第12章

InjusticetothebureaucraticreformersinRussia，itmustbesaid，thattheyhavepreferredpreventiontocure。Refrainingfromall，Draconianlegislation，theyhaveputtheirfaithinasystemof，ingeniouschecksandacomplicatedformalprocedure。Whenwe，examinethecomplicatedformalitiesandlabyrinthineprocedureby，whichtheadministrationiscontrolled，ourfirstimpressionis，thatadministrativeabusesmustbealmostimpossible。Every，possibleactofeveryofficialseemstohavebeenforeseen，and，everypossibleoutletfromthenarrowpathofhonestyseemstohave，beencarefullywalledup。AstheEnglishreaderhasprobablyno，conceptionofformalprocedureinahighlycentralisedbureaucracy，letmegive，bywayofillustration，aninstancewhichaccidentally，cametomyknowledge。

IntheresidenceofaGovernor-Generaloneofthestovesisinneed，ofrepairs。Anordinarymortalmayassumethatamanwiththerank，ofGovernor-Generalmaybetrustedtoexpendafewshillings，conscientiously，andthatconsequentlyhisExcellencywillatonce，ordertherepairstobemadeandthepaymenttobeputdownamong，thepettyexpenses。Tothebureaucraticmindthecaseappearsina，verydifferentlight。Allpossiblecontingenciesmustbecarefully，providedfor。AsaGovernor-Generalmaypossiblybepossessedwith，amaniaformakinguselessalterations，thenecessityforthe，repairsoughttobeverified;andaswisdomandhonestyaremore，likelytoresideinanassemblythaninanindividual，itiswell，toentrusttheverificationtoacouncil。Acouncilofthreeor，fourmembersaccordinglycertifiesthattherepairsarenecessary。

Thisisprettystrongauthority，butitisnotenough。Councils，arecomposedofmerehumanbeings，liabletoerrorandsubjectto，beintimidatedbyaGovernor-General。Itisprudent，therefore，to，demandthatthedecisionofthecouncilbeconfirmedbythe，Procureur，whoisdirectlysubordinatedtotheMinisterofJustice。

Whenthisdoubleconfirmationhasbeenobtained，anarchitect，examinesthestove，andmakesanestimate。Butitwouldbe，dangeroustogivecarteblanchetoanarchitect，andthereforethe，estimatehastobeconfirmed，firstbytheaforesaidcounciland，afterwardsbytheProcureur。Whenalltheseformalities——which，requiresixteendaysandtensheetsofpaper——havebeenduly，observed，hisExcellencyisinformedthatthecontemplatedrepairs，willcosttworoublesandfortykopecks，oraboutfiveshillingsof，ourmoney。Evenheretheformalitiesdonotstop，forthe，Governmentmusthavetheassurancethatthearchitectwhomadethe，estimateandsuperintendedtherepairshasnotbeenguiltyof，negligence。Asecondarchitectisthereforesenttoexaminethe，work，andhisreport，liketheestimate，requirestobeconfirmed，bythecouncilandtheProcureur。Thewholecorrespondencelasts，thirtydays，andrequiresnolessthanthirtysheetsofpaper！，Had，thepersonwhodesiredtherepairsbeennotaGovernor-General，but，anordinarymortal，itisimpossibletosayhowlongtheprocedure，mighthavelasted。*

*InfairnessIfeelconstrainedtoaddthatincidentsofthiskind，occasionallyoccur——oratleastoccurredaslateas1886——inour，IndianAdministration。Irememberaninstanceofapaneofglass，beingbrokenintheViceroy’sbedroomintheViceregalLodgeat，Simla，anditwouldhaverequirednearlyaweek，iftheofficial，procedurehadbeenscrupulouslyobserved，tohaveitreplacedby，thePublicWorksDepartment。

Itmightnaturallybesupposedthatthiscircuitousandcomplicated，method，withitsregisters，ledgers，andminutesofproceedings，mustatleastpreventpilfering;butthisaprioriconclusionhas，beenemphaticallybeliedbyexperience。Everynewingeniousdevice，hadmerelytheeffectofproducingastillmoreingeniousmeansof，avoidingit。Thesystemdidnotrestrainthosewhowishedto，pilfer，andithadadeleteriouseffectonhonestofficialsby，makingthemfeelthattheGovernmentreposednoconfidenceinthem。

Besidesthis，itproducedamongallofficials，honestanddishonest，alike，thehabitofsystematicfalsification。Asitwasimpossible，foreventhemostpedanticofmen——andpedantry，beitremarked，is，ararequalityamongRussians——tofulfilconscientiouslyallthe，prescribedformalities，itbecamecustomarytoobservetheforms，merelyonpaper。Officialscertifiedfactswhichtheynever，dreamedofexamining，andsecretariesgravelywrotetheminutesof，meetingsthathadneverbeenheld！，Thus，inthecaseabovecited，therepairswereinrealitybegunandendedlongbeforethe，architectwasofficiallyauthorisedtobeginthework。Thecomedy，wasneverthelessgravelyplayedouttotheend，sothatanyone，afterwardsrevisingthedocumentswouldhavefoundthateverything，hadbeendoneinperfectorder。

Perhapsthemostingeniousmeansforpreventingadministrative，abuseswasdevisedbytheEmperorNicholasI。Fullyawarethathe，wasregularlyandsystematicallydeceivedbytheordinary，officials，heformedabodyofwell-paidofficers，calledthe，gendarmerie，whowerescatteredoverthecountry，andorderedto，reportdirectlytohisMajestywhateverseemedtothemworthyof，attention。Bureaucraticmindsconsideredthisanadmirable，expedient;andtheTsarconfidentlyexpectedthathewould，by，meansoftheseofficialobserverswhohadnointerestinconcealing，thetruth，beabletoknoweverything，andtocorrectallofficial，abuses。Inrealitytheinstitutionproducedfewgoodresults，and，insomerespectshadaveryperniciousinfluence。Thoughpicked，menandprovidedwithgoodsalaries，theseofficerswereallmore，orlesspermeatedwiththeprevailingspirit。Theycouldnotbut，feelthattheywereregardedasspiesandinformers——ahumiliating，conviction，littlecalculatedtodevelopthatfeelingofself-

respectwhichisthemainfoundationofuprightness——andthatall，theireffortscoulddobutlittlegood。Theywere，infact，in，prettymuchthesamepositionasPeter’sProcurator-General，and，withtrueRussianbonhomie，theydislikedruiningindividualswho，werenoworsethanthemajorityoftheirfellows。Besidesthis，accordingtothereceivedcodeofofficialmoralityinsubordination，wasamoreheinoussinthandishonesty，andpoliticaloffenceswere，regardedastheblackestofall。Thegendarmerieofficersshut，theireyes，therefore，totheprevailingabuses，whichwere，believedtobeincurable，anddirectedtheirattentiontorealor，imaginarypoliticaldelinquencies。Oppressionandextortion，remainedunnoticed，whilstanincautiouswordorafoolishjokeat，theexpenseoftheGovernmentwastoooftenmagnifiedintoanact，ofhightreason。

Thisforcestillexistsunderaslightlymodifiedform。Towards，thecloseofthereignofAlexanderII。(1880)，whenCountLoris，Melikof，withthesanctionandapprovalofhisaugustmaster，was，preparingtointroduceasystemofliberalpoliticalreforms，it，wasintendedtoabolishthegendarmerieasanorganofpolitical，espionage，andaccordinglythedirectionofitwastransferredfrom，theso-calledThirdSectionofhisImperialMajesty’sChanceryto，theMinistryoftheInterior;butwhenthebenevolentmonarchwasa，fewmonthsafterwardsassassinatedbyrevolutionists，theproject，wasnaturallyabandoned，andtheCorpsofGendarmes，while，remainingnominallyundertheMinisteroftheInterior，was，practicallyreinstatedinitsformerposition。Now，asthen，it，servesasakindofsupplementtotheordinarypolice，andis，generallyemployedformattersinwhichsecrecyisrequired。

Unfortunatelyitisnotboundbythoselegalrestrictionswhich，protectthepublicagainstthearbitrarywilloftheordinary，authorities。Inadditiontoitsregulardutiesithasavaguely，definedrovingcommissiontowatchandarrestallpersonswhoseem，toitinanywaydangerousorsuspectes，anditmaykeepsuchin，confinementforanindefinitetime，orremovethemtosomedistant，andinhospitablepartoftheEmpire，withoutmakingthemundergoa，regulartrial。Itis，inshort，theordinaryinstrumentfor，punishingpoliticaldreamers，suppressingsecretsocieties，counteractingpoliticalagitations，andingeneralexecutingthe，extra-legalordersoftheGovernment。

Myrelationswiththisanomalousbranchoftheadministrationwere，somewhatpeculiar。AftermyexperiencewiththeVice-Governorof，NovgorodIdeterminedtoplacemyselfabovesuspicion，and，accordinglyappliedtothe“ChefdesGendarmes“forsomekindof，officialdocumentwhichwouldprovetoallofficialswithwhomI

mightcomeincontactthatIhadnoillicitdesigns。Myrequest，wasgranted，andIwasfurnishedwiththenecessarydocuments;but，IsoonfoundthatinseekingtoavoidScyllaIhadfalleninto，Charybdis。Incalmingofficialsuspicions，Iinadvertentlyaroused，suspicionsofanotherkind。ThedocumentsprovingthatIenjoyed，theprotectionoftheGovernmentmademanypeoplesuspectthatI

wasanemissaryofthegendarmerie，andgreatlyimpededmeinmy，effortstocollectinformationfromprivatesources。Asthe，privatewereformemoreimportantthantheofficialsourcesof，information，Irefrainedfromaskingforarenewalofthe，protection，andwanderedaboutthecountryasanordinary，unprotectedtraveller。ForsometimeIhadnocausetoregretthis，decision。IknewthatIwasprettycloselywatched，andthatmy，letterswereoccasionallyopenedinthepost-office，butIwas，subjectedtonofurtherinconvenience。Atlast，whenIhadnearly，forgottenallaboutScyllaandCharybdis，Ionenightunexpectedly，ranupontheformer，and，tomyastonishment，foundmyselfformally，arrested！，Theincidenthappenedinthiswise。

IhadbeenvisitingAustriaandServia，andafterashortabsence，returnedtoRussiathroughMoldavia。OnarrivingatthePruth，whichthereformsthefrontier，Ifoundanofficerofgendarmerie，whosedutyitwastoexaminethepassportsofallpassers-by。

