第6章

Intheirmindsreligionandnationalityaresocloselyalliedasto，bealmostidentical。TheRussianis，asitwere，bynaturea，Christian，andtheTartaraMahometan;anditneveroccurstoany，oneinthesevillagestodisturbtheappointedorderofnature。On，thissubjectIhadonceaninterestingconversationwithaRussian，peasantwhohadbeenforsometimelivingamongTartars。Inreply，tomyquestionastowhatkindofpeopletheTartarswere，he，repliedlaconically，“Nitchevo“——thatistosay，“nothingin，particular“;andonbeingpressedforamoredefiniteexpressionof，opinion，headmittedthattheywereverygoodpeopleindeed。

“Andwhatkindoffaithhavethey？”Icontinued。

“Agoodenoughfaith，“wasthepromptreply。

“IsitbetterthanthefaithoftheMolokanye？”TheMolokanyeare，Russiansectarians——closelyresemblingScotchPresbyterians——of，whomIshallhavemoretosayinthesequel。

“OfcourseitisbetterthantheMolokanfaith。”

“Indeed！”Iexclaimed，endeavouringtoconcealmyastonishmentat，thisstrangejudgment。”AretheMolokanye，then，verybadpeople？”

“Notatall。TheMolokanyearegoodandhonest。”

“Why，then，doyouthinktheirfaithissomuchworsethanthatof，theMahometans？”

“HowshallItellyou？”Thepeasantherepausedasiftocollect，histhoughts，andthenproceededslowly，“TheTartars，yousee，receivedtheirfaithfromGodastheyreceivedthecolouroftheir，skins，buttheMolokanyeareRussianswhohaveinventedafaithout，oftheirownheads！”

Thissingularanswerscarcelyrequiresacommentary。Asitwould，beabsurdtotrytomakeTartarschangethecolouroftheirskins，soitwouldbeabsurdtotrytomakethemchangetheirreligion。

Besidesthis，suchanattemptwouldbeanunjustifiable，interferencewiththedesignsofProvidence，for，inthepeasant’s，opinion，GodgaveMahometanismtotheTartarsjustashegavethe，OrthodoxfaithtotheRussians。

Theecclesiasticalauthoritiesdonotformallyadoptthisstrange，theory，buttheygenerallyactinaccordancewithit。Thereis，littleofficialpropagandaamongtheMahometansubjectsofthe，Tsar，anditiswellthatitisso，foranenergeticpropaganda，wouldleadmerelytothestirringupofanylatenthostilitywhich，mayexistdeepdowninthenatureofthetworaces，anditwould，notmakeanyrealconverts。TheTartarscannotunconsciously，imbibeChristianityastheFinnshavedone。Theirreligionisnot，arude，simplepaganismwithouttheologyinthescholasticsenseof，theterm，butamonotheismasexclusiveasChristianityitself。

Enterintoconversationwithanintelligentmanwhohasnohigher，religiousbeliefthanarudesortofpaganism，andyoumay，ifyou，knowhimwellandmakeajudicioususeofyourknowledge，easily，interesthiminthetouchingstoryofChrist’slifeandteaching。

Andintheseunsophisticatednaturesthereisbutonestepfrom，interestandsympathytoconversion。

TrythesamemethodwithaMussulman，andyouwillsoonfindthat，allyoureffortsarefruitless。Hehasalreadyatheologyanda，prophetofhisown，andseesnoreasonwhyheshouldexchangethem，forthosewhichyouhavetooffer。Perhapshewillshowyoumore，orlessopenlythathepitiesyourignoranceandwondersthatyou，havenotbeenabletoADVANCEfromChristianitytoMahometanism。

Inhisopinion——Iamsupposingthatheisamanofeducation——Moses，andChristweregreatprophetsintheirday，andconsequentlyheis，accustomedtorespecttheirmemory;butheisprofoundlyconvinced，thathoweverappropriatetheywerefortheirowntimes，theyhave，beenentirelysupersededbyMahomet，preciselyaswebelievethat，JudaismwassupersededbyChristianity。Proudofhissuperior，knowledge，heregardsyouasabenightedpolytheist，andmay，perhapstellyouthattheOrthodoxChristianswithwhomhecomesin，contacthavethreeGodsandahostoflesserdeitiescalledsaints，thattheypraytoidolscalledIcons，andthattheykeeptheirholy，daysbygettingdrunk。Invainyouendeavourtoexplaintohim，thatsaintsandIconsarenotessentialpartsofChristianity，and，thathabitsofintoxicationhavenoreligioussignificance。On，thesepointshemaymakeconcessionstoyou，butthedoctrineof，theTrinityremainsforhimafatalstumbling-block。”You，Christians，“hewillsay，“oncehadagreatprophetcalledJisous，whoismentionedwithrespectintheKoran，butyoufalsifiedyour，sacredwritingsandtooktoworshippinghim，andnowyoudeclare，thatheistheequalofAllah。Farfromusbesuchblasphemy！

ThereisbutoneGod，andMahometisHisprophet。”

AworthyChristianmissionary，whohadlabouredlongandzealously，amongaMussulmanpopulation，oncecalledmesharplytoaccountfor，havingexpressedtheopinionthatMahometansareveryrarely，convertedtoChristianity。WhenIbroughthimdownfromtheregion，ofvaguegeneralstatementsandinsistedonknowinghowmanycases，hehadmetwithinhisownpersonalexperienceduringsixteenyears，ofmissionarywork，hewasconstrainedtoadmitthathehadknow，onlyone：andwhenIpressedhimfartherastothedisinterested，sincerityoftheconvertinquestionhisreplywasnotaltogether，satisfactory。

Thepolicyofreligiousnon-interventionhasnotalwaysbeen，practisedbytheGovernment。Soonaftertheconquestofthe，KhanateofKazaninthesixteenthcentury，theTsarsofMuscovy，attemptedtoconverttheirnewsubjectsfromMahometanismto，Christianity。Themeansemployedwerepartlyspiritualandpartly，administrative，butthepolice-officersseemtohaveplayedamore，importantpartthantheclergy。Inthiswayacertainnumberof，Tartarswerebaptised;buttheauthoritieswereobligedtoadmit，thatthenewconverts“shamelesslyretainmanyhorridTartar，customs，andneitherholdnorknowtheChristianfaith。”，When，spiritualexhortationsfailed，theGovernmentordereditsofficials，to“pacify，imprison，putinirons，andtherebyUNTEACHand，frightenfromtheTartarfaiththosewho，thoughbaptised，donot，obeytheadmonitionsoftheMetropolitan。”，Theseenergetic，measuresprovedasineffectualasthespiritualexhortations;and，CatherineII。adoptedanewmethod，highlycharacteristicofher，systemofadministration。Thenewconverts——who，beitremembered，wereunabletoreadandwrite——wereorderedbyImperialukazto，signawrittenpromisetotheeffectthat“theywouldcompletely，forsaketheirinfidelerrors，and，avoidingallintercoursewith，unbelievers，wouldholdfirmlyandunwaveringlytheChristianfaith，anditsdogmas“*——ofwhichlatter，wemayadd，theyhadnotthe，slightestknowledge。Thechildlikefaithinthemagicalefficacy，ofstampedpaperheredisplayedwasnotjustified。Theso-called，“baptisedTartars“areatthepresenttimeasfarfrombeing，Christiansastheywereinthesixteenthcentury。Theycannot，openlyprofessMahometanism，becausemenwhohavebeenonce，formallyadmittedintotheNationalChurchcannotleaveitwithout，exposingthemselvestotheseverepainsandpenaltiesofthe，criminalcode，buttheystronglyobjecttobeChristianised。

*“UkazKazanskoidukhovnoiKonsistorii。”，Anno1778。

OnthissubjectIhavefoundaremarkableadmissionina，semiofficialarticle，publishedasrecentlyas1872。*，“Itisa，factworthyofattention，“saysthewriter，“thatalongseriesof，evidentapostasiescoincideswiththebeginningofmeasuresto，confirmtheconvertsintheChristianfaith。Theremustbe，therefore，somecollateralcauseproducingthosecasesofapostasy，preciselyatthemomentwhenthecontrarymightbeexpected。”

Thereisadelightfulnaiveteinthiswayofstatingthefact。The，mysteriouscausevaguelyindicatedisnotdifficulttofind。So，longastheGovernmentdemandedmerelythatthesupposedconverts，shouldbeinscribedasChristiansintheofficialregisters，there，wasnoofficialapostasy;butassoonasactivemeasuresbeganto，betaken“toconfirmtheconverts，“aspiritofhostilityand，fanaticismappearedamongtheMussulmanpopulation，andmadethose，whowereinscribedasChristiansresistthepropaganda。

*“ZhurnalMinisterstvaNarodnagoProsveshtcheniya。”，June，1872。

ItmaysafelybesaidthatChristiansareimpervioustoIslam，and，genuineMussulmansimpervioustoChristianity;butbetweenthetwo，therearecertaintribes，orfractionsoftribes，whichpresenta，promisingfieldformissionaryenterprise。Inthisfieldthe，TartarsshowmuchmorezealthantheRussians，andpossesscertain，advantagesovertheirrivals。ThetribesofNortheasternRussia，learnTartarmuchmoreeasilythanRussian，andtheirgeographical，positionandmodesoflifebringthemincontactwithRussiansmuch，lessthanwithTartars。Theconsequenceisthatwholevillagesof，TcheremissandVotiaks，officiallyinscribedasbelongingtothe，GreekOrthodoxChurch，haveopenlydeclaredthemselvesMahometans;

andsomeofthemoreremarkableconversionshavebeencommemorated，bypopularsongs，whicharesungbyyoungandold。Againstthis，propagandatheOrthodoxecclesiasticalauthoritiesdolittleor，nothing。Thoughthecriminalcodecontainssevereenactments，againstthosewhofallawayfromtheOrthodoxChurch，andstill，moreagainstthosewhoproduceapostasy，*theenactmentsarerarely，putinforce。BothclergyandlaityintheRussianChurchare，as，arule，verytolerantwherenopoliticalquestionsareinvolved。

Theparishpriestpaysattentiontoapostasyonlywhenit，diminisheshisannualrevenues，andthiscanbeeasilyavoidedby，theapostate’spayingasmallyearlysum。Ifthisprecautionbe，taken，wholevillagesmaybeconvertedtoIslamwithoutthehigher，ecclesiasticalauthoritiesknowinganythingofthematter。

*ApersonconvictedofconvertingaChristiantoIslamismis，sentenced，accordingtothecriminalcode(？84)，tothelossof，allcivilrights，andtoimprisonmentwithhardlabourforaterm，varyingfromeighttotenyears。

