第7章

Alreadytherearenotafewoftheyoungergeneration——especially，amongthewealthymanufacturersofMoscow——whohavebeeneducated，abroad，whomaybedescribedastoutafaitcivilises，andwhose，modeoflifedifferslittlefromthatoftherichernobles;but，theyremainoutsidefashionablesociety，andconstitutea“set“of，theirown。

Astothedishonestywhichissaidtobesocommonamongthe，Russiancommercialclasses，itisdifficulttoformanaccurate，judgment。Thatanenormousamountofunfairdealingdoesexist，therecanbenopossibledoubt，butinthismatteraforeigneris，likelytobeundulysevere。Weareapttoapplyunflinchinglyour，ownstandardofcommercialmorality，andtoforgetthattradein，Russiaisonlyemergingfromthatprimitiveconditioninwhich，fixedpricesandmoderateprofitsareentirelyunknown。Andwhen，wehappentodetectpositivedishonesty，itseemstousespecially，heinous，becausethetrickeryemployedismoreprimitiveand，awkwardthanthattowhichweareaccustomed。Trickeryinweighing，andmeasuring，forinstance，whichisbynomeansuncommonin，Russia，islikelytomakeusmoreindignantthanthoseingenious，methodsofadulterationwhicharepractisednearerhome，andare，regardedbymanyasalmostlegitimate。Besidesthis，foreigners，whogotoRussiaandembarkinspeculationswithoutpossessingany，adequateknowledgeofthecharacter，customs，andlanguageofthe，peoplepositivelyinvitespoliation，andoughttoblamethemselves，ratherthanthepeoplewhoprofitbytheirignorance。

Allthis，andmuchmoreofthesamekind，maybefairlyurgedin，mitigationoftheseverejudgmentswhichforeignmerchantscommonly，passonRussiancommercialmorality，butthesejudgmentscannotbe，reversedbysuchargumentation。Thedishonestyandrascalitywhich，existamongthemerchantsarefullyrecognisedbytheRussians，themselves。InallmoralaffairsthelowerclassesinRussiaare，verylenientintheirjudgments，andarestronglydisposed，like，theAmericans，toadmirewhatiscalledinTransatlantic，phraseology“asmartman，“thoughthesmartnessisknowntocontain，alargeadmixtureofdishonesty;andyetthevoxpopuliinRussia，emphaticallydeclaresthatthemerchantsasaclassare，unscrupulousanddishonest。Thereisarudepopularplayinwhich，theDevil，asprincipaldramatispersona，succeedsincheatingall，mannerandconditionsofmen，butisfinallyoverreachedbya，genuineRussianmerchant。WhenthisplayisactedintheCarnival，TheatreinSt。Petersburgtheaudienceinvariablyagreeswiththe，moraloftheplot。

Ifthisplaywereactedinthesoutherntownsnearthecoastofthe，BlackSeaitwouldbenecessarytomodifyitconsiderably，for，here，incompanywithJews，Greeks，andArmenians，theRussian，merchantsseemhonestbycomparison。AstoGreeksandArmenians，I

knownotwhichofthetwonationalitiesdeservesthepalm，butit，seemsthatbotharesurpassedbytheChildrenofIsrael。”How，theseJewsdobusiness，“IhaveheardaRussianmerchantofthis，regionexclaim，“Icannotunderstand。Theybuyupwheatinthe，villagesatelevenroublespertchetvert，transportittothecoast，attheirownexpense，andsellittotheexportersattenroubles！

Andyettheycontrivetomakeaprofit！，Itissaidthatthe，Russiantraderiscunning，buthere’ourbrother’[i。e。the，Russian]candonothing。”，ThetruthofthisstatementIhavehad，abundantopportunitiesofconfirmingbypersonalinvestigationson，thespot。

IfImightexpressageneralopinionregardingRussiancommercial，morality，IshouldsaythattradeinRussiaiscarriedonverymuch，onthesameprincipleashorse-dealinginEngland。Amanwho，wishestobuyorsellmusttrusttohisownknowledgeand，acuteness，andifhegetstheworstofabargainorletshimselfbe，deceived，hehashimselftoblame。CommercialEnglishmenon，arrivinginRussiararelyunderstandthis，andwhentheyknowit，theoreticallytheyaretoooftenunable，fromtheirignoranceof，thelanguage，thelaws，andthecustomsofthepeople，toturn，theirtheoreticalknowledgetoaccount。Theyindulge，therefore，atfirstinendlessinvectivesagainsttheprevailingdishonesty;

butgradually，whentheyhavepaidwhatGermanscallLehrgeld，they，accommodatethemselvestocircumstances，takelargeprofitsto，counterbalancebaddebts，andgenerallysucceed——iftheyhave，sufficientenergy，mother-wit，andcapital——inmakingavery，handsomeincome。

TheoldraceofBritishmerchants，however，israpidlydyingout，andIgreatlyfearthattherisinggenerationwillnotbeequally，successful。Timeshavechanged。Itisnolongerpossibletoamass，largefortunesintheoldeasy-goingfashion。Everyyearthe，conditionsalter，andthecompetitionincreases。Inorderto，foresee，understand，andtakeadvantageofthechanges，onemust，havefarmoreknowledgeofthecountrythanthemenoftheold，schoolpossessed，anditseemstomethattheyounggenerationhave，stilllessofthatknowledgethantheirpredecessors。Unlesssome，changetakesplaceinthisrespect，theGermanmerchants，whohave，generallyamuchbettercommercialeducationandaremuchbetter，acquaintedwiththeiradoptedcountry，willultimately，Ibelieve，expeltheirBritishrivals。Alreadymanybranchesofcommerce，formerlycarriedonbyEnglishmenhavepassedintotheirhands。

Itmustnotbesupposedthattheunsatisfactoryorganisationofthe，Russiancommercialworldistheresultofanyradicalpeculiarity，oftheRussiancharacter。Allnewcountrieshavetopassthrougha，similarstateofthings，andinRussiatherearealready，premonitorysymptomsofachangeforthebetter。Forthepresent，itistrue，theextensiveconstructionofrailwaysandtherapid，developmentofbanksandlimitedliabilitycompanieshaveopenedup，anewandwidefieldforallkindsofcommercialswindling;but，on，theotherhand，therearenowineverylargetownacertainnumber，ofmerchantswhocarryonbusinessintheWest-Europeanmanner，and，havelearntbyexperiencethathonestyisthebestpolicy。The，successwhichmanyofthesehaveobtainedwilldoubtlesscause，theirexampletobefollowed。Theoldspiritofcasteandroutine，whichhaslonganimatedthemerchantclassisrapidlydisappearing，andnotafewnoblesarenowexchangingcountrylifeandthe，serviceoftheStateforindustrialandcommercialenterprises。In，thiswayisbeingformedthenucleusofthatwealthy，enlightened，bourgeoisiewhichCatherineendeavouredtocreatebylegislation;

butmanyyearsmustelapsebeforethisclassacquiressufficient，socialandpoliticalsignificancetodeservethetitleofatiers-

etat。

CHAPTERXIII

THEPASTORALTRIBESOFTHESTEPPE

AJourneytotheSteppeRegionoftheSoutheast——TheVolga——Town，andProvinceofSamara——FartherEastward——Appearanceofthe，Villages——CharacteristicIncident——PeasantMendacity——Explanation，ofthePhenomenon——IAwakeinAsia——ABashkirAoul——Dinerla，Tartare——Kumyss——ABashkirTroubadour——HonestMehemetZian——Actual，EconomicConditionoftheBashkirsThrowsLightonaWell-known，PhilosophicalTheory——WhyaPastoralRaceAdoptsAgriculture——The，GenuineSteppe——TheKirghiz——LetterfromGenghisKhan——TheKalmyks——

NogaiTartars——StrugglebetweenNomadicHordesandAgricultural，Colonists。

WhenIhadspentacoupleofyearsormoreintheNorthernand，North-Centralprovinces——thelandofforestsandofagriculture，conductedonthethree-fieldsystem，withhereandthereatownof，respectableantiquity——Ideterminedtovisitforpurposesof，comparisonandcontrasttheSoutheasternregion，whichpossessesno，forestsnorancienttowns，andcorrespondstotheFarWestofthe，UnitedStatesofAmerica。MypointofdeparturewasYaroslavl，a，townontherightbankoftheVolgatothenortheastofMoscow——and，thenceIsaileddowntheriverduringthreedaysonalarge，comfortablesteamertoSamara，thechieftownoftheprovinceor，“government“ofthename。HereIleftthesteamerandpreparedto，makeajourneyintotheeasternhinterland。

Samaraisanewtown，achildofthelastcentury。Atthetimeof，myfirstvisit，nowthirtyyearsago，itrecalledbyitsunfinished，appearancethenewtownsofAmerica。Manyofthehouseswereof，wood。Thestreetswerestillinsuchaprimitiveconditionthat，afterraintheywerealmostimpassablefrommud，andindry，gusty，weathertheygeneratedthickcloudsofblinding，suffocatingdust。

BeforeIhadbeenmanydaysintheplaceIwitnessedadust-

hurricane，duringwhichitwasimpossibleatcertainmomentstosee，frommywindowthehousesontheothersideofthestreet。Amidst，suchprimitivesurroundingsthecolossalnewchurchseemedalittle，outofkeeping，anditoccurredtomypracticalBritishmindthat，someofthemoneyexpendedonitsconstructionmighthavebeenmore，profitablyemployed。ButtheRussianshavetheirownideasofthe，fitnessofthings。Religiousaftertheirownfashion，they，subscribemoneyliberallyforecclesiasticalpurposes——especially，forthebuildinganddecorationoftheirchurches。Besidesthis，theGovernmentconsidersthateverychieftownofaprovinceshould，possessacathedral。

InitsearlydaysSamarawasoneoftheoutpostsofRussian，colonisation，andhadoftentotakeprecautionsagainsttheraids，ofthenomadictribeslivinginthevicinity;buttheagricultural，frontierhassincebeenpushedfarforwardtotheeastandsouth，andtheprovincewasuntillately，despiteoccasionaldroughts，one，ofthemostproductiveintheEmpire。Thetownisthechiefmarket，ofthisregion，andthereinliesitsimportance。Thegrainis，broughtbythepeasantsfromgreatdistances，andstoredinlarge，granariesbythemerchants，whosendittoMoscoworSt。

Petersburg。Informerdaysthiswasaverytediousoperation。The，boatscontainingthegrainweretowedbyhorsesorstoutpeasants，uptheriversandthroughthecanalsforhundredsofmiles。Then，cametheperiodof“cabestans“——unwieldlymachinespropelledby，meansofanchorsandwindlasses。Nowtheseprimitivemethodsof，transporthavedisappeared。Thegrainiseitherdespatchedbyrail，orputintogiganticbarges，whicharetoweduptheriverby，powerfultug-steamerstosomepointconnectedwiththegreat，networkofrailways。