Thoughmypassportwascompletelyenregle，havingbeendulyvise，bytheBritishandRussianConsulsatGalatz，thisgentleman，subjectedmetoasearchingexaminationregardingmypastlife，actualoccupation，andintentionsforthefuture。Onlearningthat，IhadbeenformorethantwoyearstravellinginRussiaatmyown，expense，forthesimplepurposeofcollectingmiscellaneous，information，helookedincredulous，andseemedtohavesomedoubts，astomybeingagenuineBritishsubject;butwhenmystatements，wereconfirmedbymytravellingcompanion，aRussianfriendwho，carriedawe-inspiringcredentials，hecountersignedmypassport，andallowedustodepart。Theinspectionofourluggagebythe，custom-houseofficerswassoongotover;andaswedroveofftothe，neighbouringvillagewhereweweretospendthenightwe，congratulatedourselvesonhavingescapedforsometimefromall，contactwiththeofficialworld。Inthiswewere“reckoning，withoutthehost。”，AstheclockstrucktwelvethatnightIwas，rousedbyaloudknockingatmydoor，andafteragooddealof，parley，duringwhichsomeoneproposedtoeffectanentranceby，force，Idrewthebolt。Theofficerwhohadsignedmypassport，entered，andsaid，inastiff，officialtone，“Imustrequestyou，toremainherefortwenty-fourhours。”

Notalittleastonishedbythisannouncement，Iventuredtoinquire，thereasonforthisstrangerequest。

“Thatismybusiness，“wasthelaconicreply。

“Perhapsitis;stillyoumust，onmatureconsideration，admitthat，Itoohavesomeinterestinthematter。TomyextremeregretI

cannotcomplywithyourrequest，andmustleaveatsunrise。”

“Youshallnotleave。Givemeyourpassport。”

“Unlessdetainedbyforce，Ishallstartatfouro’clock;andasI

wishtogetsomesleepbeforethattime，Imustrequestyou，instantlytoretire。Youhadtherighttostopmeatthefrontier，butyouhavenorighttocomeanddisturbmeinthisfashion，andI

shallcertainlyreportyou。MypassportIshallgivetononebuta，regularofficerofpolice。”

Herefollowedalongdiscussionontherights，privileges，and，generalcharacterofthegendarmerie，duringwhichmyopponent，graduallylaidasidehisdictatorialtone，andendeavouredto，convincemethatthehonourablebodytowhichhebelongedwas，merelyanordinarybranchoftheadministration。Thoughevidently，irritated，henever，Imustsay，oversteppedtheboundsof，politeness，andseemedonlyhalfconvincedthathewasjustifiedin，interferingwithmymovements。Whenhefoundthathecouldnot，inducemetogiveupmypassport，hewithdrew，andIagainlaydown，torest;butinabouthalfanhourIwasagaindisturbed。This，timeanofficerofregularpoliceentered，anddemandedmy，“papers。”，Tomyinquiriesastothereasonofallthis，disturbance，hereplied，inaverypolite，apologeticway，thathe，knewnothingaboutthereason，buthehadreceivedorderstoarrest，me，andmustobey。TohimIdeliveredmypassport，oncondition，thatIshouldreceiveawrittenreceipt，andshouldbeallowedto，telegraphtotheBritishambassadorinSt。Petersburg。

EarlynextmorningItelegraphedtotheambassador，andwaited，impatientlyalldayforareply。Iwasallowedtowalkaboutthe，villageandtheimmediatevicinity，butofthispermissionIdid，notmakemuchuse。ThevillagepopulationwasentirelyJewish，and，Jewsinthatpartoftheworldhaveawonderfulcapacityfor，spreadingintelligence。Bytheearlymorningtherewasprobably，notaman，woman，orchildintheplacewhohadnotheardofmy，arrest，andmanyofthemfeltanotunnaturalcuriositytoseethe，malefactorwhohadbeencaughtbythepolice。Tobestaredatasa，malefactorisnotveryagreeable，soIpreferredtoremaininmy，room，where，inthecompanyofmyfriend，whokindlyremainedwith，meandmadesmalljokesabouttheboastedlibertyofBritish，subjects，Ispentthetimepleasantlyenough。Themost，disagreeablepartoftheaffairwastheuncertaintyastohowmany，days，weeks，ormonthsImightbedetained，andonthispointthe，police-officerwouldnotevenhazardaconjecture。

ThedetentioncametoanendsoonerthanIexpected。Onthe，followingday——thatistosay，aboutthirty-sixhoursafterthe，nocturnalvisit——thepolice-officerbroughtmemypassport，andat，thesametimeatelegramfromtheBritishEmbassyinformedmethat，thecentralauthoritieshadorderedmyrelease。Onmyafterwards，pertinaciouslyrequestinganexplanationoftheunceremonious，treatmenttowhichIhadbeensubjected，theMinisterforForeign，Affairsdeclaredthattheauthoritiesexpectedapersonofmyname，tocrossthefrontieraboutthattimewithaquantityoffalse，bank-notes，andthatIhadbeenarrestedbymistake。Imust，confessthatthisexplanation，thoughofficial，seemedtomemore，ingeniousthansatisfactory，butIwasobligedtoacceptitfor，whatitwasworth。AtalaterperiodIhadagainthemisfortuneto，attracttheattentionofthesecretpolice，butIreservethe，incidenttillIcometospeakofmyrelationswiththe，revolutionists。

FromallIhaveseenandheardofthegendarmerieIamdisposedto，believethattheofficersareforthemostpartpolite，well-

educatedmen，whoseektofulfiltheirdisagreeabledutiesinas，inoffensiveawayaspossible。Itmust，however，beadmittedthat，theyaregenerallyregardedwithsuspicionanddislike，evenby，thosepeoplewhofeartheattemptsatrevolutionarypropaganda，whichitisthespecialdutyofthegendarmerietodiscoverand，suppress。Norneedthissurpriseus。Thoughverymanypeople，believeinthenecessityofcapitalpunishment，therearefewwho，donotfeeladecidedaversiontothepublicexecutioner。

Theonlyeffectualremedyforadministrativeabusesliesinplacing，theadministrationunderpubliccontrol。Thishasbeenabundantly，provedinRussia。AlltheeffortsoftheTsarsduringmany，generationstochecktheevilbymeansofingeniousbureaucratic，devicesprovedutterlyfruitless。Eventheironwillandgigantic，energyofNicholasI。wereinsufficientforthetask。Butwhen，aftertheCrimeanWar，therewasagreatmoralawakening，andthe，Tsarcalledthepeopletohisassistance，thestubborn，deep-rooted，evilsimmediatelydisappeared。Foratimevenalityandextortion，wereunknown，andsincethatperiodtheyhaveneverbeenableto，regaintheiroldforce。

Atthepresentmomentitcannotbesaidthattheadministrationis，immaculate，butitisincomparablypurerthanitwasinoldtimes。

Thoughpublicopinionisnolongersopowerfulasitwasinthe，earlysixties，itisstillstrongenoughtorepressmany，malpracticeswhichinthetimeofNicholasI。andhispredecessors，weretoofrequenttoattractattention。OnthissubjectIshall，havemoretosayhereafter。

IfadministrativeabusesarerifeintheEmpireoftheTsars，itis，notfromanywantofcarefullypreparedlaws。Innocountryinthe，world，perhaps，isthelegislationmorevoluminous，andintheory，notonlytheofficials，buteventheTsarhimself，mustobeythe，lawshehassanctioned，likethemeanestofhissubjects。Thisis，oneofthosecases，notinfrequentinRussia，inwhichtheory，differssomewhatfrompractice。InreallifetheEmperormayat，anymomentoverridethelawbymeansofwhatiscalledaSupreme，Command(vysotchaishiyepovelenie)，andaministermay“interpret“

alawinanywayhepleasesbymeansofacircular。Thisisa，frequentcauseofcomplaintevenamongthosewhowishtoupholdthe，AutocraticPower。Intheiropinionlaw-respectingautocracy，wieldedbyastrongTsarisanexcellentinstitutionforRussia;it，isarbitraryautocracywieldedbyirresponsibleministersthatthey，objectto。

AsEnglishmenmayhavesomedifficultyinimagininghowlawscan，comeintobeingwithoutaParliamentorLegislativeChamberofsome，sort，Ishallexplainbrieflyhowtheyaremanufacturedbythe，Russianbureaucraticmachinewithouttheassistanceof，representativeinstitutions。

Whenaministerconsidersthatsomeinstitutioninhisbranchof，theservicerequirestobereformed，hebeginsbysubmittingtothe，Emperoraformalreportonthematter。IftheEmperoragreeswith，hisministerastothenecessityforreform，heordersaCommission，tobeappointedforthepurposeofconsideringthesubjectand，preparingadefinitelegislativeproject。TheCommissionmeetsand，setstoworkinwhatseemsaverythoroughway。Itfirststudies，thehistoryoftheinstitutioninRussiafromtheearliesttimes，downwards——orrather，itlistenstoanessayonthesubject，especiallypreparedfortheoccasionbysomeofficialwhohasa，tasteforhistoricalstudies，andcanwriteinapleasantstyle。

Thenextstep——touseaphrasewhichoftenoccursintheminutesof，suchcommissions——consistsin“sheddingthelightofscienceonthe，question“(prolit’nadyelosvetnauki)。Thisimportantoperation，isperformedbypreparingamemorialcontainingthehistoryof，similarinstitutionsinforeigncountries，andanelaborate，expositionofnumeroustheoriesheldbyFrenchandGerman，philosophicaljurists。Inthesememorialsitisoftenconsidered，necessarytoincludeeveryEuropeancountryexceptTurkey，and，sometimesthesmallGermanStatesandprincipalSwisscantonsare，treatedseparately。

Toillustratethecharacterofthesewonderfulproductions，letme，giveanexample。FromapileofsuchpaperslyingbeforemeItake，onealmostatrandom。Itisamemorialrelatingtoaproposed，reformofbenevolentinstitutions。FirstIfindaphilosophical，disquisitiononbenevolenceingeneral;next，someremarksonthe，TalmudandtheKoran;thenareferencetothetreatmentofpaupers，inAthensafterthePeloponnesianWar，andinRomeunderthe，emperors：thensomevagueobservationsontheMiddleAges，witha，quotationthatwasevidentlyintendedtobeLatin;lastly，comesan，accountofthepoor-lawsofmoderntimes，inwhichImeetwith“the，Anglo-Saxondomination，“KingEgbert，KingEthelred，“aremarkable，bookofIcelandiclaws，calledHragas“;SwedenandNorway，France，Holland，Belgium，Prussia，andnearlyalltheminorGermanStates。