WhetherthebarrierthatseparatesChristiansandMussulmansin，Russia，aselsewhere，willeverbebrokendownbyeducation，Ido，notknow;butImayremarkthathithertothespreadofeducation，amongtheTartarshastendedrathertoimbuethemwithfanaticism。

Ifwerememberthattheologicaleducationalwaysproduces，intolerance，andthatTartareducationisalmostexclusively，theological，weshallnotbesurprisedtofindthataTartar’s，religiousfanaticismisgenerallyindirectproportiontothe，amountofhisintellectualculture。TheunletteredTartar，unspoiledbylearningfalselysocalled，andknowingmerelyenough，ofhisreligiontoperformthecustomaryordinancesprescribedby，theProphet，ispeaceable，kindly，andhospitabletowardsallmen;

butthelearnedTartar，whohasbeentaughtthattheChristianisa，kiafir(infidel)andamushrik(polytheist)，odiousinthesightof，Allah，andalreadycondemnedtoeternalpunishment，isas，intolerantandfanaticalasthemostbigotedRomanCatholicor，Calvinist。Suchfanaticsareoccasionallytobemetwithinthe，easternprovinces，buttheyarefewinnumber，andhavelittle，influenceonthemasses。FrommyownexperienceIcantestifythat，duringthewholecourseofmywanderingsIhavenowherereceived，morekindnessandhospitalitythanamongtheuneducatedMussulman，Bashkirs。Evenhere，however，Islamopposesastrongbarrierto，Russification。

ThoughnosuchbarrierexistedamongthepaganFinnishtribes，the，workofRussificationamongthemisstill，asIhavealready，indicated，farfromcomplete。Notonlywholevillages，buteven，manyentiredistricts，arestillverylittleaffectedbyRussian，influence。Thisistobeexplainedpartlybygeographical，conditions。Inregionswhichhaveapoorsoil，andareintersected，bynonavigableriver，therearefewornoRussiansettlers，and，consequentlytheFinnshavetherepreservedintacttheirlanguage，andcustoms;whilstinthosedistrictswhichpresentmore，inducementstocolonisation，theRussianpopulationismore，numerous，andtheFinnslessconservative。Itmust，however，be，admittedthatgeographicalconditionsdonotcompletelyexplainthe，facts。Thevarioustribes，evenwhenplacedinthesame，conditions，arenotequallysusceptibletoforeigninfluence。The，Mordva，forinstance，areinfinitelylessconservativethanthe，Tchuvash。ThisIhaveoftennoticed，andmyimpressionhasbeen，confirmedbymenwhohavehadmoreopportunitiesofobservation。

Forthepresentwemustattributethistosomeoccultethnological，peculiarity，butfutureinvestigationsmaysomedaysupplyamore，satisfactoryexplanation。AlreadyIhaveobtainedsomefactswhich，appeartothrowlightonthesubject。TheTchuvashhavecertain，customswhichseemtoindicatethattheywereformerly，ifnot，avowedMahometans，atleastundertheinfluenceofIslam，whilstwe，havenoreasontosupposethattheMordvaeverpassedthroughthat，school。

TheabsenceofreligiousfanaticismgreatlyfacilitatedRussian，colonisationinthesenorthernregions，andtheessentially，peacefuldispositionoftheRussianpeasantrytendedinthesame，direction。TheRussianpeasantisadmirablyfittedfortheworkof，peacefulagriculturalcolonisation。Amonguncivilisedtribesheis，good-natured，long-suffering，conciliatory，capableofbearing，extremehardships，andendowedwithamarvellouspowerofadapting，himselftocircumstances。Thehaughtyconsciousnessofpersonal，andnationalsuperiorityhabituallydisplayedbyEnglishmenofall，rankswhentheyarebroughtincontactwithraceswhichtheylook，uponaslowerinthescaleofhumanitythanthemselves，isentirely，foreigntohischaracter。Hehasnodesiretorule，andnowishto，makethenativeshewersofwoodanddrawersofwater。Allhe，desiresisafewacresoflandwhichheandhisfamilycan，cultivate;andsolongasheisallowedtoenjoytheseheisnot，likelytomolesthisneighbours。HadthecolonistsoftheFinnish，countrybeenmenofAnglo-Saxonrace，theywouldinallprobability，havetakenpossessionofthelandandreducedthenativestothe，conditionofagriculturallabourers。TheRussiancolonistshave，contentedthemselveswithahumblerandlessaggressivemodeof，action;theyhavesettledpeaceablyamongthenativepopulation，andarerapidlybecomingblendedwithit。Inmanydistrictsthe，so-calledRussianshaveperhapsmoreFinnishthanSlavonicbloodin，theirveins。

Butwhathasallthistodo，itmaybeasked，withthe，aforementionedVolkerwanderung，ormigrationofpeoples，duringthe，DarkAges？，Morethanmayatfirstsightappear。Someoftheso-

calledmigrationswere，Isuspect，notatallmigrationsinthe，ordinarysenseoftheterm，butrathergradualchanges，suchas，thosewhichhavetakenplace，andarestilltakingplace，in，NorthernRussia。Athousandyearsagowhatisnowknownasthe，provinceofYaroslavlwasinhabitedbyFinns，andnowitis，occupiedbymenwhoarecommonlyregardedaspureSlays。Butit，wouldbeanuttermistaketosupposethattheFinnsofthis，districtmigratedtothosemoredistantregionswheretheyarenow，tobefound。Inrealitytheyformerlyoccupied，asIhavesaid，thewholeofNorthernRussia，andintheprovinceofYaroslavlthey，havebeentransformedbySlavinfiltration。InCentralEuropethe，Slavsmaybesaidinacertainsensetohaveretreated，forin，formertimestheyoccupiedthewholeofNorthernGermanyasfaras，theElbe。Butwhatdoestheword“retreat“meaninthiscase？，It，meansprobablythattheSlaysweregraduallyTeutonised，andthen，absorbedbytheTeutonicrace。Sometribes，itistrue，sweptover，apartofEuropeingenuinenomadicfashion，andendeavoured，perhapstoexpelorexterminatetheactualpossessorsofthesoil。

ThiskindofmigrationmaylikewisebestudiedinRussia。ButI

mustleavethesubjecttillIcometospeakofthesouthern，provinces。

CHAPTERXI

LORDNOVGORODTHEGREAT

DeparturefromIvanofkaandArrivalatNovgorod——TheEasternHalf，oftheTown——TheKremlin——AnOldLegend——TheArmedMenofRus——The，Northmen——PopularLibertyinNovgorod——ThePrinceandthePopular，Assembly——CivilDissensionsandFaction-fights——TheCommercial，RepublicConqueredbytheMuscoviteTsars——IvantheTerrible——

PresentConditionoftheTown——ProvincialSociety——Card-playing——

Periodicals——“EternalStillness。”

CountrylifeinRussiaispleasantenoughinsummerorinwinter，butbetweensummerandwinterthereisanintermediateperiodof，severalweekswhentherainandmudtransformacountry-houseinto，somethingverylikeaprison。ToescapethisdurancevileI

determinedinthemonthofOctobertoleaveIvanofka，andchoseas，myheadquartersforthenextfewmonthsthetownofNovgorod——the，oldtownofthatname，nottobeconfoundedwithNizhniNovgorod——

i。e。LowerNovgorod，ontheVolga——wherethegreatannualfairis，held。

Forthischoicetherewereseveralreasons。Ididnotwishtogo，toSt。PetersburgorMoscow，becauseIforesawthatineitherof，thosecitiesmystudieswouldcertainlybeinterrupted。Ina，quiet，sleepyprovincialtownIshouldhavemuchmorechanceof，comingincontactwithpeoplewhocouldnotspeakfluentlyany，West-Europeanlanguages，andmuchbetteropportunitiesforstudying，nativelifeandlocaladministration。Oftheprovincialcapitals，Novgorodwasthenearest，andmoreinterestingthanmostofits，rivals;forithashadacurioushistory，mucholderthanthatof，St。PetersburgorevenofMoscow，andsometracesofitsformer，greatnessarestillvisible。Thoughnowatownofthird-rate，importance——amereshadowofitsformerself——itstillcontains，about21，000inhabitants，andistheadministrativecentreofthe，largeprovinceinwhichitissituated。

AbouteightymilesbeforereachingSt。PetersburgtheMoscow，railwaycrossestheVolkhof，arapid，muddyriverwhichconnects，LakeIlmenwithLakeLadoga。AtthepointofintersectionIgoton，boardasmallsteamerandsailedupstreamtowardsLakeIlmenfor，aboutfiftymiles。*，Thejourneywastedious，forthecountrywas，flatandmonotonous，andthesteamer，thoughitpuffedandsnorted，inordinately，didnotmakemorethannineknots。Towardssunset，Novgorodappearedonthehorizon。Seenthusatadistanceinthe，softtwilight，itseemeddecidedlypicturesque。Ontheeastbank，laythegreaterpartofthetown，theskylineofwhichwas，agreeablybrokenbythegreenroofsandpear-shapedcupolasofmany，churches。OntheoppositebankrosetheKremlin。Spanningthe，riverwasalong，venerablestonebridge，halfhiddenbya，temporarywoodenone，whichwasdoingdutyfortheolderstructure，whilethelatterwasbeingrepaired。Acynicalfellow-passenger，assuredmethatthetemporarystructurewasdestinedtobecome，permanent，becauseityieldedacomfortablerevenuetocertain，officials，butthissinisterpredictionhasnotbeenverified。

*Thejourneywouldnowbemadebyrail，butthebranchlinewhich，runsnearthebankoftheriverhadnotbeenconstructedatthat，time。

ThatpartofNovgorodwhichliesontheeasternbankoftheriver，andinwhichItookupmyabodeforseveralmonths，contains，nothingthatisworthyofspecialmention。Asisthecaseinmost，Russiantowns，thestreetsarestraight，wide，andill-paved，and，allrunparalleloratrightanglestoeachother。Attheendof，thebridgeisaspaciousmarket-place，flankedononesidebythe，Town-house。NeartheothersidestandthehousesoftheGovernor，andofthechiefmilitaryauthorityofthedistrict。Theonly，otherbuildingsofnotearethenumerouschurches，whicharemostly，small，andoffernothingthatislikelytointerestthestudentof，architecture。Altogetherthispartofthetownisunquestionably，commonplace。Thelearnedarchaeologistmaydetectinitsome，tracesofthedistantpast，buttheordinarytravellerwillfind，littletoarresthisattention。