WhenthetravellerhasvisitedtheCathedralandthegranarieshe，hasseenallthelions——notveryformidablelions，truly——ofthe，place。Hemaytheninspectthekumyssestablishments，pleasantly，situatednearthetown。Hewillfindthereaconsiderablenumber，ofpatients——mostlyconsumptive——whodrinkenormousquantitiesof，fermentedmare’s-milk，andwhodeclarethattheyreceivegreat，benefitfromthismodernhealth-restorer。

Whatinterestedmemorethanthelionsofthetownorthesuburban，kumyssestablishmentsweretheofficesofthelocaladministration，whereIfoundinthearchivesmuchstatisticalandother，informationofthekindIwasinsearchof，regardingtheeconomic，conditionoftheprovincegenerally，andoftheemancipated，peasantryinparticular。Havingfilledmynote-bookwithmaterial，ofthissort，Iproceededtoverifyandcompleteitbyvisiting，somecharacteristicvillagesandquestioningtheinhabitants。For，thestudentofRussianaffairswhowishestoarriveatreal，as，distinguishedfromofficial，truth，thisisnotanaltogether，superfluousoperation。

WhenIhadthusmadetheacquaintanceofthesedentaryagricultural，populationinseveraldistrictsIjourneyedeastwardswiththe，intentionofvisitingtheBashkirs，aTartartribewhichstill，preserved——soatleastIwasassured——itsoldnomadichabits。My，reasonsforundertakingthisjourneyweretwofold。Inthefirst，placeIwasdesirousofseeingwithmyowneyessomeremnantsof，thoseterriblenomadictribeswhichhadatonetimeconquered，RussiaandlongthreatenedtooverrunEurope——thoseTartarhordes，whichgained，bytheirirresistibleforceandrelentlesscruelty，thereputationofbeing“thescourgeofGod。”，Besidesthis，Ihad，longwishedtostudytheconditionsofpastorallife，and，congratulatedmyselfonhavingfoundaconvenientopportunityof，doingso。

AsIproceededeastwardsInoticedachangeintheappearanceof，thevillages。Theordinarywoodenhouses，withtheirhighsloping，roofs，graduallygaveplacetoflat-roofedhuts，builtofa，peculiarkindofunburntbricks，composedofmudandstraw。I

noticed，too，thatthepopulationbecamelessandlessdense，and，theamountoffallowlandproportionatelygreater。Thepeasants，wereevidentlyricherthanthoseneartheVolga，butthey，complained——astheRussianpeasantalwaysdoes——thattheyhadnot，landenough。Inanswertomyinquirieswhytheydidnotusethe，thousandsofacresthatwerelyingfallowaroundthem，they，explainedthattheyhadalreadyraisedcropsonthatlandfor，severalsuccessiveyears，andthatconsequentlytheymustnowallow，itto“rest。”

InoneofthevillagesthroughwhichIpassedImetwithavery，characteristiclittleincident。ThevillagewascalledSamovolnaya，Ivanofka——thatistosay，“IvanofkatheSelf-willed“or“theNon-

authorised。”，Whilstourhorseswerebeingchangedmytravelling，companion，inthecourseofconversationwithagroupofpeasants，inquiredabouttheoriginofthisextraordinaryname，and，discoveredacuriousbitoflocalhistory。Thefoundersofthe，villagehadsettledonthelandwithoutthepermissionofthe，absenteeowner，andobstinatelyresistedallattemptsateviction。

Againandagaintroopshadbeensenttodrivethemaway，butas，soonasthetroopsretiredthese“self-willed“peoplereturnedand，resumedpossession，tillatlasttheproprietor，wholivedinSt。

Petersburgorsomeotherdistantplace，becamewearyofthecontest，andallowedthemtoremain。Thevariousincidentswererelated，withmuchcircumstantialdetail，sothatthenarrationlasted，perhapshalfanhour。AllthistimeIlistenedattentively，and，whenthestorywasfinishedItookoutmynote-bookinordertojot，downthefacts，andaskedinwhatyeartheaffairhadhappened。No，answerwasgiventomyquestion。Thepeasantsmerelylookedat，eachotherinasignificantwayandkeptsilence。Thinkingthatmy，questionhadnotbeenunderstood，Iaskeditasecondtime，repeatingapartofwhathadbeenrelated。Tomyastonishmentand，utterdiscomfituretheyalldeclaredthattheyhadneverrelated，anythingofthesort！，IndespairIappealedtomyfriend，and，askedhimwhethermyearshaddeceivedme——whetherIwaslabouring，undersomestrangehallucination。Withoutgivingmeanyreplyhe，simplysmiledandturnedaway。

Whenwehadleftthevillageandweredrivingalonginour，tarantassthemysterywassatisfactorilyclearedup。Myfriend，explainedtomethatIhadnotatallmisunderstoodwhathadbeen，related，butthatmyabruptquestionandthesightofmynote-book，hadsuddenlyarousedthepeasants’suspicions。”Theyevidently，suspected，“hecontinued，“thatyouwereatchinovnik，andthatyou，wishedtousetotheirdetrimenttheknowledgeyouhadacquired。

Theythoughtitsafer，therefore，atoncetodenyitall。You，don’tyetunderstandtheRussianmuzhik！”

InthislastremarkIwasobligedtoconcur，butsincethattimeI

havecometoknowthemuzhikbetter，andanincidentofthekind，wouldnownolongersurpriseme。Fromalongseriesof，observationsIhavecometotheconclusionthatthegreatmajority，oftheRussianpeasants，whendealingwiththeauthorities，considerthemostpatentandbarefacedfalsehoodsasafairmeans，ofself-defence。Thus，forexample，whenamuzhikisimplicatedin，acriminalaffair，andapreliminaryinvestigationisbeingmade，heprobablybeginsbyconstructinganelaboratestorytoexplain，thefactsandexculpatehimself。Thestorymaybeatissueof，self-evidentfalsehoodsfrombeginningtoend，buthedefendsit，valiantlyaslongaspossible。Whenheperceivesthattheposition，whichhehastakenupisutterlyuntenable，hedeclaresopenlythat，allhehassaidisfalse，andthathewishestomakeanew，declaration。Thisseconddeclarationmayhavethesamefateasthe，formerone，andthenheproposesathird。Thusgropinghisway，he，triesvariousstoriestillhefindsonethatseemsproofagainst，allobjections。Inthefactofhisthustellingliesthereisof，coursenothingremarkable，forcriminalsinallpartsoftheworld，haveatendencytodeviatefromthetruthwhentheyfallintothe，handsofjustice。Thepeculiarityisthatheretractshis，statementswiththecomposedairofachess-playerwhorequestshis，opponenttolethimtakebackaninadvertentmove。Undertheold，systemofprocedure，whichwasabolishedinthesixties，clever，criminalsoftencontrivedbymeansofthissimpledevicetohave，theirtrialpostponedformanyyears。

Suchincidentsnaturallyastonishaforeigner，andheisapt，in，consequence，topassaveryseverejudgmentontheRussian，peasantryingeneral。ThereadermayrememberKarlKarl’itch’s，remarksonthesubject。TheseremarksIhaveheardrepeatedin，variousformsbyGermansinallpartsofthecountry，andthere，mustbeacertainamountoftruthinthem，forevenaneminent，Slavophiloncepubliclyadmittedthatthepeasantisproneto，perjury。*，Itisnecessary，however，asitseemstome，todrawa，distinction。Intheordinaryintercourseofpeasantsamong，themselves，orwithpeopleinwhomtheyhaveconfidence，Idonot，believethatthehabitoflyingisabnormallydeveloped。Itis，onlywhenthemuzhikcomesincontactwithauthoritiesthathe，showshimselfanexpertfabricatoroffalsehoods。Inthisthereis，nothingthatneedsurpriseus。Foragesthepeasantrywereexposed，tothearbitrarypowerandruthlessexactionsofthosewhowere，placedoverthem;andasthelawgavethemnomeansoflegally，protectingthemselves，theironlymeansofself-defencelayin，cunninganddeceit。

*Kireyefski，intheRussakayaBeseda。

Wehavehere，Ibelieve，thetrueexplanationofthat“Oriental，mendacity“aboutwhichEasterntravellershavewrittensomuch。It，issimplytheresultofalawlessstateofsociety。Supposea，truth-lovingEnglishmanfallsintothehandsofbrigandsor，savages。Willhenot，ifhehavemerelyanordinarymoral，character，considerhimselfjustifiedininventingafewfalsehoods，inordertoeffecthisescape？，Ifso，wehavenorighttocondemn，veryseverelythehereditarymendacityofthoseraceswhichhave，livedformanygenerationsinapositionanalogoustothatofthe，supposedEnglishmanamongbrigands。Whenlegitimateinterests，cannotbeprotectedbytruthfulnessandhonesty，prudentpeople，alwayslearntoemploymeanswhichexperiencehasprovedtobemore，effectual。Inacountrywherethelawdoesnotaffordprotection，thestrongmandefendshimselfbyhisstrength，theweakbycunning，andduplicity。ThisfullyexplainsthefactthatinTurkeythe，ChristiansarelesstruthfulthantheMahometans。

ButwehavewanderedalongwayfromtheroadtoBashkiria。Letus，thereforereturnatonce。

OfallthejourneyswhichImadeinRussiathiswasoneofthemost，agreeable。Theweatherwasbrightandwarm，withoutbeing，unpleasantlyhot;theroadsweretolerablysmooth;thetarantass，whichhadbeenhiredforthewholejourney，wasnearlyas，comfortableasatarantasscanbe;goodmilk，eggs，andwhitebread，couldbeobtainedinabundance;therewasnotmuchdifficultyin，procuringhorsesinthevillagesthroughwhichwepassed，andthe，ownersofthemwerenotveryextortionateintheirdemands。But，whatmostcontributedtomycomfortwasthatIwasaccompaniedby，anagreeable，intelligentyoungRussian，whokindlyundertookto，makeallthenecessaryarrangements，andIwastherebyfreedfrom，thoseannoyancesandworrieswhicharealwaysencounteredin，primitivecountrieswheretravellingisnotyetarecognised，institution。TohimIlefttheentirecontrolofourmovements，passivelyacquiescingineverything，andaskingnoquestionsasto，whatwascoming。Takingadvantageofmypassivity，hepreparedfor，meoneeveningapleasantlittlesurprise。