Themostwonderfulthingisthatallthismassofhistorical，information，extendingfromtheTalmudtothemostrecent，legislationofHesse-Darmstadt，iscompressedintotwenty-one，octavopages！，Thedoctrinalpartofthememorandumisnotless，rich。ManyrespectednamesfromtheliteratureofGermany，France，andEnglandareforciblydraggedin;andthegeneralconclusion，drawnfromthismassofraw，undigestedmaterialsisbelievedtobe，“thelatestresultsofscience。”

DoesthereadersuspectthatIhaveherechosenanextremely，exceptionalcase？，Ifso，letustakethenextpaperinthefile。

Itreferstoaprojectoflawregardingimprisonmentfordebt。On，thefirstpageIfindreferencesto“theSaliclawsofthefifth，century，“andthe“AssisesdeJerusalem，A。D1099。”，That，Ithink，willsuffice。Letuspass，then，tothenextstep。

Whenthequintessenceofhumanwisdomandexperiencehasthusbeen，extracted，thecommissionconsidershowthevaluableproductmaybe，appliedtoRussia，soastoharmonisewiththeexistinggeneral，conditionsandlocalpeculiarities。Foramanofpracticalmind，thisis，ofcourse，themostinterestingandmostimportantpartof，theoperation，butfromRussianlegislatorsitreceives，comparativelylittleattention。VeryoftenhaveIturnedtothis，sectionofofficialpapersinordertoobtaininformationregarding，theactualstateofthecountry，andineverycaseIhavebeen，grievouslydisappointed。Vaguegeneralphrases，foundedona，priorireasoningratherthanonobservation，togetherwithafew，statisticaltables——whichthecautiousinvestigatorshouldavoidas，hewouldanambuscade——aretoooftenallthatistobefound。

Throughthethinveilofpseudo-eruditiontherealfactsareclear，enough。Thesephilosophicallegislators，whohavespenttheir，livesintheofficialatmosphereofSt。Petersburg，knowasmuch，aboutRussiaasthegenuinecockneyknowsaboutGreatBritain，and，inthispartoftheirworktheyderivenoassistancefromthe，learnedGermantreatiseswhichsupplyanunlimitedamountof，historicalfactsandphilosophicalspeculation。

FromthecommissiontheprojectpassestotheCouncilofState，whereitiscertainlyexaminedandcriticised，andperhaps，modified，butitisnotlikelytobeimprovedfromthepractical，pointofview，becausethemembersoftheCouncilaremerelyci-

devantmembersofsimilarcommissions，hardenedbyafewadditional，yearsofofficialroutine。TheCouncilis，infact，anassemblyof，tchinovnikswhoknowlittleofthepractical，everydaywantsofthe，unofficialclasses。Nomerchant，manufacturer，orfarmerever，entersitssacredprecincts，sothatitsbureaucraticserenityis，rarelydisturbedbypracticalobjections。Itisnotsurprising，therefore，thatithasbeenknowntopasslawswhichwerefoundat，oncetobeabsolutelyunworkable。

FromtheCouncilofStatetheBillistakentotheEmperor，andhe，generallybeginsbyexaminingthesignatures。The“Ayes“arein，onecolumnandthe“Noes“inanother。IfhisMajestyisnot，speciallyacquaintedwiththematter——andhecannotpossiblybe，acquaintedwithallthematterssubmittedtohim——heusuallysigns，withthemajority，oronthesidewhereheseesthenamesof，officialsinwhosejudgmenthehasspecialconfidence;butifhe，hasstrongviewsofhisown，heplaceshissignatureinwhichever，columnhethinksfit，anditoutweighsthesignaturesofanynumber，ofCouncillors。Whateversidehesupports，thatside“hasit，“and，inthiswayasmallminoritymaybetransformedintoamajority。

Whentheimportantquestion，forexample，astohowfarclassics，shouldbetaughtintheordinaryschoolswasconsideredbythe，Council，itissaidthatonlytwomemberssignedinfavourof，classicaleducation，whichwasexcessivelyunpopularatthemoment，buttheEmperorAlexanderIII。disregardingpublicopinionandthe，adviceofhisCouncillors，threwhissignatureintothelighter，scale，andtheclassicistswerevictorious。

CHAPTERXXV

MOSCOWANDTHESLAVOPHILS

TwoAncientCities——KiefNotaGoodPointforStudyingOldRussian，NationalLife——GreatRussiansandLittleRussians——Moscow——Easter，EveintheKremlin——CuriousCustom——AnecdoteoftheEmperor，Nicholas——DomiciliaryVisitsoftheIberianMadonna——TheStreetsof，Moscow——RecentChangesintheCharacteroftheCity——Vulgar，ConceptionoftheSlavophils——OpinionFoundedonPersonal，Acquaintance——SlavophilSentimentaCenturyAgo——Originand，DevelopmentoftheSlavophilDoctrine——SlavophilismEssentially，Muscovite——ThePanslavistElement——TheSlavophilsandthe，Emancipation。

Inthelastchapter，asinmanyoftheprecedingones，thereader，musthaveobservedthatatonemomenttherewasasuddenbreak，almostasolutionofcontinuity，inRussiannationallife。The，TsardomofMuscovy，withitsancientOrientalcostumesand，Byzantinetraditions，unexpectedlydisappears，andtheRussian，Empire，cladinmoderngarbandanimatedwiththespiritofmodern，progress，stepsforwarduninvitedintoEuropeanhistory。Ofthe，oldercivilisation，ifcivilisationitcanbecalled，verylittle，survivedthepoliticaltransformation，andthatlittleisgenerally，supposedtohoverghostlikearoundKiefandMoscow。Tooneor，otherofthesetowns，therefore，thestudentwhodesirestolearn，somethingofgenuineoldRussianlife，untaintedbyforeign，influences，naturallywendshisway。FormypartIthoughtfirst，ofsettlingforatimeinKief，theoldestandmostreveredof，Russiancities，wheremissionariesfromByzantiumfirstplanted，ChristianityonRussiansoil，andwherethousandsofpilgrimsstill，assembleyearlyfromfarandneartoprostratethemselvesbefore，theHolyIconsinthechurchesandtoveneratetherelicsofthe，blessedsaintsandmartyrsinthecatacombsofthegreatmonastery。

Isoondiscovered，however，thatKief，thoughitrepresentsina，certainsensetheByzantinetraditionssodeartotheRussian，people，isnotagoodpointofobservationforstudyingtheRussian，character。Itwasearlyexposedtotheravagesofthenomadic，tribesoftheSteppe，andwhenitwasliberatedfromthose，incursionsitwasseizedbythePolesandLithuanians，andremained，forcenturiesundertheirdomination。Onlyincomparativelyrecent，timesdiditbegintorecoveritsRussiancharacter——auniversity，havingbeencreatedthereforthatpurposeafterthePolish，insurrectionof1830。EvennowtheprocessofRussificationisfar，fromcomplete，andtheRussianelementsinthepopulationarefar，frombeingpureinthenationalistsense。Thecityandthe，surroundingcountryare，infact，LittleRussianratherthanGreat，Russian，andbetweenthesetwosectionsofthepopulationthereare，profounddifferences——differencesoflanguage，costume，traditions，popularsongs，proverbs，folk-lore，domesticarrangements，modeof，life，andCommunalorganisation。Intheseandotherrespectsthe，LittleRussians，SouthRussians，Ruthenes，orKhokhly，astheyare，variouslydesignated，differfromtheGreatRussiansoftheNorth，whoformthepredominantfactorintheEmpire，andwhohavegiven，tothatwonderfulstructureitsessentialcharacteristics。Indeed，ifIdidnotfeartoruffleunnecessarilythepatriotic，susceptibilitiesofmyGreatRussianfriendswhohaveapettheory，onthissubject，Ishouldsaythatwehaveheretwodistinct，nationalities，furtherapartfromeachotherthantheEnglishand，theScotch。Thedifferencesaredue，Ibelieve，partlyto，ethnographicalpeculiaritiesandpartlytohistoricconditions。

AsitwastheenergeticGreatRussianempire-buildersandnotthe，half-dreamy，half-astute，sympatheticdescendantsoftheFree，CossacksthatIwantedtostudy，Isoonabandonedmyideaof，settlingintheHolyCityontheDnieper，andchoseMoscowasmy，pointofobservation;andhere，duringseveralyears，Ispent，regularlysomeofthewintermonths。

ThefirstfewweeksofmystayintheancientcapitaloftheTsars，werespentintheordinarymannerofintelligenttourists。After，masteringthecontentsofaguide-bookIcarefullyinspectedall，theofficiallyrecognisedobjectsofinterest——theKremlin，with，itspicturesquetowersandsixcenturiesofhistorical，associations;theCathedrals，containingtheveneratedtombsof，martyrs，saints，andTsars;theoldchurches，withtheirquaint，archaic，richlydecoratedIcons;the“Patriarchs’Treasury，“rich，injewelledecclesiasticalvestmentsandvesselsofsilverand，gold;theancientandthemodernpalace;theEthnologicalMuseum，showingthecostumesandphysiognomyofallthevariousracesin，theEmpire;thearchaeologicalcollections，containingmanyobjects，thatrecallthebarbaricsplendourofoldMuscovy;thepicture-

gallery，withIvanof’sgiganticpicture，inwhichpatrioticRussian，criticsdiscoveroccultmeritswhichplaceitaboveanythingthat，WesternEuropehasyetproduced！，OfcourseIclimbeduptothetop，ofthetallbelfrywhichrejoicesinthenameof“IvantheGreat，“

andlookeddownonthe“gildeddomes“*ofthechurches，andbright，greenroofsofthehouses，andfaraway，beyondthese，thegently，undulatingcountrywiththe“SparrowHills，“fromwhichNapoleonis，said，inciceronelanguage，tohave“gazeduponthedoomedcity。”