Ifnowwecrossovertotheothersideoftheriver，weareatonce，confrontedbysomethingwhichveryfewRussiantownspossess——a，kremlin，orcitadel。Thisisalargeandslightly-elevated，enclosure，surroundedbyhighbrickwalls，andinpartbythe，remainsofamoat。Beforethedaysofheavyartillerythesewalls，musthavepresentedaformidablebarriertoanybesiegingforce，buttheyhavelongceasedtohaveanymilitarysignificance，and，arenownothingmorethananhistoricalmonument。Passingthrough，thegatewaywhichfacesthebridge，wefindourselvesinalarge，openspace。Totherightstandsthecathedral——asmall，much-

veneratedchurch，whichcanmakenopretensionstoarchitectural，beauty——andanirregulargroupofbuildingscontainingthe，consistoryandtheresidenceoftheArchbishop。Totheleftisa，longsymmetricalrangeofbuildingscontainingtheGovernment，officesandthelawcourts。Midwaybetweenthisandthecathedral，inthecentreofthegreatopenspace，standsacolossalmonument，composedofamassivecircularstonepedestalandanenormous，globe，onandaroundwhichclusteranumberofemblematicand，historicalfigures。Thiscuriousmonument，whichhasatleastthe，meritofbeingoriginalindesign，waserectedin1862，in，commemorationofRussia’sthousandthbirthday，andissupposedto，representthehistoryofRussiaingeneralandofNovgorodin，particularduringthelastthousandyears。Itwasplacedhere，becauseNovgorodistheoldestofRussiantowns，andbecause，somewhereinthesurroundingcountryoccurredtheincidentwhichis，commonlyrecognisedasthefoundationoftheRussianEmpire。The，incidentinquestionisthusdescribedintheoldestchronicle：

“Atthattime，asthesouthernSlavonianspaidtributetothe，Kozars，sotheNovgorodianSlavonianssufferedfromtheattacksof，theVariags。ForsometimetheVariagsexactedtributefromthe，NovgorodianSlavoniansandtheneighbouringFinns;thenthe，conqueredtribes，byunitingtheirforces，droveoutthe，foreigners。ButamongtheSlavoniansarosestronginternal，dissensions;theclansroseagainsteachother。Then，forthe，creationoforderandsafety，theyresolvedtocallinprincesfrom，aforeignland。Intheyear862Slavoniclegateswentawaybeyond，theseatotheVariagtribecalledRus，andsaid，’Ourlandis，greatandfruitful，butthereisnoorderinit;comeandreignand，ruleoverus。’，Threebrothersacceptedtheinvitation，and，appearedwiththeirarmedfollowers。Theeldestofthese，Rurik，settledinNovgorod;thesecond，Sineus，atByelo-ozero;andthe，third，Truvor，inIsborsk。FromthemourlandiscalledRus。

AftertwoyearsthebrothersofRurikdied。Healonebegantorule，overtheNovgoroddistrict，andconfidedtohismenthe，administrationoftheprincipaltowns。”

Thissimplelegendhasgivenrisetoavastamountoflearned，controversy，andhistoricalinvestigatorshavefoughtvaliantly，witheachotherovertheimportantquestion，Whowerethosearmed，menofRus？，Foralongtimethecommonlyreceivedopinionwasthat，theywereNormansfromScandinavia。TheSlavophilsacceptedthe，legendliterallyinthissense，andconstructeduponitan，ingenioustheoryofRussianhistory。ThenationsoftheWest，they，said，wereconqueredbyinvaders，whoseizedthecountryand，createdthefeudalsystemfortheirownbenefit;hencethehistory，ofWesternEuropeisalongtaleofbloodystrugglesbetween，conquerorsandconquered，andatthepresentdaytheoldenmity，stilllivesinthepoliticalrivalryofthedifferentsocial，classes。TheRusso-Slavonians，onthecontrary，werenot，conquered，butvoluntarilyinvitedaforeignprincetocomeand，ruleoverthem！，Hencethewholesocialandpoliticaldevelopment，ofRussiahasbeenessentiallypeaceful，andtheRussianpeople，knownothingofsocialcastesorfeudalism。Thoughthistheory，affordedsomenourishmentforpatrioticself-satisfaction，it，displeasedextremepatriots，whodidnotliketheideathatorder，wasfirstestablishedintheircountrybymenofTeutonicrace。

ThesepreferredtoadoptthetheorythatRurikandhiscompanions，wereSlavoniansfromtheshoresoftheBaltic。

ThoughIdevotedtothestudyofthisquestionmoretimeandlabour，thanperhapsthesubjectdeserved，Ihavenointentionofinviting，thereadertofollowmethroughthetediouscontroversy。Suffice，ittosaythat，aftercarefulconsideration，andwithalldue，deferencetorecenthistorians，Iaminclinedtoadopttheold，theory，andtoregardtheNormansofScandinaviaasinacertain，sensethefoundersoftheRussianEmpire。Weknowfromother，sourcesthatduringtheninthcenturytherewasagreatexodusfrom，Scandinavia。Greedyofbooty，andfiredwiththespiritof，adventure，theNorthmen，intheirlight，openboats，sweptalong，thecoastsofGermany，France，Spain，Greece，andAsiaMinor，pillagingthetownsandvillagesnearthesea，andenteringinto，theheartofthecountrybymeansoftherivers。Atfirstthey，weremeremarauders，andshowedeverywheresuchferocityand，crueltythattheycametoberegardedassomethingakintoplagues，andfamines，andthefaithfuladdedanewpetitiontotheLitany，“FromthewrathandmaliceoftheNormans，OLord，deliverus！”

Buttowardsthemiddleofthecenturythemovementchangedits，character。Theraidsbecamemilitaryinvasions，andtheinvaders，soughttoconquerthelandswhichtheyhadformerlyplundered，“ut，acquirantsibispoliandoregnaquibuspossentviverepace，perpetua。”，ThechiefsembracedChristianity，marriedthedaughters，orsistersofthereigningprinces，andobtainedtheconquered，territoriesasfeudalgrants。ThusaroseNormanprincipalitiesin，theLowCountries，inFrance，inItaly，andinSicily;andthe，Northmen，rapidlyblendingwiththenativepopulation，soonshowed，asmuchpoliticaltalentastheyhadformerlyshownrecklessand，destructivevalour。

Itwouldhavebeenstrangeindeediftheseadventurers，who，succeededinreachingAsiaMinorandthecoastsofNorthAmerica，shouldhaveoverlookedRussia，whichlay，asitwere，attheirvery，doors。TheVolkhof，flowingthroughNovgorod，formedpartofa，greatwaterwaywhichaffordedalmostuninterruptedwater-

communicationbetweentheBalticandtheBlackSea;andweknow，thatsometimeafterwardstheScandinaviansusedthisroutein，theirjourneystoConstantinople。Thechangewhichthe，Scandinavianmovementunderwentelsewhereisclearlyindicatedby，theRussianchronicles：first，theVariagscameascollectorsof，tribute，andraisedsomuchpopularoppositionthattheywere，expelled，andthentheycameasrulers，andsettledinthecountry。

Whethertheyreallycameoninvitationmaybedoubted，butthat，theyadoptedthelanguage，religion，andcustomsofthenative，populationdoesnotmilitateagainsttheassertionthattheywere，Normans。Onthecontrary，wehavehereratheranadditional，confirmation，forelsewheretheNormansdidlikewise。IntheNorth，ofFrancetheyadoptedalmostatoncetheFrenchlanguageand，religion，andthesonandsuccessorofthefamousRollowas，sometimesreproachedwithbeingmoreFrenchthanNorman。*

*Strinnholm，“DieVikingerzuge“(Hamburg，1839)，I。p。135。

Thoughitisdifficulttodecidehowfarthelegendisliterally，true，therecanbenopossibledoubtthattheeventwhichitmore，orlessaccuratelydescribeshadanimportantinfluenceonRussian，history。FromthattimedatestherapidexpansionoftheRusso-

Slavonians——amovementthatisstillgoingonatthepresentday。

Tothenorth，theeast，andthesouthnewprincipalitieswere，formedandgovernedbymenwhoallclaimedtobedescendantsof，Rurik，anddowntotheendofthesixteenthcenturynoRussian，outsideofthisgreatfamilyeverattemptedtoestablish，independentsovereignty。

Forsixcenturiesaftertheso-calledinvitationofRurikthecity，ontheVolkhofhadastrange，checkeredhistory。Rapidlyit，conqueredtheneighbouringFinnishtribes，andgrewintoapowerful，independentstate，withaterritoryextendingtotheGulfof，Finland，andnorthwardstotheWhiteSea。Atthesametimeits，commercialimportanceincreased，anditbecameanoutpostofthe，HanseaticLeague。InthisworkthedescendantsofRurikplayedan，importantpart，buttheywerealwayskeptinstrictsubordination，tothepopularwill。Politicalfreedomkeptpacewithcommercial，prosperity。WhatmeansRurikemployedforestablishingand，preservingorderweknownot，butthechroniclesshowthathis，successorsinNovgorodpossessedmerelysuchauthorityaswas，freelygrantedthembythepeople。Thesupremepowerresided，not，intheprince，butintheassemblyofthecitizenscalledtogether，inthemarket-placebythesoundofthegreatbell。Thisassembly，madelawsfortheprinceaswellasforthepeople，enteredinto，allianceswithforeignpowers，declaredwar，andconcludedpeace，imposedtaxes，raisedtroops，andnotonlyelectedthemagistrates，butalsojudgedanddeposedthemwhenitthoughtfit。Theprince，waslittlemorethanthehiredcommanderofthetroopsandthe，presidentofthejudicialadministration。Whenenteringonhis，functionshehadtotakeasolemnoaththathewouldfaithfully，observetheancientlawsandusages，andifhefailedtofulfilhis，promisehewassuretobesummarilydeposedandexpelled。The，peoplehadanoldrhymedproverb，“Kolikhudknyaz，takvgryaz！”

“Iftheprinceisbad，intothemudwithhim！”)，andthey，habituallyactedaccordingtoit。Sounpleasant，indeed，wasthe，taskofrulingthosesturdy，stiff-neckedburghers，thatsome，princesrefusedtoundertakeit，andothers，havingtrieditfora，time，voluntarilylaiddowntheirauthorityanddeparted。But，thesefrequentdepositionsandabdications——asmanyasthirtytook，placeinthecourseofasinglecentury——didnotpermanently，disturbtheexistingorderofthings。ThedescendantsofRurik，werenumerous，andtherewerealwaysplentyofcandidatesforthe，vacantpost。Themunicipalrepubliccontinuedtogrowinstrength，andinriches，andduringthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies，itproudlystyleditself“LordNovgorodtheGreat“(Gospodin，VelilkiNovgorod)。