AboutsunsetwehadleftavillagecalledMorsha，andshortly，afterwards，feelingdrowsy，andbeingwarnedbymycompanionthat，weshouldhavealong，uninterestingdrive，Ihadlaindowninthe，tarantassandgonetosleep。OnawakingIfoundthatthetarantass，hadstopped，andthatthestarswereshiningbrightlyoverhead。A

bigdogwasbarkingfuriouslycloseathand，andIheardthevoice，oftheyamstchikinformingusthatwehadarrived。Iatoncesat，upandlookedaboutme，expectingtoseeavillageofsomekind，butinsteadofthatIperceivedawideopenspace，andatashort，distanceagroupofhaystacks。Closetothetarantassstoodtwo，figuresinlongcloaks，armedwithbigsticks，andspeakingtoeach，otherinanunknowntongue。Myfirstideawasthatwehadbeen，somehowledintoatrap，soIdrewmyrevolverinordertobeready，forallemergencies。Mycompanionwasstillsnoringloudlybymy，side，andstoutlyresistedallmyeffortstoawakenhim。

“What’sthis？”Isaid，inagruff，angryvoice，totheyamstchik。

“Wherehaveyoutakenusto？”

“TowhereIwasordered，master！”

ForthepurposeofgettingamoresatisfactoryexplanationItook，toshakingmysleepycompanion，butbeforehehadreturnedto，consciousnessthemoonshoneoutbrightlyfrombehindathickbank，ofclouds，andclearedupthemystery。Thesupposedhaystacks，turnedouttobetents。Thetwofigureswithlongsticks，whomI

hadsuspectedofbeingbrigands，werepeaceableshepherds，dressed，intheordinaryOrientalkhalat，andtendingtheirsheep，which，weregrazingcloseby。Insteadofbeinginanemptyhay-field，as，Ihadimagined，wehadbeforeusaregularTartaraoul，suchasI

hadoftenreadabout。ForamomentIfeltastonishedand，bewildered。ItseemedtomethatIhadfallenasleepinEuropeand，wokeupinAsia！

Inafewminuteswewerecomfortablyinstalledinoneofthetents，acircular，cupola-shapederection，ofabouttwelvefeetin，diameter，composedofaframe-workoflightwoodenrodscovered，withthickfelt。Itcontainednofurniture，exceptagoodly，quantityofcarpetsandpillows，whichhadbeenformedintoabed，forouraccommodation。Ouramiablehost，whowasevidently，somewhatastonishedatourunexpectedvisit，butrefrainedfrom，askingquestions，soonbadeusgood-nightandretired。Wewere，not，however，leftalone。Alargenumberofblackbeetlesremained，andgaveusawelcomeintheirownpeculiarfashion。Whetherthey，wereprovidedwithwings，ormadeupforthewantofflying，appliancesbycrawlingupthesidesofthetentanddroppingdown，onanyobjecttheywishedtoreach，Ididnotdiscover，butcertain，itisthattheysomehowreachedourheads——evenwhenwewere，standingupright——andclungtoourhairwithwonderfultenacity。

Whytheyshouldshowsuchamarkedpreferenceforhumanhairwe，couldnotconjecture，tillitoccurredtousthatthenatives，habituallyshavedtheirheads，andthatthesebeetlesmust，naturallyconsiderahair-coveredcraniumacuriousnovelty，deservingofcarefulexamination。Likeallchildrenofnaturethey，weredecidedlyindiscreetandtroublesomeintheircuriosity，but，whenthelightwasextinguishedtheytookthehintanddeparted。

Whenweawokenextmorningitwasbroaddaylight，andwefounda，crowdofnativesinfrontofthetent。Ourarrivalwasevidently，regardedasanimportantevent，andalltheinhabitantsoftheaoul，wereanxioustomakeouracquaintance。Firstourhostcame，forward。Hewasashort，slimly-builtman，ofmiddleage，witha，grave，severeexpression，indicatinganunsociabledisposition。We，afterwardslearnedthathewasanakhun*——thatistosay，aminor，officeroftheMahometanecclesiasticaladministration，andatthe，sametimeasmalltraderinsilkenandwoollenstuffs。Withhim，camethemullah，orpriest，aportlyoldgentlemanwithanopen，honestfaceoftheEuropeantype，andafinegreybeard。Theother，importantmembersofthelittlecommunityfollowed。Theywereall，swarthyincolour，andhadthesmalleyesandprominentcheek-bones，whicharecharacteristicoftheTartarraces，buttheyhadlittle，ofthatflatnessofcountenanceandpeculiaruglinesswhich，distinguishthepureMongol。Allofthem，withtheexceptionof，themullah，spokealittleRussian，andusedittoassureusthat，wewerewelcome。Thechildrenremainedrespectfullyinthe，background，andthewomen，withlacesveiled，eyedusfurtively，fromthedoorsofthetents。

*Ipresumethisisthesamewordasakhund，wellknownonthe，NorthwestfrontierofIndia，whereitwasappliedspeciallytothe，laterulerofSvat。

Theaoulconsistedofabouttwentytents，allconstructedonthe，samemodel，andscatteredaboutinsporadicfashion，withoutthe，leastregardtosymmetry。Closebywasawatercourse，which，appearsonsomemapsasariver，underthenameofKaralyk，but，whichwasatthattimemerelyasuccessionofpoolscontaininga，dark-colouredliquid。Aswemorethansuspectedthatthesepools，suppliedtheinhabitantswithwaterforculinarypurposes，the，sightwasnotcalculatedtowhetourappetites。Weturnedaway，thereforehurriedly，andforwantofsomethingbettertodowe，watchedthepreparationsfordinner。Theseweredecidedly，primitive。Asheepwasbroughtnearthedoorofourtent，and，therekilled，skinned，cutupintopieces，andputintoanimmense，pot，underwhichafirehadbeenkindled。

Thedinneritselfwasnotlessprimitivethanthemannerof，preparingit。Thetableconsistedofalargenapkinspreadinthe，middleofthetent，andthechairswererepresentedbycushions，on，whichwesatcross-legged。Therewerenoplates，knives，forks，spoons，orchopsticks。Guestswereexpectedalltoeatoutofa，commonwoodenbowl，andtousetheinstrumentswithwhichNature，hadprovidedthem。Theservicewasperformedbythehostandhis，son。Thefarewascopious，butnotvaried——consistingentirelyof，boiledmutton，withoutbreadorothersubstitute，andalittle，saltedhorse-fleshthrowninasanentree。

Toeatoutofthesamedishwithhalf-a-dozenMahometanswhoaccept，theirProphet’sinjunctionaboutablutionsinahighlyfigurative，sense，andwhoaretotallyunacquaintedwiththeuseofforksand，spoons，isnotanagreeableoperation，evenifoneisnotmuch，troubledwithreligiousprejudices;butwiththeseBashkirs，somethingworsethanthishastobeencountered，fortheir，favouritemethodofexpressingtheiresteemandaffectionforone，withwhomtheyareeatingconsistsinputtingbitsofmutton，and，sometimesevenhandfulsofhashedmeat，intohismonth！，WhenI

discoveredthisunexpectedpeculiarityinBashkirmannersand，customs，IalmostregrettedthatIhadmadeafavourableimpression，uponmynewacquaintances。

Whenthesheephadbeendevoured，partlybythecompanyinthetent，andpartlybyanondescriptcompanyoutside——forthewholeaoul，tookpartinthefestivities——kumysswasservedinunlimited，quantities。Thisbeverage，asIhavealreadyexplained，ismare’s，milkfermented;butwhatherepassedunderthenamewasvery，differentfromthekumyssIhadtastedintheestablissementsof，Samara。Thereitwasapleasanteffervescingdrink，withonlythe，slightesttingeofacidity;hereitwasa“still“liquid，strongly，resemblingverythinandverysourbutter-milk。MyRussianfriend，madeawryfaceonfirsttastingit，andIfeltinclinedatfirst，todolikewise，butnoticingthathisgrimacesmadeanunfavourable，impressionontheaudience，Irestrainedmyfacialmuscles，and，lookedasifIlikedit。VerysoonIreallycametolikeit，and，learnedto“drinkfair“withthosewhohadbeenaccustomedtoit，fromtheirchildhood。BythisfeatIroseconsiderablyinthe，estimationofthenatives;forifonedoesnotdrinkkumyssone，cannotbesociableintheBashkirsenseoftheterm，andby，acquiringthehabitoneadoptsanessentialprincipleofBashkir，nationality。Ishouldcertainlyhavepreferredhavingacupofit，tomyself，butIthoughtitwelltoconformtothehabitsofthe，country，andtoacceptthebigwoodenbowlwhenitwaspassed，round。Inreturnmyfriendsmadeanimportantconcessioninmy，favour：theyallowedmetosmokeasIpleased，thoughthey，consideredthat，astheProphethadrefrainedfromtobacco，ordinarymortalsshoulddothesame。

Whilstthe“loving-cup“wasgoingroundIdistributedsomesmall，presentswhichIhadbroughtforthepurpose，andthenproceededto，explaintheobjectofmyvisit。Inthedistantcountryfromwhich，Icame——farawaytothewestward——IhadheardoftheBashkirsasa，peoplepossessingmanystrangecustoms，butverykindand，hospitabletostrangers。OftheirkindnessandhospitalityIhad，alreadylearnedsomethingbyexperience，andIhopedtheywould，allowmetolearnsomethingoftheirmodeoflife，theircustoms，theirsongs，theirhistory，andtheirreligion，inallofwhichI

assuredthemmydistantcountrymentookalivelyinterest。

Thislittleafter-dinnerspeechwasperhapsnotquiteinaccordance，withBashkiretiquette，butitmadeafavourableimpression。There，wasadecidedmurmurofapprobation，andthosewhounderstood，Russiantranslatedmywordstotheirlessaccomplishedbrethren。A

shortconsultationensued，andthentherewasageneralshoutof，“Abdullah！Abdullah！”whichwastakenupandrepeatedbythose，standingoutside。

InafewminutesAbdullahappeared，withabig，half-pickedbonein，hishand，andthelowerpartofhisfacebesmearedwithgrease。He，wasashort，thinman，withadark，sallowcomplexion，andalook，ofprematureoldage;butthesuppressedsmilethatplayedabout，hismouthandatremulousmovementofhisrighteye-lidshowed，plainlythathehadnotyetforgottenthefunandfrolicofyouth。

Hisdresswasofricherandmoregaudymaterial，butatthesame，timemoretawdryandtattered，thanthatoftheothers。Altogether，helookedlikeanartisteindistressedcircumstances，andsuchhe，reallywas。Atawordandasignfromthehosthelaidasidehis，boneanddrewfromunderhisgreensilkkhalatasmallwind-

instrumentresemblingafluteorflageolet。Onthisheplayeda，numberofnativeairs。Thefirstmelodieswhichheplayedreminded，meofaHighlandpibroch——atonemomentlow，solemn，andplaintive，thengraduallyrisingintoasoul-stirring，martialstrain，and，againdescendingtoaplaintivewail。Theamountofexpression，whichheputintohissimpleinstrumentwastrulymarvellous。

Then，passingsuddenlyfromgravetogay，heplayedaseriesof，light，merryairs，andsomeoftheyoungeronlookersgotupand，performedadanceasboisterousandungracefulasanIrishjig。

