalrights，andwhen，theyhadannihilatedthisoppositiontheyeasilyfoundmaterials，withwhichtobuildupthebureaucraticstructure。TheRussian，sovereigns，onthecontrary，metwithnosuchopposition，butthey，hadgreatdifficultyinfindingbureaucraticmaterialamongsttheir，uneducated，undisciplinedsubjects，notwithstandingthenumerous，schoolsandcollegeswhichwerefoundedandmaintainedsimplyfor，thepurposeofpreparingmenforthepublicservice。

TheadministrationwasthusbroughtmuchnearertotheWest-

Europeanideal，butsomepeoplehavegravedoubtsastowhetherit，becametherebybetteradaptedtothepracticalwantsofthepeople，forwhomitwascreated。Onthispointawell-knownSlavophilonce，madetomesomeremarkswhichareworthyofbeingrecorded。”You，haveobserved，“hesaid，“thattillveryrecentlytherewasin，Russiaanenormousamountofofficialpeculation，extortion，and，misgovernmentofeverykind，thatthecourtsoflawweredensof，iniquity，thatthepeopleoftencommittedperjury，andmuchmoreof，thesamesort，anditmustbeadmittedthatallthishasnotyet，entirelydisappeared。Butwhatdoesitprove？，ThattheRussian，peoplearemorallyinferiortotheGerman？，Notatall。Itsimply，provesthattheGermansystemofadministration，whichwasforced，uponthemwithouttheirconsent，wasutterlyunsuitedtotheir，nature。Ifayounggrowingboybecompelledtowearverytight，boots，hewillprobablyburstthem，andtheuglyrentswill，doubtlessproduceanunfavourableimpressiononthepassers-by;but，surelyitisbetterthatthebootsshouldburstthanthatthefeet，shouldbedeformed。Now，theRussianpeoplewascompelledtoput，onnotonlytightboots，butalsoatightjacket，and，beingyoung，andvigorous，itburstthem。Narrow-minded，pedanticGermanscan，neitherunderstandnorprovideforthewantsofthebroadSlavonic，nature。”

InitspresentformtheRussianadministrationseemsatfirstsight，averyimposingedifice。Atthetopofthepyramidstandsthe，Emperor，“theautocraticmonarch，“asPetertheGreatdescribed，him，“whohastogiveanaccountofhisactstonooneonearth，buthaspowerandauthoritytorulehisStatesandlandsasa，Christiansovereignaccordingtohisownwillandjudgment。”

ImmediatelybelowtheEmperorweseetheCouncilofState，the，CommitteeofMinisters，andtheSenate，whichrepresent，respectivelythelegislative，theadministrative，andthejudicial，power。AnEnglishmanglancingoverthefirstvolumeofthegreat，CodeofLawsmightimaginethattheCouncilofStateisakindof，Parliament，andtheCommitteeofMinistersacabinetinoursense，oftheterm，butinrealitybothinstitutionsaresimply，incarnationsoftheAutocraticPower。ThoughtheCouncilis，entrustedbylawwithmanyimportantfunctions——suchasdiscussing，Bills，criticisingtheannualbudget，declaringwarandconcluding，peace——ithasmerelyaconsultativecharacter，andtheEmperoris，notinanywayboundbyitsdecisions。TheCommitteeisnotatall，acabinetasweunderstandtheword。TheMinistersaredirectly，andindividuallyresponsibletotheEmperor，andthereforethe，Committeehasnocommonresponsibilityorothercohesiveforce。As，totheSenate，ithasdescendedfromitshighestate。Itwas，originallyentrustedwiththesupremepowerduringtheabsenceor，minorityofthemonarch，andwasintendedtoexerciseacontrolling，influenceinallsectionsoftheadministration，butnowits，activityisrestrictedtojudicialmatters，anditislittlemore，thanasupremecourtofappeal。

ImmediatelybelowthesethreeinstitutionsstandtheMinistries，teninnumber。Theyarethecentralpointsinwhichconvergethe，variouskindsofterritorialadministration，andfromwhich，radiatestheImperialwillallovertheEmpire。