“Thencameachange，asallthingshumanchange。”，Totheeast，arosetheprincipalityofMoscow——notanold，richmunicipal，republic，butayoung，vigorousState，ruledbyalineofcrafty，energetic，ambitious，andunscrupulousprincesoftheRurikstock，whowerefreeingthecountryfromtheTartaryokeandgradually，annexingbyfairmeansandfoultheneighbouringprincipalitiesto，theirowndominions。Atthesametime，andinasimilarmanner，theLithuanianPrincestothewestwardunitedvarioussmall，principalitiesandformedalargeindependentState。ThusNovgorod，founditselfinacriticalposition。UnderastrongGovernmentit，mighthavehelditsownagainsttheserivalsandsuccessfully，maintaineditsindependence，butitsstrengthwasalready，underminedbyinternaldissensions。Politicallibertyhadledto，anarchy。Againandagainonthatgreatopenspacewherethe，nationalmonumentnowstands，andinthemarket-placeontheother，sideoftheriver，scenesofdisorderandbloodshedtookplace，and，morethanonceonthebridgebattleswerefoughtbycontending，factions。Sometimesitwasacontestbetweenrivalfamilies，and，sometimesastrugglebetweenthemunicipalaristocracy，whosought，tomonopolisethepoliticalpower，andthecommonpeople，who，wishedtohavealargeshareintheadministration。AStatethus，dividedagainstitselfcouldnotlongresisttheaggressive，tendenciesofpowerfulneighbours。Artfuldiplomacycouldbut，postponetheevilday，anditrequirednogreatpoliticalforesight，topredictthatsoonerorlaterNovgorodmustbecomeLithuanianor，Muscovite。ThegreatfamiliesinclinedtoLithuania，butthe，popularpartyandtheclergy，dislikingRomanCatholicism，looked，toMoscowforassistance，andtheGrandPrincesofMuscovy，ultimatelywontheprize。

ThebarbarouswayinwhichtheGrandPrinceseffectedthe，annexationshowshowthoroughlytheyhadimbibedthespiritof，Tartarstatesmanship。Thousandsoffamiliesweretransportedto，Moscow，andMuscovitefamiliesputintheirplaces;andwhen，in，spiteofthis，theoldspiritrevived，IvantheTerribledetermined，toapplythemethodofphysicalexterminationwhichhehadfoundso，effectualinbreakingthepowerofhisownnobles。Advancingwith，alargearmy，whichmetwithnoresistance，hedevastatedthe，countrywithfireandsword，andduringaresidenceoffiveweeks，inthetownheputtheinhabitantstodeathwitharuthless，ferocitywhichhasperhapsneverbeensurpassedevenbyOriental，despots。Ifthoseoldwallscouldspeaktheywouldhavemanya，horribletaletotell。Enoughhasbeenpreservedinthechronicles，togiveussomeideaofthisawfultime。Monksandpriestswere，subjectedtotheTartarpunishmentcalledpravezh，whichconsisted，intyingthevictimtoastake，andflogginghimdailyuntila，certainsumofmoneywaspaidforhisrelease。Themerchantsand，officialsweretorturedwithfire，andthenthrownfromthebridge，withtheirwivesandchildrenintotheriver。Lestanyofthem，shouldescapebyswimming，boatfulsofsoldiersdespatchedthose，whowerenotkilledbythefall。Atthepresentdaythereisa，curiousbubblingimmediatelybelowthebridge，whichpreventsthe，waterfromfreezinginwinter，andaccordingtopopularbeliefthis，iscausedbythespiritsoftheterribleTsar’svictims。Ofthose，whoweremurderedinthevillagesthereisnorecord，butinthe，townalonenolessthan60，000humanbeingsaresaidtohavebeen，butchered——anawfulhecatombonthealtarofnationalunityand，autocraticpower！

Thistragicscene，whichoccurredin1570，closesthehistoryof，NovgorodasanindependentState。Itsrealindependencehadlong，sinceceasedtoexist，andnowthelastsparkoftheoldspiritwas，extinguished。TheTsarscouldnotsufferevenashadowof，politicalindependencetoexistwithintheirdominions。

Intheolddays，whenmanyHanseaticmerchantsannuallyvisitedthe，city，andwhenthemarket-place，thebridge，andtheKremlinwere，oftenthesceneofviolentpoliticalstruggles，Novgorodmusthave，beenaninterestingplacetolivein;butnowitsgloryhas，departed，andinrespectofsocialresourcesitisnotevena，first-rateprovincialtown。Kief，Kharkof，andothertownswhich，aresituatedatagreaterdistancefromthecapital，indistricts，fertileenoughtoinducethenoblestofarmtheirownland，arein，theirwaylittlesemi-independentcentresofcivilisation。They，containatheatre，alibrary，twoorthreeclubs，andlargehouses，belongingtorichlandedproprietors，whospendthesummerontheir，estatesandcomeintotownforthewintermonths。These，proprietors，togetherwiththeresidentofficials，formanumerous，society，andduringthewinter，dinner-parties，balls，andother，socialgatheringsarebynomeansinfrequent。InNovgorodthe，societyismuchmorelimited。Itdoesnot，likeKief，Kharkof，and，Kazan，possessauniversity，anditcontainsnohousesbelongingto，wealthynobles。Thefewproprietorsoftheprovincewholiveon，theirestates，andarerichenoughtospendpartoftheyearin，town，preferSt。Petersburgfortheirwinterresidence。The，society，therefore，iscomposedexclusivelyoftheofficialsandof，theofficerswhohappentobequarteredinthetownorthe，immediatevicinity。

OfallthepeoplewhoseacquaintanceImadeatNovgorod，Ican，recallonlytwomenwhodidnotoccupysomeofficialposition，civilormilitary。Oneofthesewasaretireddoctor，whowas，attemptingtofarmonscientificprinciples，andwho，Ibelieve，soonafterwardsgaveuptheattemptandmigratedelsewhere。The，otherwasaPolishbishopwhohadbeencompromisedinthe，insurrectionof1863，andwascondemnedtolivehereunderpolice，supervision。Thislattercouldscarcelybesaidtobelongtothe，societyoftheplace;thoughhesometimesappearedatthe，unceremoniousweeklyreceptionsgivenbytheGovernor，andwas，invariablytreatedbyallpresentwithmarkedrespect，hecouldnot，butfeelthathewasinafalseposition，andhewasrarelyor，neverseeninotherhouses。

TheofficialcircleofatownlikeNovgorodissuretocontaina，goodmanypeopleofaverageeducationandagreeablemanners，butit，issuretobeneitherbrilliantnorinteresting。Thoughitis，constantlyundergoingagradualrenovationbythereceivedsystem，offrequentlytransferringofficialsfromonetowntoanother，it，preservesfaithfully，inspiteofthenewbloodwhichitthus，receives，itsessentiallylanguidcharacter。Whenanewofficial，arrivesheexchangesvisitswithallthenotables，andforafew，daysheproducesquiteasensationinthelittlecommunity。Ifhe，appearsatsocialgatheringsheismuchtalkedto，andifhedoes，notappearheismuchtalkedabout。Hisformerhistoryis，repeatedlynarrated，andhisvariousmeritsanddefectsassiduously，discussed。

Ifheismarried，andhasbroughthiswifewithhim，thefieldof，commentanddiscussionisverymuchenlarged。Thefirsttimethat，Madameappearsinsocietysheisthe“cynosureofneighbouring，eyes。”，Herfeatures，hercomplexion，herhair，herdress，andher，jewelleryarecarefullynotedandcriticised。Perhapsshehas，broughtwithher，fromthecapitalorfromabroad，somedressesof，thenewestfashion。Assoonasthisisdiscoveredsheatonce，becomesanobjectofspecialcuriositytotheladies，andof，enviousjealousytothosewhoregardasapersonalgrievancethe，presenceofatoilettefinerormorefashionablethantheirown。

Herdemeanour，too，isverycarefullyobserved。Ifsheisfriendly，andaffableinmanner，sheispatronised;ifsheisdistantand，reserved，sheiscondemnedasproudandpretentious。Ineither，casesheisprettysuretoformacloseintimacywithsomeoneof，theolderfemaleresidents，andforafewweeksthetwoladiesare，inseparable，tillsomeincautiouswordoractdisturbsthenew-born，friendship，andthedevotedfriendsbecomebitterenemies。

Voluntarilyorinvoluntarilythehusbandsgetmixedupinthe，quarrel。Highlyundesirablequalitiesarediscoveredinthe，charactersofallpartiesconcerned，andaremadethesubjectof，unfriendlycomment。Thenthefeudsubsides，andsomenewfeudofa，similarkindcomestooccupythepublicattention。Mrs。A。wonders，howherfriendsMr。andMrs。B。canaffordtoloseconsiderable，sumseveryeveningatcards，andsuspectsthattheyaregetting，intodebtorstarvingthemselvesandtheirchildren;inherhumble，opiniontheywoulddowelltogivefewersupper-parties，andto，refrainfrompoisoningtheirguests。Thebosomfriendtowhomthis，isrelatedretailsitdirectlyorindirectlytoMrs。B。andMrs。

B。naturallyretaliates。Hereisanewquarrel，whichforsome，timeaffordsmaterialforconversation。

Whenthereisnoquarrel，thereissuretobeabitofscandal，afloat。ThoughRussianprovincialsocietyisnotatallprudish，andleansrathertothesideofextremeleniency，itcannot，entirelyoverlooklesconvenances。MadameC。hasalwaysalarge，numberofmaleadmirers，andtothistherecanbenoreasonable，objectionsolongasherhusbanddoesnotcomplain，butshereally，paradesherpreferenceforMr。X。atballsandpartiesalittletoo，conspicuously。ThenthereisMadameD。withthebigdreamyeyes。

Howcansheremainintheplaceafterherhusbandwaskilledina，duelbyabrotherofficer？，Ostensiblythecauseofthequarrelwas，atriflingincidentatthecard-table，buteveryoneknowsthatin，realityshewasthecauseofthedeadlyencounter。Andsoon，and，soon。Intheabsenceofgraverinterestssocietynaturally，bestowsinordinateattentionontheprivateaffairsofitsmembers;

andquarrelling，backbiting，andscandal-mongeryhelpindolent，peopletokillthetimethathangsheavilyontheirhands。