OccasionallyIwalkedaboutthebazaarsinthehopeoffinding，interestingspecimensofgenuinenativeart-industry，andwas，urgentlyinvitedtopurchaseeveryconceivablearticlewhichIdid，notwant。AtmiddayorintheeveningIvisitedthemostnoted，traktirs，andmadetheacquaintanceofthecaviar，sturgeons，sterlets，andothernativedelicaciesforwhichtheseinstitutions，arefamous——deafenedthewhilebythedeeptonesofthecolossal，barrel-organ，outofallproportiontothesizeoftheroom;andin，ordertoseehowthecommonpeoplespenttheireveningsIlookedin，atsomeofthemoremodesttraktirs，andgazedwithwonder，not，unmixedwithfear，attheenormousquantityofweakteawhichthe，inmatesconsumed。

*Allowancemustbemadehereforpoeticallicence。Inreality，veryfewofthedomesaregilt。Thegreatmajorityofthemare，paintedgreen，liketheroofsofthehouses。

SincethesefirstweeksofmysojourninMoscowmorethanthirty，yearshavepassed，andmanyofmyearlyimpressionshavebeen，blurredbytime，butonesceneremainsdeeplygravenonmymemory。

ItwasEasterEve，andIhadgonewithafriendtotheKremlinto，witnessthecustomaryreligiousceremonies。Thoughtherainwas，fallingheavily，animmensenumberofpeoplehadassembledinand，aroundtheCathedraloftheAssumption。Thecrowdwasofthemost，mixedkind。Therestoodthepatientbeardedmuzhikinhiswell-

wornsheepskin;thebig，burly，self-satisfiedmerchantinhislong，blackglossykaftan;thenoblewithfashionablegreat-coatand，umbrella;thinlycladoldwomenshiveringinthecold，andbright-

eyedyoungdamselswiththeirwarmcloaksdrawncloselyroundthem;

oldmenwithlongbeard，wallet，andpilgrim’sstaff;and，mischievousurchinswithfacesforthemomentpreternaturally，demure。Eachrighthand，ofoldandyoungalike，heldalighted，taper，andthesemyriadsofflickeringlittleflamesproduceda，curiousillumination，givingtothesurroundingbuildingsaweird，picturesquenesswhichtheydonotpossessinbroaddaylight。All，stoodpatientlywaitingfortheannouncementofthegladtidings：

“Heisrisen！”Asmidnightapproached，thehumofvoicesgradually，ceased，till，astheclockstrucktwelve，thedeep-tonedbellon，“IvantheGreat“begantotoll，andinanswertothissignalall，thebellsinMoscowsuddenlysentforthamerrypeal。Eachbell——

andtheirnameislegion——seemedfranticallydesirousofdrowning，itsneighbour’svoice，thesolemnboomofthegreatoneoverhead，minglingcuriouslywiththesharp，fussy“ting-a-ting-ting“of，diminutiverivals。IfdemonsdwellinMoscowanddislikebell-

ringing，asisgenerallysupposed，thentheremusthavebeenat，thatmomentageneralstampedeofthepowersofdarknesssuchasis，describedbyMiltoninhispoemontheNativity，andasifthis，deafeningdinwerenotenough，biggunswerefiredinrapid，successionfromabatteryofartillerycloseathand！，Thenoise，seemedtostimulatethereligiousenthusiasm，andthegeneral，excitementhadawonderfuleffectonaRussianfriendwho，accompaniedme。Wheninhisnormalconditionthatgentlemanwasa，quiet，undemonstrativeperson，devotedtoscience，anardent，adherentofWesterncivilisationingeneralandofDarwinismin，particular，andathoroughscepticwithregardtoallformsof，religiousbelief;buttheinfluenceofthesurroundingswastoo，muchforhisphilosophicalequanimity。Foramomenthisorthodox，Muscovitesoulawokefromitssceptical，cosmopolitanlethargy。

Aftercrossinghimselfrepeatedly——anactofdevotionwhichIhad，neverbeforeseenhimperform——hegraspedmyarm，and，pointingto，thecrowd，saidinanexultanttoneofvoice，“Lookthere！，There，isasightthatyoucanseenowherebutinthe’White-stoneCity。’*

ArenottheRussiansareligiouspeople？”

*Belokamenny，meaning“ofwhitestone，“isoneofthepopularnames，ofMoscow。

TothisunexpectedquestionIgaveamonosyllabicassent，and，refrainedfromdisturbingmyfriend’snew-bornenthusiasmbyany，discordantnote;butImustconfessthatthissuddenoutburstof，deafeningnoiseandthedazzlinglightarousedinmyheretical，breastfeelingsofawarlikeratherthanareligiouskind。Fora，momentIcouldimaginemyselfinancientMoscow，andcouldfancy，thepeoplebeingcalledouttorepelaTartarhordealready，thunderingatthegates！

Theservicelastedtwoorthreehours，andterminatedwiththe，curiousceremonyofblessingtheEastercakes，whichwereranged——

eachonewithalightedtaperstuckinit——inlongrowsoutsideof，thecathedral。Anotlesscuriouscustompractisedatthisseason，isthatofexchangingkissesoffraternallove。Theoreticallyone，oughttoembraceandbeembracedbyallpresent——indicatingthereby，thatallarebrethreninChrist——buttherefinementsofmodernlife，havemadeinnovationsinthepractice，andmostpeopleconfine，theirsalutationstotheirfriendsandacquaintances。Whentwo，friendsmeetduringthatnightoronthefollowingday，theone，says，“Christosvoskres！”(“Christhathrisen！”);andtheother，replies，“Voistinevoskres！”(“Intruthhehathrisen！”)。They，thenkisseachotherthreetimesontherightandleftcheek，alternately。Thecustomismoreorlessobservedinallclassesof，society，andtheEmperorhimselfconformstoit。

ThisremindsmeofananecdotewhichisrelatedoftheEmperor，NicholasI。tendingtoshowthathewasnotsodevoidofkindly，humanfeelingsashisimperialandimperiousexteriorsuggested。

OncomingoutofhiscabinetoneEastermorningheaddressedtothe，soldierwhowasmountingguardatthedoortheordinarywordsof，salutation，“Christhathrisen！”andreceivedinsteadofthe，ordinaryreply，aflatcontradiction——“Notatall，yourImperial，Majesty！”Astoundedbysuchanunexpectedanswer——fornoone，venturedtodissentfromNicholaseveninthemostguardedand，respectfulterms——heinstantlydemandedanexplanation。The，soldier，tremblingathisownaudacity，explainedthathewasa，Jew，andcouldnotconscientiouslyadmitthefactofthe，Resurrection。Thisboldnessforconscience’sakesopleasedthe，TsarthathegavethemanahandsomeEasterpresent。

AquarterofacenturyaftertheEasterEveabovementioned——or，to，bequiteaccurate，onthe26thofMay，1896——Iagainfindmyselfin，theKremlinontheoccasionofagreatreligiousceremony——a，ceremonywhichshowsthat“theWhite-stoneCity“ontheMoskvais，stillinsomerespectsthecapitalofHolyRussia。Thistimemy，postofobservationisinsidethecathedral，whichisartistically，drapedwithpurplehangingsandcrowdedwiththemostdistinguished，personagesoftheEmpire，allarrayedingorgeousapparel——Grand，DukesandGrandDuchesses，ImperialHighnessesandHigh，Excellencies，MetropolitansandArchbishops，Senatorsand，CouncillorsofState，GeneralsandCourtdignitaries。Inthe，centreofthebuilding，onahigh，richlydecoratedplatform，sits，theEmperorwithhisImperialConsort，andhismother，thewidowed，ConsortofAlexanderIII。ThoughNicholasII。hasnotthecolossal，staturewhichhasdistinguishedsomanyoftheRomanofs，heiswell，built，holdshimselferect，andshowsaquietdignityinhis，movements;whilehisface，whichresemblesthatofhiscousin，the，PrinceofWales，wearsakindly，sympatheticexpression。The，Empresslooksevenmorethanusuallybeautiful，inalowdresscut，intheancientfashion，herthickbrownhair，dressedmostsimply，withoutjewelleryorotherornaments，fallingintwolongringlets，overherwhiteshoulders。Forthemoment，herattireismuch，simplerthanthatoftheEmpressDowager，whowearsadiamondcrown，andagreatmantleofgoldbrocade，linedandedgedwithermine，thelongtraindisplayinginbright-colouredembroiderythe，heraldicdouble-headedeagleoftheImperialarms。

Eachoftheseaugustpersonagessitsonathroneofcurious，workmanship，consecratedbyancienthistoricassociations。Thatof，theEmperor，thegiftoftheShahofPersiatoIvantheTerrible，andcommonlycalledtheThroneofTsarMichael，thefounderofthe，Romanofdynasty，iscoveredwithgoldplaques，andstuddedwith，hundredsofbig，roughlycutpreciousstones，mostlyrubies，emeralds，andturquoises。Ofstillolderdateisthethroneofthe，youngEmpress，foritwasgivenbyPopePaulII。toTsarIvanIII。，grandfatheroftheTerrible，ontheoccasionofhismarriagewitha，nieceofthelastByzantineEmperor。Morerecentbutnotless，curiousisthatoftheEmpressDowager。ItisthethroneofTsar，Alexis，thefatherofPetertheGreat，coveredwithcountlessand，pricelessdiamonds，rubies，andpearls，andsurmountedbyan，Imperialeagleofsolidgold，togetherwithgoldenstatuettesof，St。PeterandSt。Nicholas，themiracle-worker。Overeachthrone，isacanopyofpurplevelvetfringedwithgold，outofwhichrise，statelyplumesrepresentingthenationalcolours。