ThisAbdullahturnedouttobeformeamostvaluableacquaintance。

HewasakindofBashkirtroubadour，wellacquaintednotonlywith，themusic，butalsowiththetraditions，thehistory，the，superstitions，andthefolk-loreofhispeople。Bytheakhunand，themullahhewasregardedasafrivolous，worthlessfellow，who，hadnoregular，respectablemeansofgainingalivelihood，but，amongthemenoflessrigidprincipleshewasageneralfavourite。

AshespokeRussianfluentlyIcouldconversewithhimfreely，withouttheaidofaninterpreter，andhewillinglyplacedhis，storeofknowledgeatmydisposal。Wheninthecompanyofthe，akhunhewasalwayssolemnandtaciturn，butassoonashewas，relievedofthatdignitary’spresencehebecamelivelyand，communicative。

Anotherofmynewacquaintanceswasequallyusefultomeinanother，way。ThiswasMehemetZian，whowasnotsointelligentas，Abdullah，butmuchmoresympathetic。Inhisopen，honestface，and，kindly，unaffectedmannertherewassomethingsoirresistibly，attractivethatbeforeIhadknownhimtwenty-fourhoursasortof，friendshiphadsprungupbetweenus。Hewasatall，muscular，broad-shoulderedman，withfeaturesthatsuggestedamixtureof，Europeanblood。Thoughalreadypastmiddleage，hewasstillwiry，andactive——soactivethathecould，whenonhorseback，picka，stoneoffthegroundwithoutdismounting。Hecould，however，no，longerperformthisfeatatfullgallop，ashehadbeenwonttodo，inhisyouth。Hisgeographicalknowledgewasextremelylimitedand，inaccurate——hismindbeinginthisrespectlikethoseoldRussian，mapsinwhichthenationsoftheearthandagoodmanypeopleswho，hadnevermorethanamythicalexistencearejumbledtogetherin，hopelessconfusion——buthisgeographicalcuriositywasinsatiable。

Mytravelling-map——thefirstthingofthekindhehadeverseen——

interestedhimdeeply。Whenhefoundthatbysimplyexaminingit，andglancingatmycompassIcouldtellhimthedirectionand，distanceofplacesheknew，hisfacewaslikethatofachildwho，seesforthefirsttimeaconjuror’sperformance;andwhenI

explainedthetricktohim，andtaughthimtocalculatethe，distancetoBokhara——thesacredcityoftheMussulmansofthat，region——hisdelightwasunbounded。GraduallyIperceivedthatto，possesssuchamaphadbecomethegreatobjectofhisambition。

UnfortunatelyIcouldnotatoncegratifyhimasIshouldhave，wished，becauseIhadalongjourneybeforemeandIhadnoother，mapoftheregion，butIpromisedtofindwaysandmeansofsending，himone，andIkeptmywordbymeansofanativeoftheKaralyk，districtwhomIdiscoveredinSamara。Ididnotaddacompass，becauseIcouldnotfindoneinthetown，anditwouldhavebeenof，littleusetohim：likeatruechildofnaturehealwaysknewthe，cardinalpointsbythesunorthestars。SomeyearslaterIhad，thesatisfactionoflearningthatthemaphadreachedits，destinationsafely，throughnolessapersonagethanCountTolstoy。

OneeveningatthehomeofafriendinMoscowIwaspresentedto，thegreatnovelist，andassoonasheheardmynamehesaid：“Oh！I

knowyoualready，andIknowyourfriendMehemetZian。WhenI

passedanightthissummerinhisaoulheshowedmeamapwithyour，signatureonthemargin，andtaughtmehowtocalculatethe，distancetoBokhara！”

IfMehemetknewlittleofforeigncountrieshewasthoroughlywell，acquaintedwithhisown，andrepaidmemostliberallyformy，elementarylessonsingeography。WithhimIvisitedthe，neighbouringaouls。Inallofthemhehadnumerousacquaintances，andeverywherewewerereceivedwiththegreatesthospitality，exceptononeoccasionwhenwepaidavisitofceremonytoafamous，robberwhowastheterrorofthewholeneighbourhood。Certainlyhe，wasoneofthemostbrutalisedspecimensofhumanityIhaveever，encountered。Hemadenoattempttobeamiable，andIfeltinclined，toleavehistentatonce;butIsawthatmyfriendwantedto，conciliatehim，soIrestrainedmyfeelingsandeventually，establishedtolerablygoodrelationswithhim。AsaruleIavoided，festivities，partlybecauseIknewthatmyhostsweremostlypoor，andwouldnotacceptpaymentfortheslaughteredsheep，andpartly，becauseIhadreasontoapprehendthattheywouldexpresstome，theiresteemandaffectionmoreBashkirico;butinkumyss-drinking，theordinaryoccupationofthesepeoplewhentheyhavenothingto，do，Ihadtoindulgetoamostinordinateextent。Onthese，expeditionsAbdullahgenerallyaccompaniedus，andrendered，valuableserviceasinterpreterandtroubadour。Mehemetcould，expresshimselfinRussian，buthisvocabularyfailedhimassoon，astheconversationranaboveveryordinarytopics;Abdullah，on，thecontrary，wasafirst-rateinterpreter，andundertheinfluence，ofhismusicalpipeandlivelytalkativenessnewacquaintances，becamesociableandcommunicative。PoorAbdullah！，Hewasakind，ofuniversalgenius;buthisfaded，tatteredkhalatshowedonlytoo，plainlythatinBashkiria，asinmorecivilisedcountries，universalgeniusandtheartistictemperamentleadtopoverty，ratherthantowealth。

Ihavenointentionoftroublingthereaderwiththemiscellaneous，factswhich，withtheassistanceofthesetwofriends，Isucceeded，incollecting——indeed，IcouldnotifIwould，forthenotesIthen，madewereafterwardslost——butIwishtosayafewwordsaboutthe，actualeconomicconditionoftheBashkirs。Theyareatpresent，passingfrompastoraltoagriculturallife;anditisnotalittle，interestingtonotethecauseswhichinducethemtomakethis，change，andthewayinwhichitismade。

Philosophershavelongheldatheoryofsocialdevelopment，accordingtowhichmenwereatfirsthunters，thenshepherds，and，lastlyagriculturists。Howfarthistheoryisinaccordancewith，realityweneednotforthepresentinquire，butwemayexaminean，importantpartofitandaskourselvesthequestion，Whydid，pastoraltribesadoptagriculture？，Thecommonexplanationisthat，theychangedtheirmodeoflifeinconsequenceofsomeill-defined，fortuitouscircumstances。Agreatlegislatoraroseamongstthem，andtaughtthemtotillthesoil，ortheycameincontactwithan，agriculturalraceandadoptedthecustomsoftheirneighbours。

Suchexplanationsmustappearunsatisfactorytoanyonewhohas，livedwithapastoralpeople。Pastorallifeissoincomparably，moreagreeablethanthehardlotoftheagriculturist，andsomuch，moreinaccordancewiththenaturalindolenceofhumannature，that，nogreatlegislator，thoughhehadthewisdomofaSolonandthe，eloquenceofaDemosthenes，couldpossiblyinducehisfellow-

countrymentopassvoluntarilyfromtheonetotheother。Ofall，theordinarymeansofgainingalivelihood——withtheexception，perhapsofmining——agricultureisthemostlaborious，andisnever，voluntarilyadoptedbymenwhohavenotbeenaccustomedtoitfrom，theirchildhood。Thelifeofapastoralrace，onthecontrary，is，aperennialholiday，andIcanimaginenothingexcepttheprospect，ofstarvationwhichcouldinducemenwholivebytheirflocksand，herdstomakethetransitiontoagriculturallife。

Theprospectofstarvationis，infact，thecauseofthe，transition——probablyinallcases，andcertainlyinthecaseofthe，Bashkirs。Solongastheyhadabundanceofpasturagetheynever，thoughtoftillingthesoil。Theirflocksandherdssuppliedthem，withallthattheyrequired，andenabledthemtoleadatranquil，indolentexistence。Nogreatlegislatoraroseamongthemtoteach，themtheuseoftheploughandthesickle，andwhentheysawthe，Russianpeasantsontheirborderslaboriouslyploughingand，reaping，theylookedonthemwithcompassion，andneverthoughtof，followingtheirexample。Butanimpersonallegislatorcameto，them——averysevereandtyrannicallegislator，whowouldnotbrook，disobedience——ImeanEconomicNecessity。Bytheencroachmentsof，theUralCossacksontheeast，andbytheever-advancingwaveof，Russiancolonisationfromthenorthandwest，theirterritoryhad，beengreatlydiminished。Withdiminutionofthepasturagecame，diminutionofthelivestock，theirsolemeansofsubsistence。In，spiteoftheirpassivelyconservativespirittheyhadtolookabout，forsomenewmeansofobtainingfoodandclothing——somenewmodeof，liferequiringlessextensiveterritorialpossessions。Itwasonly，thenthattheybegantothinkofimitatingtheirneighbours。They，sawthattheneighbouringRussianpeasantlivedcomfortablyon，thirtyorfortyacresofland，whilsttheypossessedahundredand，fiftyacrespermale，andwereindangerofstarvation。

Theconclusiontobedrawnfromthiswasself-evident——theyought，atoncetobeginploughingandsowing。Buttherewasavery，seriousobstacletotheputtingofthisprincipleinpractice。

Agriculturecertainlyrequireslesslandthansheep-farming，butit，requiresverymuchmorelabour，andtohardworktheBashkirswere，notaccustomed。Theycouldbearhardshipsandfatiguesinthe，shapeoflongjourneysonhorseback，butthesevere，monotonous，labouroftheploughandthesicklewasnottotheirtaste。At，first，therefore，theyadoptedacompromise。Theyhadaportionof，theirlandtilledbyRussianpeasants，andcededtotheseapartof，theproduceinreturnforthelabourexpended;inotherwords，they，assumedthepositionoflandedproprietors，andfarmedpartof，theirlandonthemetayagesystem。

Theprocessoftransitionhadreachedthispointinseveralaouls，whichIvisited。MyfriendMehemetZianshowedmeatsomedistance，fromthetentshisplotofarableland，andintroducedmetothe，peasantwhotilledit——aLittle-Russian，whoassuredmethatthe，arrangementsatisfiedallparties。Theprocessoftransition，cannot，however，stophere。Thecompromiseismerelyatemporary，expedient。Virginsoilgivesveryabundantharvests，sufficientto，supportboththelabourerandtheindolentproprietor，butaftera，fewyearsthesoilbecomesexhaustedandgivesonlyaverymoderate，revenue。Aproprietor，therefore，mustsoonerorlaterdispense，withthelabourerswhotakehalfoftheproduceastheir，recompense，andmusthimselfputhishandtotheplough。