ForthepurposeofterritorialadministrationRussiaproper——that，istosay，EuropeanRussia，exclusiveofPoland，theBaltic，Provinces，FinlandandtheCaucasus——isdividedintoforty-nine，provincesor“Governments“(gubernii)，andeachGovernmentis，subdividedintoDistricts(uyezdi)。Theaverageareaofaprovince，isaboutthesizeofPortugal，butsomeareassmallasBelgium，whilstoneatleastistwenty-fivetimesasbig。Thepopulation，however，doesnotcorrespondtotheamountofterritory。Inthe，largestprovince，thatofArchangel，thereareonlyabout350，000

inhabitants，whilstintwoofthesmalleronesthereareoverthree，millions。Thedistrictslikewisevarygreatlyinsize。Someare，smallerthanOxfordshireorBuckingham，andothersarebiggerthan，thewholeoftheUnitedKingdom。

OvereachprovinceisplacedaGovernor，whoisassistedinhis，dutiesbyaVice-Governorandasmallcouncil。Accordingtothe，legislationofCatherineII。whichstillappearsintheCodeand，hasonlybeenpartiallyrepealed，theGovernoristermed“the，stewardoftheprovince，“andisentrustedwithsomanyandsuch，delicateduties，thatinordertoobtainqualifiedmenforthepost，itwouldbenecessarytorealisethegreatEmpress’sdesignof，creating，byeducation，“anewraceofpeople。”，Downtothetime，oftheCrimeanWartheGovernorsunderstoodtheterm“stewards“in，averyliteralsense，andruledinamostarbitrary，high-handed，style，oftenexercisinganimportantinfluenceontheciviland，criminaltribunals。Theseextensiveandvaguelydefinedpowers，havenowbeenverymuchcurtailed，partlybypositivelegislation，andpartlybyincreasedpublicityandimprovedmeansof，communication。Alljudicialmattershavebeenplacedtheoretically，beyondtheGovernor’scontrol，andmanyofhisformerfunctionsare，nowfulfilledbytheZemstvo——theneworganoflocalself-

government。Besidesthis，allordinarycurrentaffairsare，regulatedbyanalreadybigandever-growingbodyofinstructions，intheformofImperialordersandministerialcirculars，andas，soonasanythingnotprovidedforbytheinstructionshappensto，occur，theministerisconsultedthroughthepost-officeorby，telegraph。

EvenwithinthesphereoftheirlawfulauthoritytheGovernorshave，nowacertainrespectforpublicopinionandoccasionallyavery，wholesomedreadofcasualnewspapercorrespondents。Thusthemen，whowereformerlydescribedbythesatiristsas“littlesatraps“

havesunktothelevelofsubordinateofficials。Icanconfidently，saythatmany(Ibelievethemajority)ofthemarehonest，upright，men，whoareperhapsnotendowedwithanyunusualadministrative，capacities，butwhoperformtheirdutiesfaithfullyaccordingto，theirlights。Ifanyrepresentativesoftheold“satraps“still，exist，theymustbesoughtforintheoutlyingAsiaticprovinces。

IndependentoftheGovernor，whoisthelocalrepresentativeofthe，MinistryoftheInterior，areanumberofresidentofficials，who，representtheotherministries，andeachofthemhasabureau，with，therequisitenumberofassistants，secretaries，andscribes。

Tokeepthisvastandcomplexbureaucraticmachineinmotionitis，necessarytohavealargeandwell-drilledarmyofofficials。

ThesearedrawnchieflyfromtheranksoftheNoblesseandthe，clergy，andformapeculiarsocialclasscalledTchinovniks，ormen，withTchins。AstheTchinplaysanimportantpartinRussia，not，onlyintheofficialworld，butalsotosomeextentinsociallife，itmaybewelltoexplainitssignificance。

Alloffices，civilandmilitary，are，accordingtoascheme，inventedbyPetertheGreat，arrangedinfourteenclassesorranks，andtoeachclassorrankaparticularnameisattached。As，promotionissupposedtobegivenaccordingtopersonalmerit，a，manwhoentersthepublicserviceforthefirsttimemust，whatever，behissocialposition，begininthelowerranks，andworkhisway，upwards。Educationalcertificatesmayexempthimfromthe，necessityofpassingthroughthelowestclasses，andtheImperial，willmaydisregardtherestrictionslaiddownbylaw;butas，generalruleamanmustbeginatornearthebottomoftheofficial，ladder，andhemustremainoneachstepacertainspecifiedtime。

Thesteponwhichheisforthemomentstanding，or，inother，words，theofficialrankortchinwhichhepossessesdetermines，whatofficesheiscompetenttohold。Thusrankortchinisa，necessaryconditionforreceivinganappointment，butitdoesnot，designateanyactualoffice，andthenamesofthedifferentranks，areextremelyapttomisleadaforeigner。