TheirMajestieshavecomehither，inaccordancewithtime-honoured，custom，tobecrownedinthisoldCathedraloftheAssumption，the，centralpointoftheKremlin，withinastone-throwoftheCathedral，oftheArchangelMichael，inwhichlietheremainsoftheoldGrand，DukesandTsarsofMuscovy。AlreadytheEmperorhasreadaloud，in，aclear，unfalteringvoice，fromarichlyboundparchmentfolio，heldbytheMetropolitanofSt。Petersburg，theOrthodoxcreed;and，hisEminence，afterinvokingonhisMajestytheblessingofthe，HolySpirit，hasperformedthemysticriteofplacinghishandsin，theformofacrossontheImperialforehead。Thusallisready，forthemostimportantpartofthesolemnceremony。Standing，erect，theEmperordoffshissmalldiademandputsonwithhisown，handsthegreatdiamondcrown，offeredrespectfullybythe，Metropolitan;thenhereseatshimselfonhisthrone，holdinginhis，righthandtheSceptreandinhislefttheOrbofDominion。After，sittingthusinstateforafewminutes，hestandsupandproceeds，tocrownhisaugustspouse，kneelingbeforehim。Firsthetouches，herforeheadwithhisowncrown，andthenheplacesonherheada，smallerone，whichisimmediatelyattachedtoherhairbyfour，ladies-in-waiting，dressedintheoldMuscoviteCourt-costume。At，thesametimeherMajestyisinvestedwithamantleofheavygold，brocade，similartothoseoftheEmperorandEmpressDowager，lined，andborderedwithermine。

ThuscrownedandrobedtheirMajestiessitinstate，whileaproto-

deaconreads，inaloudstentorianvoice，thelonglistofsonorous，hereditarytitlesbelongingofrighttotheImperatorandAutocrat，ofalltheRussias，andthechoirchantsaprayerinvokinglong，lifeandhappiness——“Manyyears！，Manyyears！，Manyyears！”——onthe，highandmightypossessorofthetitlesaforesaid。Andnowbegins，theMass，celebratedwithapompandmagnificencethatcanbe，witnessedonlyonceortwiceinageneration。Sixtygorgeously，robedecclesiasticaldignitariesofthehighestordersfulfiltheir，variousfunctionswithduesolemnityandunction;butthe，magnificenceofthevestmentsandthepompoftheceremonialare，soonforgottenintheexquisitesolemnisingmusic，asthedeep，double-basstonesoftheadultsingersinthebackground——carefully，selectedfortheoccasioninallpartsoftheEmpire——pealforthas，fromagreatorgan，andblendmarvellouslywiththeclear，soft，gentlenotesofthered-robedchoristerboysinfrontofthe，Iconostase。Listeningwithintenseemotion，Iinvoluntarilyrecall，tomindFraAngelico’spicturesofangelicchoirs，andcannothelp，thinkingthatthepiousoldFlorentine，whosesoulwasattunedto，allthatwassacredandbeautiful，musthaveheardinimagination，suchmusicasthis。Sostrongistheimpressionthatthe，subsequentdetailsofthelongceremony，includingtheanointing，withtheholychrism，failtoengravethemselvesonmymemory。One，incident，however，remains;andifithadhappenedinanearlier，andmoresuperstitiousageitwoulddoubtlesshavebeenchronicled，asanomenfullofsignificance。AstheEmperorisonthepointof，descendingfromthedais，dulycrownedandanointed，astaggering，rayofsunshinestealsthroughoneofthenarrowupperwindowsand，traversingthedimlylitedifice，fallsfullontheImperialcrown，lightingupforamomentthegreatmassofdiamondswitha，hundredfoldbrilliance。

InadetailedaccountoftheCoronationwhichIwroteonleaving，theKremlin，Ifindthefollowing：“Themagnificentceremonyisat，anend，andnowNicholasII。isthecrownedEmperorandanointed，AutocratofalltheRussias。MaythecaresofEmpirerestlightly，onhim！，Thatmustbetheearnestprayerofeveryloyalsubjectand，everysincerewell-wisher，forofalllivingmortalsheisperhaps，theonewhohasbeenentrustedbyProvidencewiththegreatest，powerandthegreatestresponsibilities。”，InwritingthosewordsI

didnotforeseehowheavyhisresponsibilitieswouldonedayweigh，uponhim，whenhisEmpirewouldbesorelytried，byforeignwarand，internaldiscontent。

OnemoreoftheseoldMoscowreminiscences，andIhavedone。Aday，ortwoaftertheCoronationIsawtheKhodinskoyePolye，agreat，plainintheoutskirtsofMoscow，strewnwithhundredsofcorpses！

Duringthepreviousnightenormouscrowdsfromthecityandthe，surroundingdistrictshadcollectedhereinordertoreceiveat，sunrise，bytheTsar’scommand，alittlemementoofthecoronation，ceremony，intheformofapacketcontainingametalcupandafew，eatables;andasdaydawned，intheiranxietytogetneartherow，ofboothsfromwhichthedistributionwastobemade，abouttwo，thousandhadbeencrushedtodeath。Itwasasightmorehorrible，thanabattlefield，becauseamongthedeadwerealargeproportion，ofwomenandchildren，terriblymutilatedinthestruggle。

Altogether，“asighttoshudderat，nottosee！”

ToreturntotheremarkofmyfriendintheKremlinonEasterEve，theRussiansingeneral，andtheMuscovitesinparticular，asthe，quintessenceofallthatisRussian，arecertainlyareligious，people，buttheirpietysometimesfindsmodesofexpressionwhich，rathershocktheProtestantmind。Asaninstanceofthese，Imay，mentionthedomiciliaryvisitsoftheIberianMadonna。This，celebratedIcon，forreasonswhichIhaveneverheard，satisfactorilyexplained，isheldinpeculiarvenerationbythe，Muscovites，andoccupiesinpopularestimationapositionanalogous，tothetutelarydeitiesofancientpagancities。Thuswhen，Napoleonwasabouttoenterthecityin1812，thepopulace，clamorouslycalledupontheMetropolitantotaketheMadonna，and，leadthemoutarmedwithhatchetsagainstthehostsoftheinfidel;

andwhentheTsarvisitsMoscowhegenerallydrivesstraightfrom，therailway-stationtothelittlechapelwheretheIconresides——

nearoneoftheentrancestotheKremlin——andthereoffersupa，shortprayer。EveryOrthodoxRussian，ashepassesthischapel，uncoversandcrosseshimself，andwheneverareligiousserviceis，performedinitthereisalwaysaconsiderablegroupof，worshippers。Someofthericherinhabitants，however，arenot，contentwiththusperformingtheirdevotionsinpublicbeforethe，Icon。Theyliketohaveitfromtimetotimeintheirhouses，and，theecclesiasticalauthoritiesthinkfittohumourthisstrange，fancy。AccordinglyeverymorningtheIberianMadonnamaybeseen，drivingaboutthecityfromonehousetoanotherinacarriageand，four！，Thecarriagemaybeatoncerecognised，notfromany，peculiarityinitsstructure，foritisanordinaryclosecarriage，suchasmaybeobtainedatliverystables，butbythefactthatthe，coachmansitsbare-headed，andallthepeopleinthestreetuncover，andcrossthemselvesasitpasses。Arrivedatthehousetowhich，ithasbeeninvited，theIconiscarriedthroughalltherooms，and，intheprincipalapartmentashortreligiousserviceisperformed，beforeit。Asitisbeingbroughtinortakenaway，female，servantsmaysometimesbeseentokneelonthefloorsothatitmay，becarriedoverthem。Duringitsabsencefromitschapelitis，replacedbyacopynoteasilydistinguishablefromtheoriginal，andthusthedevotionsofthefaithfulandtheflowofpecuniary，contributionsdonotsufferinterruption。Thesecontributions，togetherwiththesumspaidforthedomiciliaryvisits，amounttoa，considerableyearlysum，andgo——ifIamrightlyinformed——toswell，therevenuesoftheMetropolitan。

AsingledriveorstrollthroughMoscowwillsufficetoconvince，thetraveller，evenifheknowsnothingofRussianhistory，that，thecityisnot，likeitsmodernrivalontheNeva，theartificial，creationofafar-seeing，self-willedautocrat，butrathera，naturalproductwhichhasgrownupslowlyandbeenmodified，accordingtotheconstantlychangingwantsofthepopulation。A

fewofthestreetshavebeenEuropeanised——inallexceptthe，paving，whichiseverywhereexecrablyAsiatic——tosuitthetastes，ofthosewhohaveadoptedEuropeanculture，butthegreatmajority，ofthemstillretainmuchoftheirancientcharacterandprimitive，irregularity。Assoonaswedivergefromtheprincipal，thoroughfares，wefindone-storiedhouses——someofthemstillof，wood——whichappeartohavebeentransportedbodilyfromthe，country，withcourtyard，garden，stables，andotherappurtenances。

Thewholeisnodoubtalittlecompressed，forlandhasherea，certainvalue，butthecharacterisinnowaychanged，andwehave，somedifficultyinbelievingthatwearenotinthesuburbsbut，nearthecentreofagreattown。Thereisnothingthatcanbyany，possibilitybecalledstreetarchitecture。Thoughthereis，unmistakableevidenceofthestreetshavingbeenlaidoutaccording，toapreconceivedplan，manyofthemshowclearlythatintheir，infancytheyhadawaywardwilloftheirown，andbenttotheright，orleftwithoutanytopographicaljustification。Thehouses，too，displayconsiderableindividualityofcharacter，havingevidently，duringthecourseoftheirconstructionpaidnoattentiontotheir，neighbours。Hencewefindnoregularlybuiltterraces，crescents，orsquares。Thereis，itistrue，adoublecircleofboulevards，butthehouseswhichflankthemhavenoneofthatregularitywhich，wecommonlyassociatewiththeterm。Dilapidatedbuildingswhich，inWest-Europeancitieswouldhidethemselvesinsomenarrowlane，orbackslumherestandcomposedlyinthefaceofdaybytheside，ofapalatialresidence，withouthavingtheleastconsciousnessof，theincongruityoftheirposition，justastheunsophisticated，muzhik，inhisunsavourysheepskin，canstandinthemidstofa，crowdofwell-dressedpeoplewithoutfeelingatallawkwardor，uncomfortable。

Allthisincongruity，however，isspeedilydisappearing。Moscow，hasbecomethecentreofagreatnetworkofrailways，andthe，commercialandindustrialcapitaloftheEmpire。Alreadyher，rapidlyincreasingpopulationhasnearlyreachedamillion。*，The，valueoflandandpropertyisbeingdoubledandtrebled，and，buildingspeculations，withtheaidofcreditinstitutionsof，variouskinds，arebeingcarriedonwithfeverishrapidity。Well，maythemenoftheoldschoolcomplainthattheworldisturned，upsidedown，andregrettheoldtimesoftraditionalsomnolenceand，comfortableroutine！，Thosegoodoldtimesaregonenow，neverto，return。Theancientcapital，whichlonggloriedinitspast，historicalassociations，nowgloriesinitspresentcommercial，prosperity，andlooksforwardwithconfidencetothefuture。Even，theSlavophils，theobstinatechampionsoftheultra-Muscovite，spirit，havechangedwiththetimes，anddescendedtothelevelof，ordinaryprosaiclife。Thesemen，whoformerlyspentyearsin，seekingtodeterminetheplaceofMoscowinthepastandfuture，historyofhumanity，have——totheirhonourbeitsaid——becomein，theselatterdaystown-counsellors，andhavedevotedmuchoftheir，timetodevisingwaysandmeansofimprovingthedrainageandthe，street-paving！，ButIamanticipatinginamostunjustifiableway。