ThusweseetheBashkirsare，properlyspeaking，nolongerapurely，pastoral，nomadicpeople。Thediscoveryofthisfactcausedme，somelittledisappointment，andinthehopeoffindingatribeina，moreprimitiveconditionIvisitedtheKirghizoftheInnerHorde，whooccupythecountrytothesouthward，inthedirectionofthe，Caspian。HereforthefirsttimeIsawthegenuineSteppeinthe，fullsenseoftheterm——acountrylevelasthesea，withnota，hillockorevenagentleundulationtobreakthestraightlineof，thehorizon，andnotapatchofcultivation，atree，abush，or，evenastone，todiversifythemonotonousexpanse。

Traversingsucharegionis，Ineedscarcelysay，verywearywork——

allthemoreastherearenomilestonesorotherlandmarkstoshow，theprogressyouaremaking。Still，itisnotsooverwhelmingly，wearisomeasmightbesupposed。Inthemorningyoumaywatchthe，vastlakes，withtheirruggedpromontoriesandwell-woodedbanks，whichthemiragecreatesforyouramusement。Thenduringthe，courseofthedaytherearealwaysoneortwotriflingincidents，whicharouseyouforalittlefromyoursomnolence。Nowyoudescry，acoupleofhorsemenonthedistanthorizon，andwatchthemasthey，approach;andwhentheycomealongsideyoumayhaveatalkwith，themifyouknowthelanguageorhaveaninterpreter;oryoumay，amuseyourselfwithalittlepantomime，ifarticulatespeechis，impossible。Nowyouencounteralongtrainofcamelsmarching，alongwithsolemn，statelystep，andspeculateastothecontents，ofthebigpackageswithwhichtheyareladen。Nowyouencounter，thecarcassofahorsethathasfallenbythewayside，andwatch，thedogsandthesteppeeaglesfightingovertheirprey;andifyou，aremurderouslyinclinedyoumaytakeashotwithyourrevolverat，thesegreatbirds，fortheyareignorantlybrave，andwill，sometimesallowyoutoapproachwithintwentyorthirtyyards。At，lastyouperceive——mostpleasantsightofall——agroupofhaystack-

shapedtentsinthedistance;andyouhurryontoenjoythe，gratefulshade，andquenchyourthirstwith“deep，deepdraughts“

ofrefreshingkumyss。

DuringmyjourneythroughtheKirghizcountryIwasaccompaniedby，aRussiangentleman，whohadprovidedhimselfwithacircular，letterfromthehereditarychieftainoftheHorde，apersonagewho，rejoicedintheimposingnameofGenghisKhan，*andclaimedtobea，descendantofthegreatMongolconqueror。Thisdocumentassuredus，agoodreceptionintheaoulsthroughwhichwepassed。Every，Kirghiswhosawittreateditwithprofoundrespect，andprofessed，toputallhisgoodsandchattelsatourservice。Butinspiteof，thispowerfulrecommendationwemetwithnoneofthefriendly，cordialityandcommunicativenesswhichIhadfoundamongthe，Bashkirs。Atentwithanunlimitedquantityofcushionswasalways，setapartforouraccommodation;thesheepwerekilledandboiled，forourdinner，andthepailsofkumysswereregularlybroughtfor，ourrefreshment;butallthiswasevidentlydoneasamatterof，dutyandnotasaspontaneousexpressionofhospitality。Whenwe，determinedonceortwicetoprolongourvisitbeyondtheterm，originallyannounced，Icouldperceivethatourhostwasnotatall，delightedbythechangeofourplans。Theonlyconsolationwehad，wasthatthosewhoentertainedusmadenoscruplesaboutaccepting，paymentforthefoodandsheltersupplied。

*IhaveadoptedtheordinaryEnglishspellingofthisname。The，KirghizandtheRussianspronounceit“Tchinghiz。”

FromallthisIhavenointentionofdrawingtheconclusionthat，theKirghizare，asapeople，inhospitableorunfriendlyto，strangers。Myexperienceofthemistoolimitedtowarrantany，suchinference。TheletterofGenghisKhaninsuredusallthe，accommodationwerequired，butitatthesametimegaveusa，certainofficialcharacternotatallfavourabletothe，establishmentoffriendlyrelations。Thosewithwhomwecamein，contactregardedusasRussianofficials，andsuspectedusof，havingsomesecretdesigns。AsIendeavouredtodiscoverthe，numberoftheircattle，andtoformanapproximateestimateof，theirannualrevenue，theynaturallyfeared——havingnoconception，ofdisinterestedscientificcuriosity——thatthesedatawerebeing，collectedforthepurposeofincreasingthetaxes，orwithsome，similarintentionofasinisterkind。VerysoonIperceived，clearlythatanyinformationwemightherecollectregardingthe，economicconditionsofpastorallifewouldnotbeofmuchvalue，andIpostponedmyproposedstudiestoamoreconvenientseason。

TheKirghizare，ethnographicallyspeaking，closelyalliedtothe，Bashkirs，butdifferfromthembothinphysiognomyandlanguage。

TheirfeaturesapproachmuchnearerthepureMongoltype，andtheir，languageisadistinctdialect，whichaBashkiroraTartarof，Kazanhassomedifficultyinunderstanding。Theyareprofessedly，Mahometans，buttheirMahometanismisnotofarigidkind，asmay，beseenbythefactthattheirwomendonotveiltheirfaceseven，inthepresenceofGhiaours——alaxnessofwhichtheGhiaourwill，certainlynotapproveifhehappentobesensitivetofemalebeauty，andugliness。Theirmodeoflifediffersfromthatofthe，Bashkirs，buttheyhaveproportionatelymorelandandare，consequentlystillabletoleadapurelypastorallife。Neartheir，westernfrontier，itistrue，theyannuallyletpatchesoflandto，theRussianpeasantsforthepurposeofraisingcrops;butthese，encroachmentscanneveradvanceveryfar，forthegreaterpartof，theirterritoryisunsuitedtoagriculture，onaccountofalarge，admixtureofsaltinthesoil。Thisfactwillhaveanimportant，influenceontheirfuture。UnliketheBashkirs，whopossessgood，arableland，andareconsequentlyontheroadtobecome，agriculturists，theywillinallprobabilitycontinuetolive，exclusivelybytheirflocksandherds。

TothesouthwestoftheLowerVolga，intheflatregionlyingto，thenorthoftheCaucasus，wefindanotherpastoraltribe，the，Kalmyks，differingwidelyfromthetwoformerinlanguage，in，physiognomy，andinreligion。Theirlanguage，adialectofthe，Mongolian，hasnocloseaffinitywithanyotherlanguageinthis，partoftheworld。Inrespectofreligiontheyarelikewise，isolated，fortheyareBuddhists，andhaveconsequentlynoco-

religionistsnearerthanMongoliaorThibet。Butitistheir，physiognomythatmoststrikinglydistinguishesthemfromthe，surroundingpeoples，andstampsthemasMongolsofthepurest，water。Thereissomethingalmostinfra-humanintheirugliness。

Theyshowinanexaggerateddegreeallthoserepulsivetraitswhich，weseetoneddownandrefinedinthefaceofanaverageChinaman;

anditisdifficult，whenwemeetthemforthefirsttime，to，believethatahumansoullurksbehindtheirexpressionless，flattenedfacesandsmall，dull，obliquelyseteyes。IftheTartar，andTurkishracesarereallydescendedfromancestorsofthattype，thenwemustassumethattheyhavereceivedinthecourseoftimea，largeadmixtureofAryanorSemiticblood。

ButwemustnotbetoohardonthepoorKalmyks，orjudgeoftheir，characterbytheirunprepossessingappearance。Theyarebyno，meanssounhumanastheylook。Menwhohavelivedamongthemhave，assuredmethattheyaredecidedlyintelligent，especiallyinall，mattersrelatingtocattle，andthattheyare——thoughsomewhat，addictedtocattle-liftingandotherprimitivecustomsnot，toleratedinthemoreadvancedstagesofcivilisation——bynomeans，wantinginsomeofthebetterqualitiesofhumannature。

Formerlytherewasafourthpastoraltribeinthisregion——the，NogaiTartars。TheyoccupiedtheplainstothenorthoftheSeaof，Azof，buttheyarenolongertobefoundthere。Shortlyafterthe，CrimeanwartheyemigratedtoTurkey，andtheirlandsarenow，occupiedbyRussian，German，Bulgarian，andMontenegrincolonists。

AmongthepastoraltribesofthisregiontheKalmyksarerecent，intruders。Theyfirstappearedintheseventeenthcentury，and，werelongformidableonaccountoftheirgreatnumbersandcompact，organisation;butin1771themajorityofthemsuddenlystruck，theirtentsandretreatedtotheiroldhomeinthenorthofthe，CelestialEmpire。Thosewhoremainedwereeasilypacified，and，havelongsincelost，undertheinfluenceofunbrokenpeaceanda，strongRussianadministration，theiroldwarlikespirit。Their，latestmilitaryexploitswereperformedduringthelastyearsof，theNapoleonicwars，andwerenotofaveryseriouskind;atroop，ofthemaccompaniedtheRussianarmy，andastonishedWesternEurope，bytheiruncouthfeatures，theirstrangecostume，andtheir，primitiveaccoutrements，amongwhichtheircuriousbowsandarrows，figuredconspicuously。

TheotherpastoraltribeswhichIhavementioned——Bashkirs，Kirghiz，andNogaiTartars——arethelastremnantsofthefamous，marauderswhofromtimeimmemorialdowntoacomparativelyrecent，periodheldthevastplainsofSouthernRussia。Thelongstruggle，betweenthemandtheagriculturalcolonistsfromthenorthwest，closelyresemblingthelongstrugglebetweentheRed-skinsandthe，whitesettlersontheprairiesofNorthAmerica，formsanimportant，pageofRussianhistory。

Forcenturiesthewarlikenomadsstoutlyresistedallencroachments，ontheirpasture-grounds，andconsideredcattle-lifting，kidnapping，andpillageasalegitimateandhonorableoccupation。

“Theirraids，“saysanoldByzantinewriter，“areasflashesof，lightning，andtheirretreatisatonceheavyandlight——heavyfrom，bootyandlightfromtheswiftnessoftheirmovements。Forthema，peacefullifeisamisfortune，andaconvenientopportunityforwar，istheheightoffelicity。Worstofall，theyaremorenumerous，thanbeesinspring，theirnumbersareuncountable。”，“Havingno，fixedplaceofabode，“saysanotherByzantineauthority，“theyseek，toconqueralllandsandcolonisenone。Theyareflyingpeople，andthereforecannotbecaught。Astheyhaveneithertownsnor，villages，theymustbehuntedlikewildbeasts，andcanbefitly，comparedonlytogriffins，whichbeneficentNaturehasbanishedto，uninhabitedregions。”，AsaPersiandistich，quotedbyVambery，has，it——

“Theycame，conquered，burned，pillaged，murdered，andwent。”