Potentastheseinstrumentsare，theyarenotsufficienttokill，alltheleisurehours。Intheforenoonsthegentlemenareoccupied，withtheirofficialduties，whilsttheladiesgooutshoppingor，payvisits，anddevoteanytimethatremainstotheirhousehold，dutiesandtheirchildren;buttheday’sworkisoveraboutfour，o’clock，andthelongeveningremainstobefilledup。Thesiesta，maydisposeofanhouroranhourandahalf，butaboutseven，o’clocksomedefiniteoccupationhastobefound。Asitis，impossibletodevotethewholeeveningtodiscussingtheordinary，newsoftheday，recourseisalmostinvariablyhadtocard-playing，whichisindulgedintoanextentthatwehadnoconceptionofin，EnglanduntilBridgewasimported。HourafterhourtheRussiansof，bothsexeswillsitinahotroom，filledwithaconstantly-renewed，cloudoftobacco-smoke——intheproductionofwhichmostofthe，ladiestakepart——andsilentlyplay“Preference，““Yarolash，“or，Bridge。Thosewhoforsomereasonareobligedtobealonecan，amusethemselveswith“Patience，“inwhichnopartnerisrequired。

Intheothergamesthestakesarecommonlyverysmall，butthe，sittingsareoftencontinuedsolongthataplayermaywinorlose，twoorthreepoundssterling。Itisnounusualthingforgentlemen，toplayforeightorninehoursatatime。Attheweeklyclub，dinners，beforecoffeehadbeenserved，nearlyallpresentusedto，rushoffimpatientlytothecard-room，andsitthereplacidlyfrom，fiveo’clockintheafternoontilloneortwoo’clockinthe，morning！，WhenIaskedmyfriendswhytheydevotedsomuchtimeto，thisunprofitableoccupation，theyalwaysgavemeprettymuchthe，sameanswer：“Whatarewetodo？，Wehavebeenreadingorwriting，officialpapersallday，andintheeveningweliketohavea，littlerelaxation。Whenwecometogetherwehaveverylittleto，talkabout，forwehaveallreadthedailypapersandnothingmore。

Thebestthingwecandoistositdownatthecard-table，wherewe，canspendourtimepleasantly，withoutthenecessityoftalking。”

Inadditiontothedailypapers，somepeoplereadthemonthly，periodicals——big，thickvolumes，containingseveralserious，articlesonhistoricalandsocialsubjects，sectionsofoneortwo，novels，satiricalsketches，andalongreviewofhomeandforeign，politicsonthemodelofthoseintheRevuedesDeuxMondes。

Severaloftheseperiodicalsareveryablyconducted，andofferto，theirreadersalargeamountofvaluableinformation;butIhave，noticedthattheleavesofthemoreseriouspartoftenremain，uncut。ThetranslationofasensationnovelbythelatestFrench，orEnglishfavouritefindsmanymorereadersthananarticlebyan，historianorapoliticaleconomist。Astobooks，theyseemtobe，verylittleread，forduringallthetimeIlivedinNovgorodI

neverdiscoveredabookseller’sshop，andwhenIrequiredbooksI

hadtogetthemsentfromSt。Petersburg。Thelocal，administration，itistrue，conceivedtheideaofformingamuseum，andcirculatinglibrary，butinmytimetheprojectwasnever，realised。Ofallthemagnificentprojectsthatareformedin，Russia，onlyaverysmallpercentagecomeintoexistence，andthese，aretoooftenveryshort-lived。TheRussianshavelearned，theoreticallywhatarethewantsofthemostadvancedcivilisation，andareeverreadytorushintothegrandschemeswhichtheir，theoreticalknowledgesuggests;butveryfewofthemreallyand，permanentlyfeelthesewants，andconsequentlytheinstitutions，artificiallyformedtosatisfythemverysoonlanguishanddie。In，theprovincialtownstheshopsforthesaleofgastronomic，delicaciesspringupandflourish，whilstshopsforthesaleof，intellectualfoodarerarelytobemetwith。

AboutthebeginningofDecembertheordinarymonotonyofNovgorod，lifeisalittlerelievedbytheannualProvincialAssembly，which，sitsdailyfortwoorthreeweeksanddiscussestheeconomicwants，oftheprovince。*，Duringthistimeagoodmanylaudedproprietors，whohabituallyliveontheirestatesorinSt。Petersburg，collect，inthetown，andenlivenalittletheordinarysociety。Butas，Christmasapproachesthedeputiesdisperse，andagainthetown，becomesenshroudedinthat“eternalstillness“(vetchnayatishina)

whichanativepoethasdeclaredtobetheessentialcharacteristic，ofRussianprovinciallife。

*OftheseAssembliesIshallhavemoretosaywhenIcometo，describethelocalself-government。

CHAPTERXII

THETOWNSANDTHEMERCANTILECLASSES

GeneralCharacterofRussianTowns——ScarcityofTownsinRussia——

WhytheUrbanElementinthePopulationissoSmall——Historyof，RussianMunicipalInstitutions——UnsuccessfulEffortstoCreatea，Tiers-etat——Merchants，Burghers，andArtisans——TownCouncil——ARich，Merchant——HisHouse——HisLoveofOstentation——HisConceptionof，Aristocracy——OfficialDecorations——IgnoranceandDishonestyofthe，CommercialClasses——SymptomsofChange。

Thosewhowishtoenjoytheillusionsproducedbyscenepainting，andstagedecorationsshouldnevergobehindthescenes。Inlike，mannerhewhowishestopreservethedelusionthatRussian，provincialtownsarepicturesqueshouldneverenterthem，but，contenthimselfwithviewingthemfromadistance。

Howeverimposingtheymaylookwhenseenfromtheoutside，they，willbefoundoncloserinspection，withveryfewexceptions，tobe，littlemorethanvillagesindisguise。Iftheyhavenota，positivelyrustic，theyhaveatleastasuburban，appearance。The，streetsarestraightandwide，andareeithermiserablypavedor，notpavedatall。Trottoirsarenotconsideredindispensable。The，housesarebuiltofwoodorbrick，generallyone-storied，and，separatedfromeachotherbyspaciousyards。Manyofthemdonot，condescendtoturntheirfacadestothestreet。Thegeneral，impressionproducedisthatthemajorityoftheburghershavecome，fromthecountry，andhavebroughttheircountry-houseswiththem。

Therearefewornoshopswithmerchandisetastefullyarrangedin，thewindowtotemptthepasser-by。Ifyouwishtomakepurchases，youmustgototheGostinnyDvor，*orBazaar，whichconsistsof，long，symmetricalrowsoflow-roofed，dimly-lightedstores，witha，colonnadeinfront。Thisistheplacewheremerchantsmostdo，congregate，butitpresentsnothingofthatbustleandactivity，whichweareaccustomedtoassociatewithcommerciallife。The，shopkeepersstandattheirdoorsorloiteraboutintheimmediate，vicinitywaitingforcustomers。Fromthescarcityoftheselatter，Ishouldsaythatwhensalesareeffectedtheprofitsmustbe，enormous。

*ThesewordsmeanliterallytheGuests’CourtorYard。The，Ghosti——awordwhichisetymologicallythesameasour“host“and，“guest“——wereoriginallythemerchantswhotradedwithothertowns，orothercountries。

Intheotherpartsofthetowntheairofsolitudeandlanguoris，stillmoreconspicuous。Inthegreatsquare，orbythesideofthe，promenade——ifthetownisfortunateenoughtohaveone——cowsor，horsesmaybeseengrazingtranquilly，withoutbeingatall，consciousoftheincongruityoftheirposition。And，indeed，it，wouldbestrangeiftheyhadanysuchconsciousness，foritdoes，notexistinthemindseitherofthepoliceoroftheinhabitants。

Atnightthestreetsmaybelightedmerelywithafewoil-lamps，whichdolittlemorethanrenderthedarknessvisible，sothat，cautiouscitizensreturninghomelateoftenprovidethemselveswith，lanterns。Aslateasthesixtiesthelearnedhistorian，Pogodin，thenatown-councillorofMoscow，opposedthelightingofthecity，withgasonthegroundthatthosewhochosetogooutatnight，shouldcarrytheirlampswiththem。Theobjectionwasoverruled，andMoscowisnowfairlywelllit，buttheprovincialtownsare，stillfarfrombeingonthesamelevel。Someretaintheirold，primitivearrangements，whileothersenjoytheluxuryofelectric，lighting。

ThescarcityoflargetownsinRussiaisnotlessremarkablethan，theirrusticappearance。Accordingtothelastcensus(1897)the，numberoftowns，officiallyso-called，is1，321，butaboutthree-

fifthsofthemhaveunder5，000inhabitants;only104haveover，25，000，andonly19over100，000。Thesefiguresindicateplainly，thattheurbanelementofthepopulationisrelativelysmall，and，itisdeclaredbytheofficialstatisticianstobeonly14per，cent。asagainst72percent。inGreatBritain，butitisnow，increasingrapidly。Whenthefirsteditionofthisworkwas，published，in1877，EuropeanRussiainthenarrowersenseofthe，term——excludingFinland，theBalticProvinces，Lithuania，Poland，andtheCaucasus——hadonly11townswithapopulationofover，50，000，andnowthereare34;thatistosay，thenumberofsuch，townshasmorethantrebled。Intheotherportionsofthecountry，asimilarincreasehastakenplace。Thetownswhichhavebecome，importantindustrialandcommercialcentreshavenaturallygrown，mostrapidly。Forexample，inaperiodoftwelveyears(1885-97)

thepopulationsofLodz，ofEkaterinoslaf，ofBaku，ofYaroslavl，andofLibau，havemorethandoubled。Inthefivelargesttownsof，theEmpire——St。Petersburg，Moscow，Warsaw，OdessaandLodz——the，aggregatepopulationroseduringthesametwelveyearsfrom，2，423，000to3，590，000，ornearly50percent。Intenothertowns，withpopulationsvaryingfrom50，000to282，000，theaggregaterose，from780，000to1，382，000，orabout77percent。

ThatRussiashouldhavetakensolongtoassimilateherselfinthis，respecttoWesternEuropeistobeexplainedbythegeographical，andpoliticalconditions。Herpopulationwasnothemmedinby，naturalorartificialfrontiersstrongenoughtorestraintheir，expansivetendencies。Tothenorth，theeast，andthesoutheast，therewasaboundlessexpanseoffertile，uncultivatedland，offeringatemptingfieldforemigration;andthepeasantryhave，evershownthemselvesreadytotakeadvantageoftheir，opportunities。Insteadofimprovingtheirprimitivesystemof，agriculture，whichrequiresanenormousareaandrapidlyexhausts，thesoil，theyhavealwaysfounditeasierandmoreprofitableto，emigrateandtakepossessionofthevirginlandbeyond。Thusthe，territory——sometimeswiththeaidof，andsometimesinspiteof，theGovernment——hasconstantlyexpanded，andhasalreadyreached，thePolarOcean，thePacific，andthenorthernoffshootsofthe，Himalayas。ThelittledistrictaroundthesourcesoftheDnieper，hasgrownintoamightyempire，comprisingone-seventhoftheland，surfaceoftheglobe。ProlificastheRussianraceis，itspower，ofreproductioncouldnotkeeppacewithitsterritorialexpansion，andconsequentlythecountryisstillverythinlypeopled。