IoughtfirsttotellthereaderwhotheseSlavophilswere，andwhy，theysoughttocorrectthecommonlyreceivedconceptionsof，universalhistory。

*Accordingtothecensusof1897itwas988，610。

ThereadermayhaveheardoftheSlavophilsasasetoffanatics，who，abouthalfacenturyago，werewonttogoaboutinwhatthey，consideredtheancientRussiancostume，whoworebeardsindefiance，ofPetertheGreat’scelebratedukazandNicholas’sclearly-

expressedwishanentshaving，whogloriedinMuscovitebarbarism，andhadsolemnly“swornafeud“againstEuropeancivilisationand，enlightenment。BythetouristsofthetimewhovisitedMoscowthey，wereregardedasamongthemostnoteworthylionsoftheplace，and，werecommonlydepictedinnotveryflatteringcolours。Atthe，beginningoftheCrimeanWartheywereamongtheextreme，ChauvinistswhourgedthenecessityofplantingtheGreekcrosson，thedesecrateddomeofSt。SophiainConstantinople，andhopedto，seetheEmperorproclaimed“PanslavonicTsar“;andafterthe，terminationofthewartheywerefrequentlyaccusedofinventing，Turkishatrocities，stirringupdiscontentamongtheSlavonic，subjectsoftheSultan，andsecretlyplottingfortheoverthrowof，theOttomanEmpire。AllthiswasknowntomebeforeIwentto，Russia，andIhadconsequentlyinvestedtheSlavophilswithahalo，ofromance。ShortlyaftermyarrivalinSt。PetersburgIheard，somethingmorewhichtendedtoincreasemyinterestinthem——they，hadcaused，Iwastold，greattrepidationamongthehighest，officialcirclesbypetitioningtheEmperortoresuscitatea，certainancientinstitution，calledZemskiyeSobory，whichmightbe，madetoservethepurposesofaparliament！，Thisthrewanewlight，uponthem——underthedisguiseofarchaeologicalconservativesthey，wereevidentlyaimingatimportantliberalreforms。

Asaforeignerandaheretic，Iexpectedaverycoldanddistant，receptionfromtheseuncompromisingchampionsofRussian，nationalityandtheOrthodoxfaith;butinthisIwasagreeably，disappointed。ByallofthemIwasreceivedinthemostamiable，andfriendlyway，andIsoondiscoveredthatmypreconceivedideas，ofthemwereveryfarfromthetruth。InsteadofwildfanaticsI

foundquiet，extremelyintelligent，highlyeducatedgentlemen，speakingforeignlanguageswitheaseandelegance，anddeeply，imbuedwiththatWesternculturewhichtheywerecommonlysupposed，todespise。Andthisfirstimpressionwasamplyconfirmedby，subsequentexperienceduringseveralyearsoffriendlyintercourse。

Theyalwaysshowedthemselvesmenofearnestcharacterandstrong，convictions，buttheyneversaidordidanythingthatcouldjustify，theappellationoffanatics。Likeallphilosophicaltheorists，theyoftenallowedtheirlogictoblindthemtofacts，buttheir，reasoningswereveryplausible——soplausible，indeed，that，hadI

beenaRussiantheywouldhavealmostpersuadedmetobea，Slavophil，atleastduringthetimetheyweretalkingtome。

Tounderstandtheirdoctrinewemustknowsomethingofitsorigin，anddevelopment。

TheoriginoftheSlavophilsentiment，whichmustnotbeconfounded，withtheSlavophildoctrine，istobesoughtinthelatterhalfof，theseventeenthcentury，whentheTsarsofMuscovywereintroducing，innovationsinChurchandState。Theseinnovationswereprofoundly，displeasingtothepeople。Alargeportionofthelowerclasses，asIhaverelatedinapreviouschapter，soughtrefugeinOld，Ritualismorsectarianism，andimaginedthatTsarPeter，whocalled，himselfbythehereticaltitleof“Imperator，“wasanemanationof，theEvilPrinciple。Thenoblesdidnotgoquitesofar。They，remainedmembersoftheofficialChurch，andrestrictedthemselves，tohintingthatPeterwastheson，notofSatan，butofaGerman，surgeon——alineagewhich，accordingtotheconceptionsofthetime，wasalittlelessobjectionable;butmostofthemwereveryhostile，tothechanges，andcomplainedbitterlyofthenewburdenswhich，thesechangesentailed。UnderPeter’simmediatesuccessors，when，notonlytheprinciplesofadministrationbutalsomanyofthe，administratorswereGerman，thishostilitygreatlyincreased。

Solongastheinnovationsappearedonlyintheofficialactivity，oftheGovernment，thepatriotic，conservativespiritwasobliged，tokeepsilence;butwhentheforeigninfluencespreadtothe，sociallifeoftheCourtaristocracy，theoppositionbegantofind，aliteraryexpression。InthetimeofCatherineII。when，GallomaniawasatitsheightinCourtcircles，comediesand，satiricaljournalsridiculedthosewho，“blindedbysomeexternally，brilliantgiftsofforeigners，notonlypreferforeigncountriesto，theirnativeland，butevendespisetheirfellow-countrymen，and，thinkthataRussianoughttoborrowall——evenpersonalcharacter。

Asifnaturearrangingallthingswithsuchwisdom，andbestowing，onallregionsthegiftsandcustomswhichareappropriatetothe，climate，hadbeensounjustastorefusetotheRussiansa，characteroftheirown！，Asifshecondemnedthemtowanderover，allregions，andtoadoptbybitsthevariouscustomsofvarious，nations，inordertocomposeoutofthemixtureanewcharacter，appropriatetononationwhatever！”Numerouspassagesofthiskind，mightbequoted，attackingthe“monkeyism“and“parrotism“ofthose，whoindiscriminatelyadoptedforeignmannersandcustoms——thosewho，“SaunteredEuroperound，Andgatheredev’ryviceinev’ryground。”

Sometimesthetermsandmetaphorsemployedweremoreforciblethan，refined。Onesatiricaljournal，forinstance，relatesanamusing，storyaboutcertainlittleRussianpigsthatwenttoforeignlands，toenlightentheirunderstanding，andcamebacktotheircountry，full-grownswine。Thenationalpridewaswoundedbythethought，thatRussianscouldbecalled“cleverapeswhofeedonforeign，intelligence，“andmanywriters，stungbysuchreproaches，fell，intotheoppositeextreme，discoveringunheard-ofexcellencesin，theRussianmindandcharacter，andvociferouslydecrying，everythingforeigninordertoplacetheseimaginedexcellencesin，astrongerlightbycontrast。Evenwhentheyrecognisedthattheir，countrywasnotquitesoadvancedincivilisationascertainother，nations，theycongratulatedthemselvesonthefact，andinventedby，wayofjustificationaningenioustheory，whichwasafterwards，developedbytheSlavophils。”ThenationsoftheWest，“theysaid，“begantolivebeforeus，andareconsequentlymoreadvancedthan，weare;butwehaveonthataccountnoreasontoenvythem，forwe，canprofitbytheirerrors，andavoidthosedeep-rootedevilsfrom，whichtheyaresuffering。Hewhohasjustbeenbornishappier，thanhewhoisdying。”

Thus，wesee，apatrioticreactionagainsttheintroductionof，foreigninstitutionsandtheinordinateadmirationofforeign，culturealreadyexistedinRussiamorethanacenturyago。Itdid，not，however，taketheformofaphilosophicaltheorytillamuch，laterperiod，whenasimilarmovementwasgoingoninvarious，countriesofWesternEurope。

AftertheoverthrowofthegreatNapoleonicEmpireareaction，againstcosmopolitanismtookplaceandaromanticenthusiasmfor，nationalityspreadoverEuropelikeanepidemic。Blind，enthusiasticpatriotismbecamethefashionablesentimentofthe，time。Eachnationtooktoadmiringitselfcomplacently，to，praisingitsowncharacterandachievements，andtoidealisingits，historicalandmythicalpast。Nationalpeculiarities，“local，colour，“ancientcustoms，traditionalsuperstitions——inshort，everythingthatanationbelievedtobespeciallyandexclusively，itsown，nowraisedanenthusiasmsimilartothatwhichhadbeen，formerlyexcitedbycosmopolitanconceptionsfoundedonthelawof，nature。Themovementproducedgoodandevilresults。Inserious，mindsitledtoadeepandconscientiousstudyofhistory，national，literature，popularmythology，andthelike;whilstinfrivolous，inflammablespiritsitgavebirthmerelytoatorrentofpatriotic，fervourandrhetoricalexaggeration。TheSlavophilswerethe，Russianrepresentativesofthisnationalisticreaction，and，displayedbothitsseriousanditsfrivolouselements。

AmongthemostimportantproductsofthismovementinGermanywas，theHegeliantheoryofuniversalhistory。AccordingtoHegel’s，views，whichweregenerallyacceptedbythosewhooccupied，themselveswithphilosophicalquestions，universalhistorywas，describedas“Progressintheconsciousnessoffreedom“

(FortschrittimBewusstseinderFreiheit)。Ineachperiodofthe，world’shistory，itwasexplained，someonenationorracehadbeen，intrustedwiththehighmissionofenablingtheAbsoluteReason，or，Weltgeist，toexpressitselfinobjectiveexistence，whilethe，othernationsandraceshadforthetimenometaphysical，justificationfortheirexistence，andnohigherdutythanto，imitateslavishlythefavouredrivalinwhichtheWeltgeisthadfor，themomentchosentoincorporateitself。Theincarnationhadtaken，placefirstintheEasternMonarchies，theninGreece，nextin，Rome，andlastlyintheGermanicrace;anditwasgenerally，assumed，ifnotopenlyasserted，thatthismysticalMetempsychosis，oftheAbsolutewasnowatanend。Thecycleofexistencewas，complete。IntheGermanicpeoplestheWeltgeisthadfoundits，highestandfinalexpression。