TheirraidsarethusdescribedbyanoldRussianchronicler：“They，burnthevillages，thefarmyards，andthechurches。Thelandis，turnedbythemintoadesert，andtheovergrownfieldsbecomethe，lairofwildbeasts。Manypeopleareledawayintoslavery;others，aretorturedandkilled，ordiefromhungerandthirst。Sad，weary，stifffromcold，withfaceswanfromwoe，barefootornaked，andtornbythethistles，theRussianprisonerstrudgealong，throughanunknowncountry，and，weeping，saytooneanother，’Iam，fromsuchatown，andIfromsuchavillage。’“Andinharmonywith，themonasticchroniclerswehearthenamelessSlavonicOssian，wailingforthefallensonsofRus：“IntheRussianlandisrarely，heardthevoiceofthehusbandman，butoftenthecryofthe，vultures，fightingwitheachotheroverthebodiesoftheslain;

andtheravensscreamastheyflytothespoil。”

Inspiteofthestubbornresistanceofthenomadsthewaveof，colonisationmovedsteadilyonwardsuntilthefirstyearsofthe，thirteenthcentury，whenitwassuddenlycheckedandthrownback。

AgreatMongolianhordefromEasternAsia，farmorenumerousand，betterorganizedthanthelocalnomadictribes，overranthewhole，country，andformorethantwocenturiesRussiawasinacertain，senseruledbyMongolKhans。AsIwishtospeakatsomelengthof，thisMongoldomination，Ishalldevotetoitaseparatechapter。

CHAPTERXIV

THEMONGOLDOMINATION

TheConquest——GenghisKhanandhisPeople——CreationandRapid，DisintegrationoftheMongolEmpire——TheGoldenHorde——TheReal，CharacteroftheMongolDomination——ReligiousToleration——Mongol，SystemofGovernment——GrandPrinces——ThePrincesofMoscow——

InfluenceoftheMongolDomination——PracticalImportanceofthe，Subject。

TheTartarinvasion，withitsdirectandindirectconsequences，is，asubjectwhichhasmorethanamereantiquarianinterest。Tothe，influenceoftheMongolsarecommonlyattributedmanypeculiarities，intheactualconditionandnationalcharacteroftheRussiansof，thepresentday，andsomewriterswouldevenhaveusbelievethat，themenwhomwecallRussiansaresimplyTartarshalfdisguisedby，athinvarnishofEuropeancivilisation。Itmaybewell，therefore，toinquirewhattheTartarorMongoldominationreally，was，andhowfaritaffectedthehistoricaldevelopmentand，nationalcharacteroftheRussianpeople。

Thestoryoftheconquestmaybebrieflytold。In1224the，chieftainsofthePoloftsi——oneofthosepastoraltribeswhich，roamedontheSteppeandhabituallycarriedonapredatorywarfare，withtheRussiansofthesouth——sentdeputiestoMistislafthe，Brave，PrinceofGalicia，toinformhimthattheircountryhadbeen，invadedfromthesoutheastbystrong，cruelenemiescalled，Tartars*——strange-lookingmenwithbrownfaces，eyessmallandwide，apart，thicklips，broadshoulders，andblackhair。”Today，“said，thedeputies，“theyhaveseizedourcountry，andtomorrowtheywill，seizeyoursifyoudonothelpus。”

*Thewordisproperly“Tatar，“andtheRussianswriteand，pronounceitinthisway，butIhavepreferredtoretainthebetter，knownform。

MistislafhadprobablynoobjectiontothePoloftsibeing，annihilatedbysometribestrongerandfiercerthanthemselves，for，theygavehimagreatdealoftroublebytheirfrequentraids;but，heperceivedtheforceoftheargumentabouthisownturncoming，next，andthoughtitwisetoassisthisusuallyhostileneighbours。

Forthepurposeofwardingoffthedangerhecalledtogetherthe，neighbouringPrinces，andurgedthemtojoinhiminanexpedition，againstthenewenemy。Theexpeditionwasundertaken，andendedin，disaster。OntheKalka，asmallriverfallingintotheSeaof，Azof，theRussianhostmettheinvaders，andwascompletelyrouted。

Thecountrywastherebyopenedtothevictors，buttheydidnot，followuptheiradvantage。Afteradvancingforsomedistancethey，suddenlywheeledroundanddisappeared。

Thusendedunexpectedlythefirstvisitoftheseunwelcome，strangers。Thirteenyearsafterwardstheyreturned，andwerenot，soeasilygotridof。AnenormoushordecrossedtheRiverUraland，advancedintotheheartofthecountry，pillaging，burning，devastating，andmurdering。Nowheredidtheymeetwithserious，resistance。ThePrincesmadenoattempttocombineagainstthe，commonenemy。Nearlyalltheprincipaltownswerelaidinashes，andtheinhabitantswerekilledorcarriedoffasslaves。Having，conqueredRussia，theyadvancedwestward，andthrewallEuropeinto，alarm。ThepanicreachedevenEngland，andinterrupted，itis，said，foratimetheherringfishingonthecoast。WesternEurope，however，escapedtheirravages。AftervisitingPoland，Hungary，Bulgaria，Servia，andDalmatia，theyretreatedtotheLowerVolga，andtheRussianPrincesweresummonedthithertodohomagetothe，victoriousKhan。

AtfirsttheRussianshadonlyveryvaguenotionsastowhothis，terribleenemywas。Theoldchroniclerremarksbriefly：“Forour，sinsunknownpeopleshaveappeared。Nooneknowswhotheyareor，whencetheyhavecome，ortowhatraceandfaiththeybelong。They，arecommonlycalledTartars，butsomecallthemTauermen，and，othersPetchenegs。WhotheyreallyareisknownonlytoGod，and，perhapstowisemendeeplyreadinbooks。”，Someofthese“wisemen，deeplyreadinbooks“supposedthemtobetheidolatrousMoabites，whohadinOldTestamenttimesharassedGod’schosenpeople，whilst，othersthoughtthattheymustbethedescendantsofthemenwhom，Gideonhaddrivenout，ofwhomareveredsainthadprophesiedthat，theywouldcomeinthelatterdaysandconquerthewholeearth，fromtheEastevenuntotheEuphrates，andfromtheTigriseven，untotheBlackSea。

Wearenowhappilyinapositiontodispensewithsuchvague，ethnographicalspeculations。FromtheaccountsofseveralEuropean，travellerswhovisitedTartaryaboutthattime，andfromthe，writingsofvariousOrientalhistorians，weknowagreatdealabout，thesebarbarianswhoconqueredRussiaandfrightenedtheWestern，nations。

ThevastregionlyingtotheeastofRussia，fromthebasinofthe，VolgatotheshoresofthePacificOcean，wasinhabitedthen，asit，isstill，bynumerousTartarandMongoltribes。Thesetwoterms，areoftenregardedasidenticalandinterchangeable，butthey，ought，Ithink，tobedistinguished。Fromtheethnographic，the，linguistic，andthereligiouspointofviewtheydifferwidelyfrom，eachother。TheKazanTartars，theBashkirs，theKirghiz，ina，word，allthetribesinthecountrystretchinglatitudinallyfrom，theVolgatoKashgar，andlongitudinallyfromthePersianfrontier，theHinduKushandtheNorthernHimalaya，toalinedrawneastand，westthroughthemiddleofSiberia，belongtotheTartargroup;

whereasthosefurthereastward，occupyingMongoliaandManchuria，areMongolinthestrictersenseoftheterm。

Averylittleexperienceenablesthetravellertodistinguish，betweenthetwo。Bothofthemhavethewell-knowncharacteristics，oftheNorthernAsiatic——thebroadflatface，yellowskin，small，obliquelyseteyes，highcheekbones，thin，stragglingbeard;but，thesetraitsaremorestronglymarked，moreexaggerated，ifwemay，usesuchanexpression，intheMongolthanintheTartar。Thusthe，Mongolis，accordingtoourconceptions，byfartheuglierofthe，two，andthemanofTartarrace，whenseenbesidehim，appears，almostEuropeanbycomparison。Thedistinctionisconfirmedbya，studyoftheirlanguages。AlltheTartarlanguagesareclosely，allied，sothatapersonofaveragelinguistictalentwhohas，masteredoneofthem，whetheritbetherudeTurkiofCentralAsia，orthehighlypolishedTurkishofStambul，caneasilyacquireany，oftheothers;whereasevenanextensiveacquaintancewiththe，Tartardialectswillbeofnopracticalusetohiminlearninga，languageoftheMongolgroup。Intheirreligionslikewisethetwo，racesdiffer。TheMongolsareasaruleShamanistsorBuddhists，whiletheTartarsareMahometans。SomeoftheMongolinvaders，it，istrue，adoptedMahometanismfromtheconqueredTartartribes，and，bythischangeofreligion，whichlednaturallytointermarriage，theirdescendantsbecamegraduallyblendedwiththeolder，population;butthebroadlineofdistinctionwasnotpermanently，effaced。

Itisoftensupposed，evenbypeoplewhoprofesstobeacquainted，withRussianhistory，thatMongolsandTartarsalikefirstcame，westwardtothefrontiersofEuropewithGenghisKhan。Thisis，trueoftheMongols，butsofarastheTartarsareconcerneditis，anentiremistake。FromtimeimmemorialtheTartartribesroamed，overtheseterritories。LiketheRussians，theywereconqueredby，theMongolinvadersandhadlongtopaytribute，andwhenthe，Mongolempirecrumbledtopiecesbyinternaldissensionsand，finallydisappearedbeforethevictoriousadvanceoftheRussians，theTartarsreappearedfromtheconfusionwithouthavinglost，notwithstandinganintermixturedoubtlessofMongolblood，their，oldracialcharacteristics，theirolddialects，andtheirold，tribalorganisation。

ThegermofthevasthordewhichsweptoverAsiaandadvancedinto，thecentreofEuropewasasmallpastoraltribeofMongolsliving，inthehillycountrytothenorthofChina，nearthesourcesofthe，Amur。Thistribewasneithermorewarlikenormoreformidablethan，itsneighbourstillnearthecloseofthetwelfthcentury，when，thereappearedinitamanwhoisdescribedas“amightyhunter，beforetheLord。”，Ofhimandhispeoplewehaveabrief，descriptionbyaChineseauthorofthetime：“Amanofgigantic，stature，withbroadforeheadandlongbeard，andremarkableforhis，bravery。Astohispeople，theirfacesarebroad，flat，andfour-

cornered，withprominentcheek-bones;theireyeshavenoupper，eyelashes;theyhaveverylittlehairintheirbeardsand，moustaches;theirexteriorisveryrepulsive。”，Thismanof，giganticstaturewasnootherthanGenghisKhan。Hebeganby，subduingandincorporatingintohisarmythesurroundingtribes，conqueredwiththeirassistanceagreatpartofNorthernChina，and，then，leavingoneofhisgeneralstocompletetheconquestofthe，CelestialEmpire，heledhisarmywestwardwiththeambitious，designofconqueringthewholeworld。”AsthereisbutoneGodin，heaven，“hewaswonttosay，“sothereshouldbebutoneruleron，earth“;andthisoneuniversalrulerhehimselfaspiredtobe。