Accordingtothelatestcensus(1897)inthewholeempirethereare，under130millionsofinhabitants，andtheaveragedensityof，populationisonlyaboutfifteentotheEnglishsquaremile。Even，themostdenselypopulatedprovinces，includingMoscowwithits，988，610inhabitants，cannotshowmorethan189totheEnglish，squaremile，whereasEnglandhasabout400。Apeoplethathassuch，anabundanceofland，andcansupportitselfbyagriculture，isnot，naturallydisposedtodevoteitselftoindustry，ortocongregate，inlargecities。

Formanygenerationstherewereotherpowerfulinfluencesworking，inthesamedirection。Ofthesethemostimportantwasserfage，whichwasnotabolishedtill1861。Thatinstitution，andthe，administrativesystemofwhichitformedanessentialpart，tended，topreventthegrowthofthetownsbyhemmingthenaturalmovements，ofthepopulation。Peasants，forexample，wholearnedtrades，and，whooughttohavedriftednaturallyintotheburgherclass，were，mostlyretainedbythemasteronhisestate，whereartisansofall，sortsweredailywanted，andthefewwhoweresenttoseekworkin，thetownswerenotallowedtosettletherepermanently。

ThustheinsignificanceoftheRussiantownsistobeattributed，mainlytotwocauses。Theabundanceoflandtendedtopreventthe，developmentofindustry，andthelittleindustrywhichdidexist，waspreventedbyserfagefromcollectinginthetowns。Butthis，explanationisevidentlyincomplete。Thesamecausesexisted，duringtheMiddleAgesinCentralEurope，andyet，inspiteof，them，flourishingcitiesgrewupandplayedanimportantpartin，thesocialandpoliticalhistoryofGermany。Inthesecities，collectedtradersandartisans，formingadistinctsocialclass，distinguishedfromthenoblesontheonehand，andthesurrounding，peasantryontheother，bypeculiaroccupations，peculiaraims，peculiarintellectualphysiognomy，andpeculiarmoralconceptions。

Whydidtheseimportanttownsandthisburgherclassnotlikewise，comeintoexistenceinRussia，inspiteofthetwopreventive，causesabovementioned？

Todiscussthisquestionfullyitwouldbenecessarytoenterinto，certaindebatedpointsofmediaevalhistory。AllIcandohereis，toindicatewhatseemstomethetrueexplanation。

InCentralEurope，allthroughtheMiddleAges，aperpetual，strugglewentonbetweenthevariouspoliticalfactorsofwhich，societywascomposed，andtheimportanttownswereinacertain，sensetheproductsofthisstruggle。Theywerepreservedand，fosteredbythemutualrivalryoftheSovereign，theFeudal，Nobility，andtheChurch;andthosewhodesiredtolivebytradeor，industrysettledintheminordertoenjoytheprotectionand，immunitieswhichtheyafforded。InRussiatherewasneverany，politicalstruggleofthiskind。AssoonastheGrandPrincesof，Moscow，inthesixteenthcentury，threwofftheyokeofthe，Tartars，andmadethemselvesTsarsofallRussia，theirpowerwas，irresistibleanduncontested。Completemastersofthesituation，theyorganisedthecountryastheythoughtfit。Atfirsttheir，policywasfavourabletothedevelopmentofthetowns。Perceiving，thatthemercantileandindustrialclassesmightbemadearich，sourceofrevenue，theyseparatedthemfromthepeasantry，gave，themtheexclusiverightoftrading，preventedtheotherclasses，fromcompetingwiththem，andfreedthemfromtheauthorityofthe，landedproprietors。Hadtheycarriedoutthispolicyina，cautious，rationalway，theymighthavecreatedarichburgher，class;buttheyactedwithtrueOrientalshort-sightedness，and，defeatedtheirownpurposebyimposinginordinatelyheavytaxes，andtreatingtheurbanpopulationastheirserfs。Thericher，merchantswereforcedtoserveascustom-houseofficers——oftenata，greatdistancefromtheirdomiciles*——andartisanswereyearly，summonedtoMoscowtodoworkfortheTsarswithoutremuneration。

*MerchantsfromYaroslavl，forinstance，weresenttoAstrakhanto，collectthecustom-dues。

Besidesthis，thesystemoftaxationwasradicallydefective，and，themembersofthelocaladministration，whoreceivednopayand，werepracticallyfreefromcontrol，weremercilessintheir，exactions。Inaword，theTsarsusedtheirpowersostupidlyand，sorecklesslythattheindustrialandtradingpopulation，instead，offleeingtothetownstosecureprotection，fledfromthemto，escapeoppression。Atlengththisemigrationfromthetowns，assumedsuchdimensionsthatitwasfoundnecessarytopreventit，byadministrativeandlegislativemeasures;andtheurban，populationwaslegallyfixedinthetownsastheruralpopulation，wasfixedtothesoil。Thosewhofledwerebroughtbackas，runaways，andthosewhoattemptedflightasecondtimewereordered，tobefloggedandtransportedtoSiberia。*

*Seethe“Ulozhenie“(i。e。thelawsofAlexis，fatherofPeterthe，Great)，chap。xix。13。

Withtheeighteenthcenturybegananewerainthehistoryofthe，townsandoftheurbanpopulation。PetertheGreatobserved，duringhistravelsinWesternEurope，thatnationalwealthand，prosperityreposedchieflyontheenterprising，educatedmiddle，classes，andheattributedthepovertyofhisowncountrytothe，absenceofthisburgherelement。Mightnotsuchaclassbecreated，inRussia？，Peterunhesitatinglyassumedthatitmight，andset，himselfatoncetocreateitinasimple，straightforwardway。

Foreignartisanswereimportedintohisdominionsandforeign，merchantswereinvitedtotradewithhissubjects;youngRussians，weresentabroadtolearntheusefularts;effortsweremadeto，disseminatepracticalknowledgebythetranslationofforeignbooks，andthefoundationofschools;allkindsoftradewereencouraged，andvariousindustrialenterpriseswereorganised。Atthesame，timetheadministrationofthetownswasthoroughlyreorganised，afterthemodeloftheancientfree-townsofGermany。Inplaceof，theoldorganisation，whichwasaslightlymodifiedformofthe，ruralCommune，theyreceivedGermanmunicipalinstitutions，with，burgomasters，towncouncils，courtsofjustice，guildsforthe，merchants，tradecorporations(tsekhi)fortheartisans，andan，endlesslistofinstructionsregardingthedevelopmentoftradeand，industry，thebuildingofhospitals，sanitaryprecautions，the，foundingofschools，thedispensationofjustice，theorganisation，ofthepolice，andsimilarmatters。

CatherineII。followedinthesametrack。Ifshedidlessfor，tradeandindustry，shedidmoreinthewayoflegislatingand，writinggrandiloquentmanifestoes。Inthecourseofherhistorical，studiesshehadlearned，assheproclaimsinoneofher，manifestoes，that“fromremotestantiquityweeverywherefindthe，memoryoftown-builderselevatedtothesamelevelasthememoryof，legislators，andweseethatheroes，famousfortheirvictories，hopedbytown-buildingtogiveimmortalitytotheirnames。”，Asthe，securingofimmortalityforherownnamewasherchiefaiminlife，sheactedinaccordancewithhistoricalprecedent，andcreated216

townsintheshortspaceoftwenty-threeyears。Thisseemsagreat，work，butitdidnotsatisfyherambition。Shewasnotonlya，studentofhistory，butwasatthesametimeawarmadmirerofthe，fashionablepoliticalphilosophyofhertime。Thatphilosophypaid，muchattentiontothetiers-etat，whichwasthenacquiringin，Francegreatpoliticalimportance，andCatherinethoughtthatas，shehadcreatedaNoblesseontheFrenchmodel，shemightalso，createabourgeoisie。Forthispurposeshemodifiedthemunicipal，organisationcreatedbyhergreatpredecessor，andgrantedtoall，thetownsanImperialCharter。Thischarterremainedwithout，essentialmodificationuntilthepublicationofthenew，MunicipalityLawin1870。

TheeffortsoftheGovernmenttocreatearich，intelligenttiers-

etatwerenotattendedwithmuchsuccess。Theirinfluencewas，alwaysmoreapparentinofficialdocumentsthaninreallife。The，greatmassofthepopulationremainedserfs，fixedtothesoil，whilstthenobles——thatistosay，allwhopossessedalittle，education——wererequiredforthemilitaryandcivilservices。

Thosewhoweresentabroadtolearntheusefulartslearnedlittle，andmadelittleuseoftheknowledgewhichtheyacquired。Ontheir，returntotheirnativecountrytheyverysoonfellvictimstothe，soporificinfluenceofthesurroundingsocialatmosphere。The，“town-building“hadaslittlepracticalresult。Itwasaneasy，mattertocreateanynumberoftownsintheofficialsenseofthe，term。Totransformavillageintoatown，itwasnecessarymerely，toprepareanizba，orlog-house，forthedistrictcourt，another，forthepolice-office，athirdfortheprison，andsoon。Onan，appointeddaytheGovernoroftheprovincearrivedinthevillage，collectedtheofficialsappointedtoserveinthenewly-constructed，ornewly-arrangedlog-houses，orderedasimplereligiousceremony，tobeperformedbythepriest，causedaformalacttobedrawnup，andthendeclaredthetowntobe“opened。”，Allthisrequiredvery，littlecreativeeffort;tocreateaspiritofcommercialand，industrialenterpriseamongthepopulationwasamoredifficult，matterandcouldnotbeeffectedbyImperialukaz。

Toanimatethenewly-importedmunicipalinstitutions，whichhadno，rootinthetraditionsandhabitsofthepeople，wasataskof，equaldifficulty。IntheWesttheseinstitutionshadbeenslowly，devisedinthecourseofcenturiestomeetreal，keenly-felt，practicalwants。InRussiatheywereadoptedforthepurposeof，creatingthosewantswhichwerenotyetfelt。Letthereader，imagineourBoardofTradesupplyingthemastersoffishing-smacks，withaccuratecharts，learnedtreatisesonnavigation，anddetailed，instructionsfortheproperventilationofships’cabins，andhe，willhavesomeideaoftheeffectwhichPeter’slegislationhad，uponthetowns。Theoffice-bearers，electedagainsttheirwill，werehopelesslybewilderedbythecomplicatedprocedure，andwere，incapableofunderstandingthenumerousukazeswhichprescribedto，themtheirmultifariousdutiesandthreatenedthemostmerciless，punishmentsforsinsofomissionandcommission。Soon，however，it，wasdiscoveredthatthethreatswerenotnearlysodreadfulasthey，seemed;andaccordinglythosemunicipalauthoritieswhowereto，protectandenlightentheburghers，“forgotthefearofGodandthe，Tsar，“andextortedsounblushinglythatitwasfoundnecessaryto，placethemunderthecontrolofGovernmentofficials。