RussiansingeneralknewnothingaboutGermanphilosophy，andwere，consequentlynotinanywayaffectedbytheseideas，buttherewas，inMoscowasmallgroupofyoungmenwhoardentlystudiedGerman，literatureandmetaphysics，andtheyweremuchshockedbyHegel’s，views。EversincethebrilliantreignofCatherineII。whohad，defeatedtheTurksandhaddreamedofresuscitatingtheByzantine，Empire，andespeciallysincethememorableeventsof1812-15，when，AlexanderI。appearedastheliberatorofenthralledEuropeandthe，arbiterofherdestinies，Russianswerefirmlyconvincedthattheir，countrywasdestinedtoplayamostimportantpartinhuman，history。AlreadythegreatRussianhistorianKaramzinhaddeclared，thathenceforthCliomustbesilentoraccordtoRussiaaprominent，placeinthehistoryofthenations。Now，bytheHegeliantheory，thewholeoftheSlavracewasleftoutinthecold，withnohigh，mission，withnonewtruthstodivulge，withnothingbettertodo，infact，thantoimitatetheGermans。

ThepatrioticphilosophersofMoscowcouldnot，ofcourse，adopt，thisview。Whilstacceptingthefundamentalprinciples，they，declaredthetheorytobeincomplete。Theincompletenesslayin，theassumptionthathumanityhadalreadyenteredonthefinal，stagesofitsdevelopment。TheTeutonicnationswereperhapsfor，themomenttheleadersinthemarchofcivilisation，buttherewas，noreasontosupposethattheywouldalwaysretainthatprivileged，position。Onthecontrary，therewerealreadysymptomsthattheir，ascendencywasdrawingtoaclose。”WesternEurope，“itwassaid，“presentsastrange，saddeningspectacle。Opinionstruggles，againstopinion，poweragainstpower，throneagainstthrone。

Science，Art，andReligion，thethreechiefmotorsofsociallife，havelosttheirforce。Weventuretomakeanassertionwhichto，manyatpresentmayseemstrange，butwhichwillbeinafewyears，onlytooevident：WesternEuropeisonthehighroadtoruin！，We，Russians，onthecontrary，areyoungandfresh，andhavetakenno，partinthecrimesofEurope。Wehaveagreatmissiontofulfil。

Ournameisalreadyinscribedonthetabletsofvictory，andnowwe，havetoinscribeourspiritinthehistoryofthehumanmind。A

higherkindofvictory——thevictoryofScience，ArtandFaith——

awaitsusontheruinsoftotteringEurope！”*

*ThesewordswerewrittenbyPrinceOdoefski。

Thisconclusionwassupportedbyargumentsdrawnfromhistory——or，atleast，whatwasbelievedtobehistory。TheEuropeanworldwas，representedasbeingcomposedoftwohemispheres——theEasternor，Graeco-Slavonicontheonehand，andtheWestern，orRomanCatholic，andProtestant，ontheother。Thesetwohemispheres，itwassaid，aredistinguishedfromeachotherbymanyfundamental，characteristics。InbothofthemChristianityformedoriginally，thebasisofcivilisation，butintheWestitbecamedistortedand，gaveafalsedirectiontotheintellectualdevelopment。Byplacing，thelogicalreasonofthelearnedabovetheconscienceofthewhole，Church，RomanCatholicismproducedProtestantism，whichproclaimed，therightofprivatejudgmentandconsequentlybecamesplitupinto，innumerablesects。Thedry，logicalspiritwhichwasthusfostered，createdapurelyintellectual，one-sidedphilosophy，whichmustend，inpurescepticism，byblindingmentothosegreattruthswhichlie，abovethesphereofreasoningandlogic。TheGraeco-Slavonic，world，onthecontrary，havingacceptedChristianitynotfromRome，butfromByzantium，receivedpureorthodoxyandtrueenlightenment，andwasthussavedalikefromPapaltyrannyandfromProtestant，free-thinking。HencetheEasternChristianshavepreserved，faithfullynotonlytheancientdogmas，butalsotheancientspirit，ofChristianity——thatspiritofpioushumility，resignation，and，brotherlylovewhichChristtaughtbypreceptandexample。Ifthey，havenotyetaphilosophy，theywillcreateone，anditwillfar，surpassallprevioussystems;forinthewritingsoftheGreek，Fathersaretobefoundthegermsofabroader，adeeper，anda，truerphilosophythanthedry，meagrerationalismoftheWest——a，philosophyfoundednotonthelogicalfacultyalone，butonthe，broaderbasisofhumannatureasawhole。

ThefundamentalcharacteristicsoftheGraeco-Slavonicworld——so，runstheSlavophiltheory——havebeendisplayedinthehistoryof，Russia。ThroughoutWesternChristendomtheprincipalofindividual，judgmentandrecklessindividualegotismhaveexhaustedthesocial，forcesandbroughtsocietytothevergeofincurableanarchyand，inevitabledissolution，whereasthesocialandpoliticalhistoryof，Russiahasbeenharmoniousandpeaceful。Itpresentsnostruggles，betweenthedifferentsocialclasses，andnoconflictsbetween，ChurchandState。Allthefactorshaveworkedinunison，andthe，developmenthasbeenguidedbythespiritofpureorthodoxy。But，inthisharmoniouspicturethereisonebig，uglyblackspot——

Peter，falselystyled“theGreat，“andhisso-calledreforms。

Insteadoffollowingthewisepolicyofhisancestors，Peter，rejectedthenationaltraditionsandprinciples，andappliedtohis，country，whichbelongedtotheEasternworld，theprinciplesof，Westerncivilisation。Hisreforms，conceivedinaforeignspirit，andelaboratedbymenwhodidnotpossessthenationalinstincts，wereforceduponthenationagainstitswill，andtheresultwas，preciselywhatmighthavebeenexpected。The“broadSlavonic，nature“couldnotbecontrolledbyinstitutionswhichhadbeen，inventedbynarrow-minded，pedanticGermanbureaucrats，and，like，anotherSamson，itpulleddownthebuildinginwhichforeign，legislatorssoughttoconfineit。Theattempttointroduceforeign，culturehadastillworseeffect。Theupperclasses，charmedand，dazzledbytheglareandglitterofWesternscience，threw，themselvesimpulsivelyonthenewlyfoundtreasures，andthereby，condemnedthemselvestomoralslaveryandintellectualsterility。

Fortunately——andhereinlayoneofthefundamentalprinciplesof，theSlavophildoctrine——theimportedcivilisationhadnotatall，infectedthecommonpeople。Throughallthechangeswhichthe，administrationandtheNoblesseunderwentthepeasantrypreserved，religiouslyintheirhearts“thelivinglegacyofantiquity，“the，essenceofRussiannationality，“aclearspringwellingupliving，waters，hiddenandunknown，butpowerful。”*，Torecoverthislost，legacybystudyingthecharacter，customs，andinstitutionsofthe，peasantry，toleadtheeducatedclassesbacktothepathfromwhich，theyhadstrayed，andtore-establishthatintellectualandmoral，unitywhichhadbeendisturbedbytheforeignimportations——such，wasthetaskwhichtheSlavophilsproposedtothemselves。

*ThiswasoneofthefavouritethemesofKhomiakof，theSlavophil，poetandtheologian。

Deeplyimbuedwiththatromanticspiritwhichdistortedallthe，intellectualactivityofthetime，theSlavophilsoftenindulgedin，thewildestexaggerations，condemningeverythingforeignand，praisingeverythingRussian。Wheninthismoodtheysawinthe，historyoftheWestnothingbutviolence，slavery，andegotism，and，inthatoftheirowncountryfree-will，liberty，andpeace。The，factthatRussiadidnotpossessfreepoliticalinstitutionswas，adducedasapreciousfruitofthatspiritofChristianresignation，andself-sacrificewhichplacestheRussianatsuchanimmeasurable，heightabovetheproud，selfishEuropean;andbecauseRussia，possessedfewofthecomfortsandconveniencesofcommonlife，the，WestwasaccusedofhavingmadecomfortitsGod！，Weneednot，however，dwellonthesepuerilities，whichonlygainedfortheir，authorsthereputationofbeingignorant，narrow-mindedmen，imbued，withahatredofenlightenmentanddesirousofleadingtheir，countrybacktoitsprimitivebarbarism。WhattheSlavophils，reallycondemned，atleastintheircalmermoments，wasnot，Europeanculture，buttheuncritical，indiscriminateadoptionofit，bytheircountrymen。Theirtiradesagainstforeignculturemust，appearexcusablewhenwerememberthatmanyRussiansoftheupper，rankscouldspeakandwriteFrenchmorecorrectlythantheirnative，language，andthateventhegreatnationalpoetPushkinwasnot，ashamedtoconfess——whatwasnottrue，andamerepieceof，affectation——that“thelanguageofEurope“wasmorefamiliartohim，thanhismother-tongue！

TheSlavophildoctrine，thoughitmadeagreatnoiseintheworld，neverfoundmanyadherents。ThesocietyofSt。Petersburgregarded，itasoneofthoseharmlessprovincialeccentricitieswhichare，alwaystobefoundinMoscow。Inthemoderncapital，withits，foreignname，itsstreetsandsquaresontheEuropeanmodel，its，palacesandchurchesintheRenaissancestyle，anditspassionate，loveofeverythingFrench，anyattempttoresuscitatetheold，Boyarictimeswouldhavebeeneminentlyridiculous。Indeed，hostilitytoSt。Petersburgandto“thePetersburgperiodof，Russianhistory“isoneofthecharacteristictraitsofgenuine，Slavophilism。InMoscowthedoctrinefoundamoreappropriate，home。Theretheancientchurches，withthetombsofGrandPrinces，andholymartyrs，thepalaceinwhichtheTsarsofMuscovyhad，lived，theKremlinwhichhadresisted——notalwayssuccessfully——the，attacksofsavageTartarsandhereticalPoles，thevenerableIcons，thathadmanyatimeprotectedthepeoplefromdanger，theblockof，masonryfromwhich，onsolemnoccasions，theTsarandthePatriarch，hadaddressedtheassembledmultitude——these，andahundredother，monumentssanctifiedbytradition，havekeptaliveinthepopular，memorysomevagueremembranceoftheoldentime，andarestill，capableofawakeningantiquarianpatriotism。