Wemustalwaysbearthisinmindwhenwemeetwiththoseimposing，titleswhichRussiantouristssometimesputontheirvisiting，cards，suchas“ConseillerdeCour，““Conseillerd’Etat，“

“ConseillerprivedeS。M。l’EmpereurdetouteslesRussies。”，It，wouldbeuncharitabletosupposethatthesetitlesareusedwith，theintentionofmisleading，butthattheydosometimesmislead，therecannotbetheleastdoubt。Ishallneverforgetthelookof，intensedisgustwhichIoncesawonthefaceofanAmericanwhohad，invitedtodinnera“ConseillerdeCour，“ontheassumptionthathe，wouldhaveaCourtdignitaryashisguest，andwhocasually，discoveredthatthepersonageinquestionwassimplyan，insignificantofficialinoneofthepublicoffices。Nodoubt，otherpeoplehavebadsimilarexperiences。Theunwaryforeigner，whohasheardthatthereisinRussiaaveryimportantinstitution，calledtheConseild’Etat，“naturallysupposesthata“Conseiller，d’Etat“isamemberofthatvenerablebody;andifhemeets“Son，ExcellenceleConseillerprive，“heisprettysuretoassume——

especiallyiftheword“actuel“hasbeenaffixed——thathesees，beforehimareallivingmemberoftheRussianPrivyCouncil。When，tothetitleisadded，“deS。M。l’EmpereurdetouteslesRussies，“

aboundlessfieldisopeneduptothenon-Russianimagination。In，realitythesetitlesarenotnearlysoimportantastheyseem。The，soi-disant“ConseillerdeCour“hasprobablynothingtodowiththe，Court。TheConseillerd’Etatissofarfrombeingamemberofthe，Conseild’Etatthathecannotpossiblybecomeamembertillhe，receivesahighertchin。*，AstothePrivyCouncillor，itis，sufficienttosaythatthePrivyCouncil，whichhadaveryodious，reputationinitslifetime，diedmorethanacenturyago，andhas，notsincebeenresuscitated。Theexplanationoftheseanomaliesis，tobefoundinthefactthattheRussiantchins，liketheGerman，honorarytitles——Hofrath，Staatsrath，Geheimrath——ofwhichtheyare，aliteraltranslation，indicatenotactualoffice，butsimply，officialrank。Formerlytheappointmenttoanofficegenerally，dependedonthetchin;nowthereisatendencytoreversetheold，orderofthingsandmakethetchindependupontheofficeactually，held。

*InRussianthetwowordsarequitedifferent;theCouncilis，calledGosudarstvennysovet，andthetitleStatskisovetnik。

Thereaderofpracticalmindwhoisinthehabitofconsidering，resultsratherthanformsandformalitiesdesiresprobablyno，furtherdescriptionoftheRussianbureaucracy，butwishestoknow，simplyhowitworksinpractice。WhathasitdoneforRussiain，thepast，andwhatisitdoinginthepresent？

Atthepresentday，whenfaithindespoticcivilisersandpaternal，governmenthasbeenrudelyshaken，andtheadvantagesofafree，spontaneousnationaldevelopmentarefullyrecognised，centralised，bureaucracieshaveeverywherefallenintobadodour。InRussiathe，disliketothemisparticularlystrong，becauseithasthere，somethingmorethanapurelytheoreticalbasis。Therecollection，ofthereignofNicholasI。withitssternmilitaryregime，and，minute，pedanticformalism，makesmanyRussianscondemninno，measuredtermstheadministrationunderwhichtheylive，andmost，Englishmenwillfeelinclinedtoendorsethiscondemnation。Before，passingsentence，however，weoughttoknowthatthesystemhasat，leastanhistoricaljustification，andwemustnotallowourlove，ofconstitutionallibertyandlocalself-governmenttoblindusto，thedistinctionbetweentheoreticalandhistoricalpossibility。

Whatseemstopoliticalphilosophersabstractlythebestpossible，governmentmaybeutterlyinapplicableincertainconcretecases。