AEuropeanarmynecessarilydiminishesinforceanditsexistence，becomesmoreandmoreimperilledasitadvancesfromitsbaseof，operationsintoaforeignandhostilecountry。Notsoahordelike，thatofGenghisKhaninacountrysuchasthatwhichithadto，traverse。Itneedednobaseofoperations，forittookwithitits，flocks，itstents，andallitsworldlygoods。Properlyspeaking，itwasnotanarmyatall，butratherapeopleinmovement。The，grassySteppesfedtheflocks，andtheflocksfedthewarriors;and，withsuchasimplecommissariatsystemtherewasnonecessityfor，keepingupcommunicationswiththepointofdeparture。Insteadof，diminishinginnumbers，thehordeconstantlyincreasedasitmoved，forwards。Thenomadictribeswhichitencounteredonitsway，composedofmenwhofoundahomewherevertheyfoundpastureand，drinking-water，requiredlittlepersuasiontomakethemjointhe，onwardmovement。Bymeansofthisterribleinstrumentofconquest，GenghissucceededincreatingacolossalEmpire，stretchingfrom，theCarpathianstotheeasternshoresofAsia，andfromtheArctic，OceantotheHimalayas。

Genghiswasnomereruthlessdestroyer;hewasatthesametimeone，ofthegreatestadministratorstheworldhaseverseen。Buthis，administrativegeniuscouldnotworkmiracles。HisvastEmpire，foundedonconquestandcomposedofthemostheterogeneous，elements，hadnoprincipleoforganiclifeinit，andcouldnot，possiblybelong-lived。Ithadbeencreatedbyhim，andit，perishedwithhim。Forsometimeafterhisdeaththedignityof，GrandKhanwasheldbysomeoneofhisdescendants，andthe，centralisedadministrationwasnominallypreserved;butthelocal，rulersrapidlyemancipatedthemselvesfromthecentralauthority，andwithinhalfacenturyafterthedeathofitsfounderthegreat，MongolEmpirewaslittlemorethan“ageographicalexpression。”

Withthedismembermentoftheshort-livedEmpirethedangerfor，EasternEuropewasbynomeansatanend。Theindependenthordes，werescarcelylessformidablethantheEmpireitself。Agrandson，ofGenghisformedontheRussianfrontieranewState，commonly，knownasKiptchak，ortheGoldenHorde，andbuiltacapitalcalled，Serai，ononeofthearmsoftheLowerVolga。Thiscapital，which，hassincesocompletelydisappearedthatthereissomedoubtasto，itssite，isdescribedbyIbnBatuta，whovisiteditinthe，fifteenthcentury，asaverygreat，populous，andbeautifulcity，possessingmanymosques，finemarket-places，andbroadstreets，in，whichweretobeseenmerchantsfromBabylon，Egypt，Syria，and，othercountries。HerelivedtheKhansoftheGoldenHorde，who，keptRussiainsubjectionfortwocenturies。

InconqueringRussiatheMongolshadnowishtopossessthemselves，ofthesoil，ortotakeintotheirownhandsthelocal，administration。Whattheywantedwasnotland，ofwhichtheyhad，enoughandtospare，butmovablepropertywhichtheymightenjoy，withoutgivinguptheirpastoral，nomadiclife。Theyapplied，therefore，toRussiathesamemethodofextractingsuppliesasthey，hadusedinothercountries。Assoonastheirauthorityhadbeen，formallyacknowledgedtheysentofficialsintothecountryto，numbertheinhabitantsandtocollectanamountoftribute，proportionatetothepopulation。Thiswasasevereburdenforthe，people，notonlyonaccountofthesumdemanded，butalsoon，accountofthemannerinwhichitwasraised。Theexactionsand，crueltyofthetax-gatherersledtolocalinsurrections，andthe，insurrectionswereofcoursealwaysseverelypunished。Butthere，wasneveranygeneralmilitaryoccupationofthecountryorany，wholesaleconfiscationsofland，andtheexistingpolitical，organisationwasleftundisturbed。Themodernmethodofdealing，withannexedprovinceswastotallyunknowntotheMongols。The，KhansneverthoughtofattemptingtodenationalisetheirRussian，subjects。Theydemandedsimplyanoathofallegiancefromthe，Princes*andacertainsumoftributefromthepeople。The，vanquishedwereallowedtoretaintheirland，theirreligion，their，language，theircourtsofjustice，andalltheirother，institutions。

*DuringtheMongoldominationRussiawascomposedofalarge，numberofindependentprincipalities。

ThenatureoftheMongoldominationiswellillustratedbythe，policywhichtheconquerorsadoptedtowardstheRussianChurch。

Formorethanhalfacenturyaftertheconquestthereligionofthe，TartarswasamixtureofBuddhismandPaganism，withtracesof，Sabaeismorfire-worship。DuringthisperiodChristianitywasmore，thansimplytolerated。TheGrandKhanKuyukcausedaChristian，chapeltobeerectednearhisdomicile，andoneofhissuccessors，Khubilai，wasinthehabitofpubliclytakingpartintheEaster，festivals。In1261theKhanoftheGoldenHordeallowedthe，Russianstofoundabishopricinhiscapital，andseveralmembers，ofhisfamilyadoptedChristianity。Oneofthemevenfoundeda，monastery，andbecameasaintoftheRussianChurch！，TheOrthodox，clergywereexemptedfromthepoll-tax，andinthechartersgranted，tothemitwasexpresslydeclaredthatifanyonecommitted，blasphemyagainstthefaithoftheRussiansheshouldbeputto，death。SometimeafterwardstheGoldenHordewasconvertedto，Islam，buttheKhansdidnotonthataccountchangetheirpolicy。

Theycontinuedtofavourtheclergy，andtheirprotectionwaslong，remembered。Manygenerationslater，whenthepropertyofthe，Churchwasthreatenedbytheautocraticpower，refractory，ecclesiasticscontrastedthepolicyoftheOrthodoxSovereignwith，thatofthe“godlessTartars，“muchtotheadvantageofthelatter。

Atfirsttherewasandcouldbeverylittlemutualconfidence，betweentheconquerorsandtheconquered。ThePrincesanxiously，lookedforanopportunityofthrowingoffthegallingyoke，andthe，peoplechafedundertheexactionsandcrueltyofthetribute-

collectors，whilsttheKhanstookprecautionstoprevent，insurrection，andthreatenedtodevastatethecountryiftheir，authoritywasnotrespected。Butinthecourseoftimethismutual，distrustandhostilitygreatlylessened。WhenthePrincesfoundby，experiencethatallattemptsatresistancewerefruitless，they，becamereconciledtotheirnewposition，andinsteadofseekingto，throwofftheKhan’sauthority，theytriedtogainhisfavour，in，thehopeofforwardingtheirpersonalinterests。Forthispurpose，theypaidfrequentvisitstotheTartarSuzerain，maderich，presentstohiswivesandcourtiers，receivedfromhimcharters，confirmingtheirauthority，andsometimesevenmarriedmembersof，hisfamily。Someofthemusedthefavourthusacquiredfor，extendingtheirpossessionsattheexpenseofneighbouringPrinces，oftheirownrace，anddidnothesitatetocallinTartarhordesto，theirassistance。TheKhans，intheirturn，placedgreater，confidenceintheirvassals，entrustedthemwiththetaskof，collectingthetribute，recalledtheirownofficialswhowerea，constanteyesoretothepeople，andabstainedfromallinterference，intheinternalaffairsoftheprincipalitiessolongasthe，tributewasregularlypaid。ThePrincesacted，inshort，asthe，Khan’slieutenants，andbecametoacertainextentTartarised。

Someofthemcarriedthispolicysofarthattheywerereproached，bythepeoplewith“lovingbeyondmeasuretheTartarsandtheir，language，andwithgivingthemtoofreelyland，andgold，andgoods，ofeverykind。”

HadtheKhansoftheGoldenHordebeenprudent，far-seeing，statesmen，theymighthavelongretainedtheirsupremacyover，Russia。Inrealitytheyshowedthemselvesmiserablydeficientin，politicaltalent。Seekingmerelytoextractfromthecountryas，muchtributeaspossible，theyoverlookedallhigher，considerations，andbythisculpableshortsightednessprepared，theirownpoliticalruin。InsteadofkeepingalltheRussian，Princesonthesamelevelandtherebyrenderingthemallequally，feeble，theywereconstantlybribedorcajoledintogivingtoone，ormoreoftheirvassalsapre-eminenceovertheothers。Atfirst，thispre-eminenceconsistedinlittlemorethantheemptytitleof，GrandPrince;butthevassalsthusfavouredsoontransformedthe，barrendistinctionintoagenuinepowerbyarrogatingtothemselves，theexclusiverightofholdingdirectcommunicationswiththe，Horde，andcompellingtheminorPrincestodelivertothemthe，Mongoltribute。IfanyofthelesserPrincesrefusedto，acknowledgethisintermediateauthority，theGrandPrincecould，easilycrushthembyrepresentingthemattheHordeasrebels。

Suchanaccusationwouldcausetheaccusedtobesummonedbefore，theSupremeTribunal，wheretheprocedurewasextremelysummaryand，theGrandPrincehadalwaysthemeansofobtainingadecisionin，hisownfavour。

OfthePrinceswhostroveinthiswaytoincreasetheirinfluence，themostsuccessfulweretheGrandPrincesofMoscow。Theywere，notachivalrousrace，oronewithwhichtheseveremoralistcan，sympathise，buttheywerelargelyendowedwithcunning，tact，and，perseverance，andwerelittlehamperedbyconscientiousscruples。

Havingearlydiscoveredthattheliberaldistributionofmoneyat，theTartarcourtwasthesurestmeansofgainingfavour，theylived，parsimoniouslyathomeandspenttheirsavingsattheHorde。To，securethecontinuanceofthefavourthusacquired，theywereready，toformmatrimonialallianceswiththeKhan’sfamily，andtoact，zealouslyashislieutenants。WhenNovgorod，thehaughty，turbulentrepublic，refusedtopaytheyearlytribute，theyquelled，theinsurrectionandpunishedtheleaders;andwhentheinhabitants，ofTverroseagainsttheTartarsandcompelledtheirPrincetomake，commoncausewiththem，thewilyMuscovitehastenedtotheTartar，courtandreceivedfromtheKhantherevoltedprincipality，with，50，000Tartarstosupporthisauthority。

ThusthosecunningMoscowPrinces“lovedtheTartarsbeyond，measure“solongastheKhanwasirresistiblypowerful，butashis，powerwanedtheystoodforthashisrivals。WhentheGoldenHorde，likethegreatEmpireofwhichithadonceformedapart，fellto，piecesinthefifteenthcentury，theseambitiousPrincesreadthe，signsofthetimes，andputthemselvesattheheadofthe，liberationmovement，whichwasatfirstunsuccessful，but，ultimatelyfreedthecountryfromthehatedyoke。