ThechiefpracticalresultoftheeffortsmadebyPeterand，Catherinetocreateabourgeoisiewasthattheinhabitantsofthe，townsweremoresystematicallyarrangedincategoriesforthe，purposeoftaxation，andthatthetaxeswereincreased。Allthose，partsofthenewadministrationwhichhadnodirectrelationtothe，fiscalinterestsoftheGovernmenthadverylittlevitalityin，them。Thewholesystemhadbeenarbitrarilyimposedonthepeople，andhadasmotiveonlytheImperialwill。Hadthatmotivepower，beenwithdrawnandtheburgherslefttoregulatetheirown，municipalaffairs，thesystemwouldimmediatelyhavecollapsed。

Rathhaus，burgomasters，guilds，aldermen，andalltheother，lifelessshadowswhichhadbeencalledintoexistencebyImperial，ukazwouldinstantlyhavevanishedintospace。Inthisfactwe，haveoneofthecharacteristictraitsofRussianhistorical，developmentcomparedwiththatofWesternEurope。IntheWest，monarchyhadtostrugglewithmunicipalinstitutionstoprevent，themfrombecomingtoopowerful;inRussia，ithadtostrugglewith，themtopreventthemfromcommittingsuicideordyingofinanition。

AccordingtoCatherine’slegislation，whichremainedinforceuntil，1870，andstillexistsinsomeofitsmainfeatures，thetownswere，dividedintothreecategories：(1)Governmenttowns(gubernskiye，goroda)——thatistosay，thechieftownsofprovinces，or，governments(gubernii)——inwhichareconcentratedthevarious，organsofprovincialadministration;(2)districttowns(uyezdniye，goroda)，inwhichresidestheadministrationofthedistricts，(uyezdi)intowhichtheprovincesaredivided;and(3)

supernumerarytowns(zashtatniyegoroda)，whichhavenoparticular，significanceintheterritorialadministration。

Inallthesethemunicipalorganisationisthesame。Leavingout，ofconsiderationthosepersonswhohappentoresideinthetowns，butinrealitybelongtotheNoblesse，theclergy，orthelower，ranksofofficials，wemaysaythatthetownpopulationiscomposed，ofthreegroups：themerchants(kuptsi)，theburghersinthe，narrowersenseoftheterm(meshtchanye)，andtheartisans，(tsekhoviye)。Thesecategoriesarenothereditarycastes，likethe，nobles，theclergy，andthepeasantry。Anoblemaybecomea，merchant，oramanmaybeoneyearaburgher，thenextyearan，artisan，andthethirdyearamerchant，ifhechangeshis，occupationandpaysthenecessarydues。Butthecategoriesform，forthetimebeing，distinctcorporations，eachpossessinga，peculiarorganisationandpeculiarprivilegesandobligations。

Ofthesethreegroupsthefirstinthescaleofdignityisthatof，themerchants。Itischieflyrecruitedfromtheburghersandthe，peasantry。Anyonewhowishestoengageincommerceinscribes，himselfinoneofthethreeguilds，accordingtotheamountofhis，capitalandthenatureoftheoperationsinwhichhewishesto，embark，andassoonashehaspaidtherequireddueshebecomes，officiallyamerchant。Assoonasheceasestopaythesedueshe，ceasestobeamerchantinthelegalsenseoftheterm，andreturns，totheclasstowhichheformerlybelonged。Therearesome，familieswhosemembershavebelongedtothemerchantclassfor，severalgenerations，andthelawspeaksaboutacertain“velvet-

book“(barkhatnayakniga)inwhichtheirnamesshouldbeinscribed，butinrealitytheydonotformadistinctcategory，andthey，descendatoncefromtheirprivilegedpositionassoonasthey，ceasetopaytheannualguilddues。

Theartisansformtheconnectinglinkbetweenthetownpopulation，andthepeasantry，forpeasantsoftenenrolthemselvesinthe，trades-corporations，ortsekhi，withoutseveringtheirconnection，withtheruralCommunestowhichtheybelong。Eachtradeor，handicraftconstitutesatsekh，attheheadofwhichstandsan，elderandtwoassistants，electedbythemembers;andallthe，tsekhitogetherformacorporationunderanelectedhead，(remeslennygolova)assistedbyacouncilcomposedoftheeldersof，thevarioustsekhi。Itisthedutyofthiscouncilandits，presidenttoregulateallmattersconnectedwiththetsekhi，andto，seethatthemultifariousregulationsregardingmasters，journeymen，andapprenticesaredulyobserved。

Thenondescriptclass，composedofthosewhoareinscribedas，permanentinhabitantsofthetowns，butwhodonotbelongtoany，guildortsekh，constituteswhatiscalledtheburghersinthe，narrowersenseoftheterm。Liketheothertwocategories，they，formaseparatecorporation，withanelderandanadministrative，bureau。

Someideaoftherelativenumericalstrengthofthesethree，categoriesmaybeobtainedfromthefollowingfigures。Thirty，yearsagoinEuropeanRussiathemerchantclass(includingwives，andchildren)numberedabout466，000，theburghersabout4，033，000，andtheartisansabout260，000。Thenumbersaccordingtothelast，censusarenotyetavailable。

In1870theentiremunicipaladministrationwasreorganisedon，modernWest-Europeanprinciples，andtheTownCouncil(gorodskaya，duma)，whichformedundertheprevioussystemtheconnectinglink，betweentheold-fashionedcorporations，andwascomposed，exclusivelyofmembersofthesebodies，becameagenuine，representativebodycomposedofhouseholders，irrespectiveofthe，socialclasstowhichtheymightbelong。Anoble，providedhewas，ahouse-proprietor，couldbecomeTownCouncillororMayor，andin，thiswayacertainamountofvitalityandaprogressivespiritwere，infusedintothemunicipaladministration。Asaconsequenceof，thischangetheschools，hospitals，andotherbenevolent，institutionsweremuchimproved，thestreetswerekeptcleanerand，somewhatbetterpaved，andforatimeitseemedasifthetownsin，RussiamightgraduallyrisetothelevelofthoseofWestern，Europe。Butthecharmofnovelty，whichsooftenworkswondersin，Russia，soonworeoff。Afterafewyearsofstrenuouseffortthe，bestcitizensnolongercameforwardascandidates，andtheoffice-

bearersselectednolongerdisplayedzealandintelligenceinthe，dischargeoftheirduties。InthesecircumstancestheGovernment，feltcalleduponagaintointervene。ByadecreedatedJune11，1892，itintroducedanewseriesofreforms，bywhichthemunicipal，self-governmentwasplacedmoreunderthedirectionandcontrolof，thecentralisedbureaucracy，andtheattendanceoftheTown，Councillorsattheperiodicalmeetingswasdeclaredtobe，obligatory，recalcitrantmembersbeingthreatenedwithreprimands，andfines。

Thislastfactspeaksvolumesforthelowvitalityofthe，institutionsandtheprevalentpopularapathywithregardto，municipalaffairs。Norwastheunsatisfactorystateofthingsmuch，improvedbythenewreforms;onthecontrary，theincreased，interferenceoftheregularofficialstendedrathertoweakenthe，vitalityoftheurbanselfgovernment，andtheso-calledreformwas，prettygenerallycondemnedasaneedlesslyreactionarymeasure。We，havehere，infact，acaseofwhathasoftenoccurredinthe，administrativehistoryoftheRussianEmpiresincethetimeof，PetertheGreat，andtowhichIshallagainhaveoccasiontorefer。

Thecentralauthority，findingitselfincompetenttodoallthatis，requiredofit，andwishingtomakeadisplayofliberalism，accordslargeconcessionsinthedirectionoflocalautonomy;and，whenitdiscoversthatthenewinstitutionsdonotaccomplishall，thatwasexpectedofthem，andarenotquitesosubservientand，obsequiousasisconsidereddesirable，itreturnsinacertain，measuretotheoldprinciplesofcentralisedbureaucracy。

Thegreatdevelopmentoftradeandindustryinrecentyearshasof，courseenrichedthemercantileclasses，andhasintroducedinto，themamorehighlyeducatedelement，drawnchieflyfromthe，Noblesse，whichformerlyeschewedsuchoccupations;butithasnot，yetaffectedverydeeplythemodeoflifeofthosewhohavesprung，fromtheoldmerchantfamiliesandthepeasantry。Whenamerchant，contractor，ormanufactureroftheoldtypebecomeswealthy，he，buildsforhimselfafinehouse，orbuysandthoroughlyrepairsthe，houseofsomeruinednoble，andspendsmoneyfreelyonparquetry，floors，largemirrors，malachitetables，grandpianosbythebest，makers，andotherarticlesoffurnituremadeofthemostcostly，materials。Occasionally——especiallyontheoccasionofamarriage，oradeathinthefamily——hewillgivemagnificentbanquets，and，expendenormoussumsongiganticsterlets，choicesturgeons，foreignfruits，champagne，andallmannerofcostlydelicacies。

Butthislavish，ostentatiousexpendituredoesnotaffectthe，ordinarycurrentofhisdailylife。Asyouenterthosegaudily，furnishedroomsyoucanperceiveataglancethattheyarenotfor，ordinaryuse。Younoticearigidsymmetryandanindescribable，barenesswhichinevitablysuggestthattheoriginalarrangementsof，theupholstererhaveneverbeenmodifiedorsupplemented。The，truthisthatbyfarthegreaterpartofthehouseisusedonlyon，stateoccasions。Thehostandhisfamilylivedown-stairsin，small，dirtyrooms，furnishedinaverydifferent，andforthem，morecomfortable，style。Atordinarytimesthefineroomsare，closed，andthefinefurniturecarefullycovered。

Ifyoumakeavisitedepolitesseafteranentertainment，youwill，probablyhavesomedifficultyingainingadmissionbythefront，door。Whenyouhaveknockedorrungseveraltimes，someonewill，comeroundfromthebackregionsandaskyouwhatyouwant。Then，followsanotherlongpause，andatlastfootstepsareheard，approachingfromwithin。Theboltsaredrawn，thedoorisopened，andyouareleduptoaspaciousdrawing-room。Atthewall，oppositethewindowsthereissuretobeasofa，andbeforeitan，ovaltable。Ateachendofthetable，andatrightanglestothe，sofa，therewillbearowofthreearm-chairs。Theotherchairs，willbesymmetricallyarrangedroundtheroom。Inafewminutes，thehostwillappear，inhislongdouble-breastedblackcoatand，well-polishedlongboots。Hishairispartedinthemiddle，and，hisbeardshowsnotraceofscissorsorrazor。