Weneednotattempttodecidewhetheritisbetterforhumanity，thatRussiashouldexistasanation，butwemayboldlyassertthat，withoutastronglycentralisedadministrationRussiawouldnever，havebecomeoneofthegreatEuropeanPowers。Untilcomparatively，recenttimesthepartoftheworldwhichisknownastheRussian，Empirewasaconglomerationofindependentorsemi-independent，politicalunits，animatedwithcentrifugalaswellascentripetal，forces;andevenatthepresentdayitisfarfrombeingacompact，homogeneousState。Itwastheautocraticpower，withthe，centralisedadministrationasitsnecessarycomplement，thatfirst，createdRussia，thensavedherfromdismembermentandpolitical，annihilation，andultimatelysecuredforheraplaceamongEuropean，nationsbyintroducingWesterncivilisation。

Whilstthusrecognisingclearlythatautocracyandastrongly，centralisedadministrationwerenecessaryfirstforthecreation，andafterwardsforthepreservationofnationalindependence，we，mustnotshutoureyestotheevilconsequenceswhichresultedfrom，thisunfortunatenecessity。Itwasinthenatureofthingsthat，theGovernment，aimingattherealisationofdesignswhichits，subjectsneithersympathisedwithnorclearlyunderstood，should，havebecomeseparatedfromthenation;andtherecklesshasteand，violencewithwhichitattemptedtocarryoutitsschemesarouseda，spiritofpositiveoppositionamongthemasses。Aconsiderable，sectionofthepeoplelonglookedonthereformingTsarsas，incarnationsofthespiritofevil，andtheTsarsintheirturn，lookeduponthepeopleasrawmaterialfortherealisationoftheir，politicaldesigns。Thispeculiarrelationbetweenthenationand，theGovernmenthasgiventhekey-notetothewholesystemof，administration。TheGovernmenthasalwaystreatedthepeopleas，minors，incapableofunderstandingitspoliticalaims，andonly，verypartiallycompetenttolookaftertheirownlocalaffairs。

Theofficialshavenaturallyactedinthesamespirit。Lookingfor，directionandapprobationmerelytotheirsuperiors，theyhave，systematicallytreatedthoseoverwhomtheywereplacedasa，conqueredorinferiorrace。TheStatehasthuscometoberegarded，asanabstractentity，withinterestsentirelydifferentfromthose，ofthehumanbeingscomposingit;andinallmattersinwhichState，interestsaresupposedtobeinvolved，therightsofindividuals，areruthlesslysacrificed。

Ifwerememberthatthedifficultiesofcentralisedadministration，mustbeindirectproportiontotheextentandterritorialvariety，ofthecountrytobegoverned，wemayreadilyunderstandhowslowly，andimperfectlytheadministrativemachinenecessarilyworksin，Russia。ThewholeofthevastregionstretchingfromthePolar，OceantotheCaspian，andfromtheshoresoftheBaltictothe，confinesoftheCelestialEmpire，isadministeredfromSt。

Petersburg。Thegenuinebureaucrathasawholesomedreadofformal，responsibility，andgenerallytriestoavoiditbytakingall，mattersoutofthehandsofhissubordinates，andpassingthemon，tothehigherauthorities。Assoon，therefore，asaffairsare，caughtupbytheadministrativemachinetheybegintoascend，and，probablyarrivesomedayatthecabinetoftheminister。Thusthe，ministriesarefloodedwithpapers——manyofthemosttrivial，import——fromallpartsoftheEmpire;andthehigherofficials，eveniftheyhadtheeyesofanArgusandthehandsofaBriareus，couldnotpossiblyfulfilconscientiouslythedutiesimposedon，them。InrealitytheRussianadministratorsofthehigherranks，recallneitherArgusnorBriareus。Theycommonlyshowneitheran，extensivenoraprofoundknowledgeofthecountrywhichtheyare，supposedtogovern，andseemalwaystohaveafairamountof，leisuretimeattheirdisposal。

Besidestheunavoidableevilsofexcessivecentralisation，Russia，hashadtosuffermuchfromthejobbery，venality，andextortionof，theofficials。WhenPetertheGreatonedayproposedtohangevery，manwhoshouldstealasmuchaswouldbuyarope，hisProcurator-

GeneralfranklyrepliedthatifhisMajestyputhisprojectinto，executiontherewouldbenoofficialsleft。”Weallsteal，“added，theworthyofficial;“theonlydifferenceisthatsomeofussteal，largeramountsandmoreopenlythanothers。”，Sincethesewords，werespokennearlytwocenturieshavepassed，andduringallthat，timeRussiahasbeensteadilymakingprogress，butuntilthe，accessionofAlexanderII。in1855littlechangetookplaceinthe，moralcharacteroftheadministration。Somepeoplestillliving，canrememberthetimewhentheycouldhaverepeated，withoutmuch，exaggeration，theconfessionofPeter’sProcurator-General。