FromthisbriefsketchoftheMongoldominationthereaderwill，readilyunderstandthatitdidnotleaveanydeep，lasting，impressiononthepeople。TheinvadersneversettledinRussia，proper，andneveramalgamatedwiththenativepopulation。Solong，astheyretainedtheirsemi-pagan，semi-Buddhisticreligion，a，certainnumberoftheirnotablesbecameChristiansandwere，absorbedbytheRussianNoblesse;butassoonastheHordeadopted，Islamthismovementwasarrested。Therewasnoblendingofthetwo，racessuchashastakenplace——andisstilltakingplace——between，theRussianpeasantryandtheFinnishtribesoftheNorth。The，RussiansremainedChristians，andtheTartarsremainedMahometans;

andthisdifferenceofreligionraisedanimpassablebarrier，betweenthetwonationalities。

Itmust，however，beadmittedthattheTartardomination，thoughit，hadlittleinfluenceonthelifeandhabitsofthepeople，hada，considerableinfluenceonthepoliticaldevelopmentofthenation。

AtthetimeoftheconquestRussiawascomposedofalargenumber，ofindependentprincipalities，allgovernedbydescendantsof，Rurik。Astheseprincipalitieswerenotgeographicalor，ethnographicalunits，butmereartificial，arbitrarilydefined，districts，whichwereregularlysubdividedorcombinedaccordingto，thehereditaryrightsofthePrinces，itishighlyprobablethat，theywouldinanycasehavebeensoonerorlaterunitedunderone，sceptre;butitisquitecertainthatthepolicyoftheKhans，helpedtoacceleratethisunificationandtocreatetheautocratic，powerwhichhassincebeenwieldedbytheTsars。Ifthe，principalitieshadbeenunitedwithoutforeigninterferencewe，shouldprobablyhavefoundintheunitedStatesomeformof，politicalorganisationcorrespondingtothatwhichexistedinthe，componentparts——somemixedformofgovernment，inwhichthe，politicalpowerwouldhavebeenmoreorlessequallydivided，betweentheTsarandthepeople。TheTartarruleinterruptedthis，normaldevelopmentbyextinguishingallfreepoliticallife。The，firstTsarsofMuscovywerethepoliticaldescendants，notofthe，oldindependentPrinces，butoftheMongolKhans。Itmaybesaid，therefore，thattheautocraticpower，whichhasbeenduringthe，lastfourcenturiesoutofallcomparisonthemostimportantfactor，inRussianhistory，wasinacertainsensecreatedbytheMongol，domination。

CHAPTERXV

THECOSSACKS

LawlessnessontheSteppe——Slave-marketsoftheCrimea——The，MilitaryCordonandtheFreeCossacks——TheZaporovianCommonwealth，ComparedwithSpartaandwiththeMediaevalMilitaryOrders——The，CossacksoftheDon，oftheVolga，andoftheUral——BorderWarfare——

TheModernCossacks——LandTenureamongtheCossacksoftheDon——

TheTransitionfromPastoraltoAgricultureLife——“UniversalLaw“

ofSocialDevelopment——CommunalversusPrivateProperty——Flogging，asaMeansofLand-registration。

NosoonerhadtheGrandPrincesofMoscowthrownofftheMongol，yokeandbecomeindependentTsarsofMuscovythantheybeganthat，eastwardterritorialexpansionwhichhasbeengoingonsteadily，eversince，andwhichculminatedintheoccupationofTalienwanand，PortArthur。IvantheTerribleconqueredtheKhanatesofKazanand，Astrakhan(1552-54)andreducedtonominalsubjectiontheBashkir，andKirghiztribesinthevicinityoftheVolga，buthedidnot，therebyestablishlawandorderontheSteppe。Thelawlesstribes，retainedtheiroldpastoralmodeoflifeandpredatoryhabits，and，harassedtheRussianagriculturalpopulationoftheoutlying，provincesinthesamewayastheRedIndiansinAmericausedto，harassthewhitecolonistsoftheFarWest。Alargesectionofthe，Horde，inhabitingtheCrimeaandtheSteppetothenorthofthe，BlackSea，escapedannexationbysubmittingtotheOttomanTurks，andbecomingtributariesoftheSultan。

TheTurkswereatthattimeaformidablepower，withwhichthe，TsarsofMuscovyweretooweaktocopesuccessfully，andtheKhan，oftheCrimeacouldalways，whenhardpressedbyhisnorthern，neighbours，obtainassistancefromConstantinople。Thispotentate，exercisedanominalauthorityoverthepastoraltribeswhichroamed，ontheSteppebetweentheCrimeaandtheRussianfrontier，buthe，hadneitherthepowernorthedesiretocontroltheiraggressive，tendencies。TheirraidsinRussianandPolishterritoryensured，amongotheradvantages，aregularandplentifulsupplyofslaves，whichformedthechiefarticleofexportfromKaffa——themodern，Theodosia——andfromtheotherseaportsofthecoast。

Ofthisslavetrade，whichflourisheddownto1783，whentheCrimea，wasfinallyconqueredandannexedbyRussia，wehaveagraphic，accountbyaneye-witness，aLithuaniantravellerofthesixteenth，century。”ShipsfromAsia，“hesays，“bringarms，clothes，and，horsestotheCrimeanTartars，andstartonthehomewardvoyage，ladenwithslaves。Itisforthiskindofmerchandisealonethat，theCrimeanmarketsareremarkable。Slavesmaybealwayshadfor，saleasapledgeorasapresent，andeveryonerichenoughtohave，ahorsedealsinthem。Ifamanwishestobuyclothes，arms，or，horses，anddoesnothappentohaveatthemomentanyslaves，he，takesoncreditthearticlesrequired，andmakesaformalpromise，todeliveratacertaintimeacertainnumberofpeopleofour，blood——beingconvincedthathecangetbythattimetherequisite，number。Andthesepromisesarealwaysaccuratelyfulfilled，asif，thosewhomadethemhadalwaysasupplyofourpeopleintheir，courtyards。AJewishmoney-changer，sittingatthegateofTauris，andseeingconstantlythecountlessmultitudeofourcountrymenled，inascaptives，askeduswhethertherestillremainedanypeoplein，ourland，andwhencecamesuchamultitudeofthem。Thestronger，ofthesecaptives，brandedontheforeheadandcheeksandmanacled，orfettered，aretorturedbyseverelabourallday，andareshutup，indarkcellsatnight。Theyarekeptalivebysmallquantitiesof，food，composedchieflyofthefleshofanimalsthathavedied——

putrid，coveredwithmaggots，disgustingeventodogs。Women，who，aremoretender，aretreatedinadifferentfashion;someofthem，whocansingandplayareemployedtoamusetheguestsat，festivals。

“Whentheslavesareledoutforsaletheywalktothemarketplace，insinglefile，likestorksonthewing，inwholedozens，chained，togetherbytheneck，andaretheresoldbyauction。The，auctioneershoutsloudlythattheyare’thenewestarrivals，simple，andnotcunning，latelycapturedfromthepeopleofthe，kingdom(Poland)，andnotfromMuscovy’;fortheMuscoviterace，beingcraftyanddeceitful，doesnotbringagoodprice。Thiskind，ofmerchandiseisappraisedwithgreataccuracyintheCrimea，and，isboughtbyforeignmerchantsatahighprice，inordertobesold，atastillhigherratetoblackernations，suchasSaracens，Persians，Indians，Arabs，Syrians，andAssyrians。Whenapurchase，ismadetheteethareexamined，toseethattheyareneitherfew，nordiscoloured。Atthesametimethemorehiddenpartsofthe，bodyarecarefullyinspected，andifamole，excrescence，wound，or，otherlatentdefectisdiscovered，thebargainisrescinded。But，notwithstandingtheseinvestigationsthecunningslave-dealersand，brokerssucceedincheatingthebuyers;forwhentheyhavevaluable，boysandgirls，theydonotatonceproducethem，butfirstfatten，them，clothetheminsilk，andputpowderandrougeontheir，cheeks，soastosellthematabetterprice。Sometimesbeautiful，andperfectmaidensofournationbringtheirweightingold。This，takesplaceinallthetownsofthepeninsula，butespeciallyin，Kaffa。”*

*MichalonisLitvani，“DemoribusTartarorumFragmina，“X。，Basilliae，1615。

ToprotecttheagriculturalpopulationoftheSteppeagainstthe，raidsofthesethieving，cattle-lifting，kidnappingneighbours，the，TsarsofMuscovyandtheKingsofPolandbuiltforts，constructed，palisades，dugtrenches，andkeptuparegularmilitarycordon。

ThetroopscomposingthiscordonwerecalledCossacks;butthese，werenotthe“FreeCossacks“bestknowntohistoryandromance。

Theselatterlivedbeyondthefrontieronthedebatablelandwhich，laybetweenthetwohostileraces，andtheretheyformedself-

governingmilitarycommunities。Eachoneoftheriversflowing，southwards——theDnieper，theDon，theVolga，andtheYaikorUral——

washeldbyacommunityoftheseFreeCossacks，andnoone，whether，ChristianorTartar，wasallowedtopassthroughtheirterritory，withouttheirpermission。

OfficiallytheFreeCossackswereRussians，fortheyprofessedto，bechampionsofOrthodoxChristianity，and——withtheexceptionof，thoseoftheDnieper——loyalsubjectsoftheTsar;butinreality，theyweresomethingdifferent。ThoughtheywereRussianbyorigin，language，andsympathy，thehabitofkidnappingTartarwomen，introducedamongthemacertainadmixtureofTartarblood。Though，self-constitutedchampionsofChristianityandhatersofIslam，theytroubledthemselvesverylittlewithreligion，anddidnot，submittotheecclesiasticalauthorities。Astotheirreligious，status，itcannotbeeasilydefined。Whilstprofessingallegiance，anddevotiontotheTsar，theydidnotthinkitnecessarytoobey，him，exceptinsofarashisorderssuitedtheirownconvenience。

AndtheTsar，itmustbeconfessed，actedtowardstheminasimilar，fashion。Whenhefounditconvenienthecalledthemhisfaithful，subjects;andwhencomplaintsweremadetohimabouttheirraidsin，Turkishterritory，hedeclaredthattheywerenothissubjects，but，runawaysandbrigands，andthattheSultanmightpunishthemashe，sawfit。Atthesametime，theso-calledrunawaysandbrigands，regularlyreceivedsuppliesandammunitionfromMoscow，asisamply，provedbyrecently-publisheddocuments。Downtothemiddleofthe，seventeenthcenturytheCossacksoftheDnieperstoodinasimilar，relationtothePolishkings;butatthattimetheythrewofftheir，allegiancetoPoland，andbecamesubjectsoftheTsarsofMuscovy。