Afterthecustomarygreetingshavebeenexchanged，glassesoftea，withslicesoflemonandpreserves，orperhapsabottleof，champagne，arebroughtinbywayofrefreshments。Thefemale，membersofthefamilyyoumustnotexpecttosee，unlessyouarean，intimatefriend;forthemerchantsstillretainsomethingofthat，femaleseclusionwhichwasinvogueamongtheupperclassesbefore，thetimeofPetertheGreat。Thehosthimselfwillprobablybean，intelligent，buttotallyuneducatedanddecidedlytaciturn，man。

Abouttheweatherandthecropshemaytalkfluentlyenough，buthe，willnotshowmuchinclinationtogobeyondthesetopics。Youmay，perhaps，desiretoconversewithhimonthesubjectwithwhichhe，isbestacquainted——thetradeinwhichheishimselfengaged;but，ifyoumaketheattempt，youwillcertainlynotgainmuch，information，andyoumaypossiblymeetwithsuchanincidentas，oncehappenedtomytravellingcompanion，aRussiangentlemanwho，hadbeencommissionedbytwolearnedsocietiestocollect，informationregardingthegraintrade。Whenhecalledona，merchantwhohadpromisedtoassisthiminhisinvestigation，he，washospitablyreceived;butwhenhebegantospeakaboutthegrain，tradeofthedistrictthemerchantsuddenlyinterruptedhim，and，proposedtotellhimastory。Thestorywasasfollows：

Onceonatimearichlandedproprietorhadason，whowasa，thoroughlyspoiltchild;andonedaytheboysaidtohisfather，thathewishedalltheyoungserfstocomeandsingbeforethedoor，ofthehouse。Aftersomeattemptsatdissuasiontherequestwas，granted，andtheyoungpeopleassembled;butassoonastheybegan，tosing，theboyrushedoutanddrovethemaway。

Whenthemerchanthadtoldthisapparentlypointlessstoryatgreat，length，andwithmuchcircumstantialdetail，hepausedalittle，pouredsometeaintohissaucer，drankitoff，andtheninquired，“Nowwhatdoyouthinkwasthereasonofthisstrangeconduct？”

Myfriendrepliedthattheriddlesurpassedhispowersof，divination。

“Well，“saidthemerchant，lookinghardathim，withaknowing，grin，“therewasnoreason;andalltheboycouldsaywas，’Go，away，goaway！，I’vechangedmymind;I’vechangedmymind’“

(poshlivon;otkhotyel)。

Therewasnopossibilityofmistakingthepointofthestory。My，friendtookthehintanddeparted。

TheRussianmerchant’sloveofostentationisofapeculiarkind——

somethingentirelydifferentfromEnglishsnobbery。Hemaydelight，ingaudyreception-rooms，magnificentdinners，fasttrotters，costlyfurs;orhemaydisplayhisrichesbyprincelydonationsto，churches，monasteries，orbenevolentinstitutions：butinallthis，heneveraffectstobeotherthanhereallyis。Hehabitually，wearsacostumewhichdesignatesplainlyhissocialposition;he，makesnoattempttoadoptfinemannersoreleganttastes;andhe，neverseekstogainadmissiontowhatiscalledinRussiala，societe。Havingnodesiretoseemwhatheisnot，hehasaplain，unaffectedmanner，andsometimesaquietdignitywhichcontrasts，favourablywiththeaffectedmannerofthosenoblesofthelower，rankswhomakepretensionstobeinghighlyeducatedandstriveto，adopttheoutwardformsofFrenchculture。Athisgreatdinners，itistrue，themerchantlikestoseeamonghisguestsasmany，“generals“——thatistosay，officialpersonages——aspossible，and，especiallythosewhohappentohaveagrandcordon;buthenever，dreamsoftherebyestablishinganintimacywiththesepersonages，orofbeinginvitedbytheminreturn。Itisperfectlyunderstood，bybothpartiesthatnothingofthekindismeant。Theinvitation，isgivenandacceptedfromquitedifferentmotives。Themerchant，hasthesatisfactionofseeingathistablemenofhighofficial，rank，andfeelsthattheconsiderationwhichheenjoysamongpeople，ofhisownclassistherebyaugmented。Ifhesucceedsinobtaining，thepresenceofthreegenerals，heobtainsavictoryoverarival，whocannotobtainmorethantwo。Thegeneral，onhisside，getsa，first-ratedinner，alarusse，andacquiresanundefinedrightto，requestsubscriptionsforpublicobjectsorbenevolent，institutions。

Ofcoursethisundefinedrightiscommonlynothingmorethanamere，tacitunderstanding，butincertaincasesthesubjectisexpressly，mentioned。Iknowofonecaseinwhicharegularbargainwasmade。

AMoscowmagnatewasinvitedbyamerchanttoadinner，and，consentedtogoinfulluniform，withallhisdecorations，on，conditionthatthemerchantshouldsubscribeacertainsumtoa，benevolentinstitutioninwhichhewasparticularlyinterested。It，iswhisperedthatsuchbargainsaresometimesmade，notonbehalf，ofbenevolentinstitutions，butsimplyintheinterestofthe，gentlemanwhoacceptstheinvitation。Icannotbelievethatthere，aremanyofficialpersonageswhowouldconsenttoletthemselves，outastabledecorations，butthatitmayhappenisprovedbythe，followingincident，whichaccidentallycametomyknowledge。A

richmerchantofthetownofT——oncerequestedtheGovernorof，theProvincetohonourafamilyfestivitywithhispresence，and，addedthathewouldconsideritaspecialfavourifthe，“Governoress“wouldenteranappearance。Tothislatterrequest，hisExcellencymademanyobjections，andatlastletthepetitioner，understandthatherExcellencycouldnotpossiblybepresent，becauseshehadnovelvetdressthatcouldbearcomparisonwith，thoseofseveralmerchants’wivesinthetown。Twodaysafterthe，interviewapieceofthefinestvelvetthatcouldbeprocuredin，MoscowwasreceivedbytheGovernorfromanunknowndonor，andhis，wifewasthusenabledtobepresentatthefestivity，tothe，completesatisfactionofallpartiesconcerned。

Itisworthyofremarkthatthemerchantsrecognisenoaristocracy，butthatofofficialrank。Manymerchantswouldwillinglygive，twentypoundsforthepresenceofan“actualStateCouncillor“who，perhapsneverheardofhisgrandfather，butwhocanshowagrand，cordon;whilsttheywouldnotgivetwentypenceforthepresenceof，anundecoratedPrincewithoutofficialrank，thoughhemightbe，abletotracehispedigreeuptothehalf-mythicalRurik。Ofthe，lattertheywouldprobablysay，“Ktoikhznact？”(Whoknowswhat，sortofafellowheis？)，Theformer，onthecontrary，whoeverhis，fatherandgrandfathermayhavebeen，possessesunmistakablemarks，oftheTsar’sfavour，which，inthemerchant’sopinion，is，infinitelymoreimportantthananyrightsorpretensionsfoundedon，hereditarytitlesorlongpedigrees。

SomemarksofImperialfavourtheold-fashionedmerchantsstriveto，obtainforthemselves。Theydonotdreamofgrandcordons——thatis，farbeyondtheirmostsanguineexpectations——buttheydoallin，theirpowertoobtainthoselesserdecorationswhicharegrantedto，themercantileclass。Forthispurposethemostcommonexpedient，isaliberalsubscriptiontosomebenevolentinstitution，and，occasionallyaregularbargainismade。Iknowofatleastone，instancewherethekindofdecorationwasexpresslystipulated。

Theaffairillustratessowellthecommercialcharacterofthese，transactionsthatIventuretostatethefactsasrelatedtomeby，theofficialchieflyconcerned。Amerchantsubscribedtoasociety，whichenjoyedthepatronageofaGrandDuchessaconsiderablesum，ofmoney，undertheexpressconditionthatheshouldreceivein，returnaSt。VladimirCross。Insteadofthedesireddecoration，whichwasconsideredtoomuchforthesumsubscribed，acrossof，St。Stanislaswasgranted;butthedonorwasdissatisfiedwiththe，latteranddemandedthathismoneyshouldbereturnedtohim。The，demandhadtobecompliedwith，and，asanImperialgiftcannotbe，retracted，themerchanthadhisStanislasCrossfornothing。

Thistrafficindecorationshashaditsnaturalresult。Likepaper，moneyissuedintoolargequantities，thedecorationshavefallen，invalue。Thegoldmedalswhichwereformerlymuchcovetedand，wornwithpridebytherichmerchants——suspendedbyaribbonround，theneck——arenowlittlesoughtafter。Inlikemannerthe，inordinaterespectforofficialpersonageshasconsiderably，diminished。Fiftyyearsagotheprovincialmerchantsviedwith，eachotherintheirdesiretoentertainanygreatdignitarywho，honouredtheirtownwithavisit，butnowtheyseekrathertoavoid，thisexpensiveandbarrenhonour。Whentheydoacceptthehonour，theyfulfilthedutiesofhospitalityinamostliberalspirit。I

havesometimes，whenlivingasanhonouredguestinarich，merchant’shouse，founditdifficulttoobtainanythingsimpler，thansterlet，sturgeon，andchampagne。

ThetwogreatblemishesonthecharacteroftheRussianmerchants，asaclassare，accordingtogeneralopinion，theirignoranceand，theirdishonesty。Astotheformerofthesetherecannotpossibly，beanydifferenceofopinion。Manyofthemcanneitherreadnor，write，andareforcedtokeeptheiraccountsintheirmemory，orby，meansofingenioushieroglyphics，intelligibleonlytothe，inventor。Otherscandecipherthecalendarandthelivesofthe，saints，cansigntheirnameswithtolerablefacility，andcanmake，thesimplerarithmeticalcalculationswiththehelpofthestchety，alittlecalculatinginstrument，composedofwoodenballsstrungon，brasswires，whichresemblesthe“abaca“oftheoldRomans，andis，universallyusedinRussia。Itisonlytheminoritywhounderstand，themysteriesofregularbook-keeping，andoftheseveryfewcan，makeanypretensionstobeingeducatedmen。

Allthis，however，israpidlyundergoingaradicalchange。

Childrenarenowmuchbettereducatedthantheirparents，andthe，nextgenerationwilldoubtlessmakefurtherprogress，sothatthe，old-fashionedtypeabovedescribedisdestinedtodisappear。