Toappreciatearightthisuglyphenomenonwemustdistinguishtwo，kindsofvenality。Ontheonehandtherewasthehabitofexacting，whatarevulgarlytermed“tips“forservicesperformed，andonthe，othertherewerethevariouskindsofpositivedishonesty。Though，itmightnotbealwayseasytodrawaclearlinebetweenthetwo，categories，thedistinctionwasfullyrecognisedinthemoral，consciousnessofthetime，andmanyanofficialwhoregularly，received“sinlessrevenues“(bezgreshniyedokhodi)，asthetips，weresometimescalled，wouldhavebeenveryindignanthadhebeen，stigmatisedasadishonestman。Thepracticewas，infact，universal，andcouldbe，toacertainextent，justifiedbythe，smallnessoftheofficialsalaries。Insomedepartmentstherewas，arecognisedtariff。The“brandyfarmers，“forexample，whoworked，theStateMonopolyforthemanufactureandsaleofalcoholic，liquors，paidregularlyafixedsumtoeveryofficial，fromthe，Governortothepoliceman，accordingtohisrank。Iknewofone，casewhereanofficial，onreceivingalargersumthanwas，customary，conscientiouslyhandedbackthechange！，Theotherand，moreheinousoffenceswerebynomeanssocommon，butwerestill，fearfullyfrequent。Manyhighofficialsandimportantdignitaries，wereknowntoreceivelargerevenues，towhichtheterm“sinless“

couldnotbyanymeansbeapplied，andyettheyretainedtheir，position，andwerereceivedinsocietywithrespectfuldeference。

TheSovereignswerewellawareoftheabuses，andstrovemoreor，lesstorootthemout，butthesuccesswhichattendedtheirefforts，doesnotgiveusaveryexaltedideaofthepracticalomnipotence，ofautocracy。Inacentralisedbureaucraticadministration，in，whicheachofficialistoacertainextentresponsibleforthesins，ofhissubordinates，itisalwaysextremelydifficulttobringan，officialculprittojustice，forheissuretobeprotectedbyhis，superiors;andwhenthesuperiorsarethemselveshabituallyguilty，ofmalpractices，theculpritisquitesafefromexposureand，punishment。TheTsar，indeed，mightdomuchtowardsexposingand，punishingoffendersifhecouldventuretocallinpublicopinion，tohisassistance，butinrealityheisveryapttobecomeaparty，tothesystemofhushingupofficialdelinquencies。Heishimself，thefirstofficialintherealm，andheknowsthattheabuseof，powerbyasubordinatehasatendencytoproducehostilitytowards，thefountainofallofficialpower。Frequentpunishmentof，officialsmight，itisthought，diminishpublicrespectforthe，Government，andunderminethatsocialdisciplinewhichisnecessary，forthepublictranquillity。Itisthereforeconsideredexpedient，togivetoofficialdelinquenciesaslittlepublicityaspossible。

Besidesthis，strangeasitmayseem，aGovernmentwhichrestson，thearbitrarywillofasingleindividualis，notwithstanding，occasionaloutburstsofseverity，muchlesssystematicallysevere，thanauthorityfoundedonfreepublicopinion。Whendelinquencies，occurinveryhighplacestheTsarisalmostsuretodisplaya，leniencyapproachingtotenderness。Ifitbenecessarytomakea，sacrificetojustice，thesacrificialoperationismadeaspainless，asmaybe，andillustriousscapegoatsarenotallowedtodieof，starvationinthewilderness——thewildernessbeinggenerallyParis，ortheRiviera。Thisfactmayseemstrangetothosewhoareinthe，habitofassociatingautocracywithNeapolitandungeonsandthe，minesofSiberia，butitisnotdifficulttoexplain。No，individual，eventhoughhebetheAutocratofalltheRussias，can，socasehimselfinthearmourofofficialdignityastobe，completelyproofagainstpersonalinfluences。Theseverityof，autocratsisreservedforpoliticaloffenders，againstwhomthey，naturallyharbourafeelingofpersonalresentment。Itissomuch，easierforustobelenientandcharitabletowardsamanwhosins，againstpublicmoralitythantowardsonewhosinsagainst，ourselves！