Theinhabitants，too，havepreservedsomethingoftheoldMuscovite，character。Whilstsuccessivesovereignshavebeenstrivingtomake，thecountryaprogressiveEuropeanempire，Moscowhasremainedthe，homeofpassiveconservatismandanasylumforthediscontented，especiallyforthedisappointedaspirantstoImperialfavour。

AbandonedbythemodernEmperors，shecangloryinherancient，Tsars。ButeventheMuscoviteswerenotpreparedtoacceptthe，Slavophildoctrineintheextremeformwhichitassumed，andwere，notalittleperplexedbytheeccentricitiesofthosewhoprofessed，it。Plain，sensiblepeople，thoughtheymightbeproudofbeing，citizensoftheancientcapital，andmightthoroughlyenjoyajoke，attheexpenseofSt。Petersburg，couldnotunderstandalittle，coterieofenthusiastswhosoughtneitherofficialranknor，decorations，whoslightedmanyoftheconventionalitiesofthe，higherclassestowhichbybirthandeducationtheybelonged，who，lovedtofraternisewiththecommonpeople，andwhooccasionally，dressedinthenationalcostumewhichhadbeendiscardedbythe，noblessincethetimeofPetertheGreat。

TheSlavophilsthusremainedmerelyasmallliteraryparty，which，probablydidnotcountmorethanadozenmembers，buttheir，influencewasoutofallproportiontotheirnumbers。They，preachedsuccessfullythedoctrinethatthehistoricaldevelopment，ofRussiahasbeenpeculiar，thatherpresentsocialandpolitical，organisationisradicallydifferentfromthatofthecountriesof，WesternEurope，andthatconsequentlythesocialandpolitical，evilsfromwhichshesuffersarenottobecuredbytheremedies，whichhaveprovedefficaciousinFranceandGermany。Thesetruths，whichnowappearcommonplace，wereformerlybynomeansgenerally，recognised，andtheSlavophilsdeservecreditfordirecting，attentiontothem。Besidesthis，theyhelpedtoawakeninthe，upperclassesalivelysympathywiththepoor，oppressed，and，despisedpeasantry。SolongastheEmperorNicholaslivedtheyhad，toconfinethemselvestoapurelyliteraryactivity;butduringthe，greatreformsinitiatedbyhissuccessor，AlexanderII。they，descendedintothearenaofpracticalpolitics，andplayedamost，usefulandhonourablepartintheemancipationoftheserfs。In，thenewlocalself-government，too——theZemstvoandthenew，municipalinstitutions——theylabouredenergeticallyandtogood，purpose。OfallthisIshallhaveoccasiontospeakmorefullyin，futurechapters。

ButwhatoftheirPanslavistaspirations？，Bytheirtheorythey，wereconstrainedtopayattentiontotheSlavraceasawhole，but，theyweremoreRussianthanSlav，andmoreMuscovitethanRussian。

ThePanslavistelementconsequentlyoccupiedasecondaryplacein，Slavophildoctrine。Thoughtheydidmuchtostimulatepopular，sympathywiththeSouthernSlavs，andalwayscherishedthehope，thattheSerbs，Bulgarians，andcognateSlavnationalitieswould，onedaythrowoffthebondageoftheGermanandtheTurk，they，neverproposedanyelaborateprojectforthesolutionofthe，EasternQuestion。SofarasIwasabletogatherfromtheir，conversation，theyseemedtofavourtheideaofagrandSlavonic，Confederation，inwhichthehegemonywould，ofcourse，belongto，Russia。Inordinarytimestheonlystepswhichtheytookforthe，realisationofthisideaconsistedincontributingmoneyfor，schoolsandchurchesamongtheSlavpopulationofAustriaand，Turkey，andineducatingyoungBulgariansinRussia。Duringthe，Cretaninsurrectiontheysympathisedwarmlywiththeinsurgentsas，co-religionists，butafterwards——especiallyduringthecrisisof，theEasternQuestionwhichculminatedintheTreatyofSanStefano，andtheCongressofBerlin(1878)——theirHellenicsympathies，cooled，becausetheGreeksshowedthattheyhadpolitical，aspirationsinconsistentwiththedesignsofRussia，andthatthey，werelikelytobetherivalsratherthanthealliesoftheSlavsin，thestrugglefortheSickMan’sinheritance。

SincethetimewhenIwaslivinginMoscowinconstantintercourse，withtheleadingSlavophilsmorethanaquarterofacenturyhas，passed，andofthosewithwhomIspentsomanypleasantevenings，discussingthepasthistoryandfuturedestiniesoftheSlavraces，notoneremainsalive。AllthegreatprophetsoftheoldSlavophil，doctrine——JunSamarin，PrinceTcherkaski，IvanAksakof，Kosheleff——

havedepartedwithoutleavingbehindthemanygenuinedisciples。

ThepresentgenerationofMuscovitefrondeurs，whocontinuetorail，againstWesternEuropeandthepedanticofficialismofSt。

Petersburg，areofamoremodernandlessacademictype。Their，philippicsaredirectednotagainstPetertheGreatandhis，reforms，butratheragainstrecentMinistersofForeignAffairswho，arethoughttohaveshownthemselvestoosubservienttoforeign，Powers，andagainstM。Witte，thelateMinisterofFinance，whois，accusedoffavouringtheintroductionofforeigncapitaland，enterprise，andofsacrificingtounhealthyindustrialdevelopment，theinterestsoftheagriculturalclasses。Theselamentsand，diatribesareallowedfreeexpressioninprivateconversationand，inthePress，buttheydonotinfluenceverydeeplythepolicyof，theGovernmentorthenaturalcourseofevents;fortheMinistryof，ForeignAffairscontinuestocultivatefriendlyrelationswiththe，CabinetsoftheWest，andMoscowisrapidlybecoming，bytheforce，ofeconomicconditions，thegreatindustrialandcommercialcentre，oftheEmpire。

Theadministrativeandbureaucraticcentre——ifanythingonthe，frontierofacountrycanbecalleditscentre——haslongbeen，and，islikelytoremain，Peter’sstatelycityatthemouthoftheNeva，towhichInowinvitethereadertoaccompanyme。

CHAPTERXXVI

ST。PETERSBURGANDEUROPEANINFLUENCE

St。PetersburgandBerlin——BigHouses——The“Lions“——Peterthe，Great——HisAimsandPolicy——TheGermanRegime——Nationalist，Reaction——FrenchInfluence——ConsequentIntellectualSterility——

InfluenceoftheSentimentalSchool——HostilitytoForeign，Influences——ANewPeriodofLiteraryImportation——SecretSocieties——

TheCatastrophe——TheAgeofNicholas——ATerribleWaronParnassus——

DeclineofRomanticismandTranscendentalism——Gogol——The，RevolutionaryAgitationof1848——NewReaction——Conclusion。

FromwhateversidethetravellerapproachesSt。Petersburg，unless，hegoesthitherbysea，hemusttraverseseveralhundredmilesof，forestandmorass，presentingfewtracesofhumanhabitationor，agriculture。Thisfactaddspowerfullytothefirstimpression，whichthecitymakesonhismind。Inthemidstofawastehowling，wilderness，hesuddenlycomesonamagnificentartificialoasis。

OfallthegreatEuropeancities，theonethatmostresemblesthe，capitaloftheTsarsisBerlin。Botharebuiltonperfectlylevel，ground;bothhavewide，regularlyarrangedstreets;inboththere，isagenerallookofstiffnessandsymmetrywhichsuggestsmilitary，disciplineandGermanbureaucracy。Butthereisatleastone，profounddifference。ThoughBerlinissaidbygeographerstobe，builtontheSpree，wemightlivealongtimeinthecitywithout，noticingthesluggishlittlestreamonwhichthenameofariver，hasbeenundeservedlyconferred。St。Petersburg，onthecontrary，isbuiltonamagnificentriver，whichformsthemainfeatureof，theplace。Byitsbreadth，andbytheenormousvolumeofits，clear，blue，coldwater，theNevaiscertainlyoneofthenoblest，riversofEurope。AfewmilesbeforereachingtheGulfofFinland，itbreaksupintoseveralstreamsandformsadelta。Itishere，thatSt。Petersburgstands。

Liketheriver，everythinginSt。Petersburgisonacolossal，scale。Thestreets，thesquares，thepalaces，thepublic，buildings，thechurches，whatevermaybetheirdefects，haveat，leasttheattributeofgreatness，andseemtohavebeendesigned，forthecountlessgenerationstocome，ratherthanforthe，practicalwantsofthepresentinhabitants。Inthisrespectthe，citywellrepresentstheEmpireofwhichitisthecapital。Even，theprivatehousesarebuiltinenormousblocksanddividedinto，manyseparateapartments。Thosebuiltfortheworkingclasses，sometimescontain，Iamassured，morethanathousandinhabitants。

Howmanycubicfeetofairisallowedtoeachperson，Idonot，know;notsomany，Ifear，asisrecommendedbythemostadvanced，sanitaryauthorities。

ForadetaileddescriptionofthecityImustreferthereaderto，theguidebooks。Amongitsnumerousmonuments，ofwhichthe，Russiansarejustlyproud，Iconfessthattheonewhichinterested，memostwasneitherSt。Isaac’sCathedral，withitsmajesticgilded，dome，itscolossalmonolithiccolumnsofredgranite，anditsgaudy，interior;northeHermitage，withitsmagnificentcollectionof，Dutchpictures;northegloomy，frowningfortressofSt。Peterand，St。Paul，containingthetombsoftheEmperors。Theseandother，“sights“maydeserveallthepraisewhichenthusiastictourists，havelavisheduponthem，butwhatmadeafardeeperimpressionon，mewasthelittlewoodenhouseinwhichPetertheGreatlived，whilsthisfuturecapitalwasbeingbuilt。Initsstyleand，arrangementitlooksmorelikethehutofanavvythanthe，residenceofaTsar，butitwasquiteinkeepingwiththecharacter，oftheillustriousmanwhooccupiedit。Petercouldanddid，occasionallyworklikeanavvywithoutfeelingthathisImperial，dignitywastherebyimpaired。Whenhedeterminedtobuildanew，capitalonaFinnishmarsh，inhabitedchieflybywildfowl，hedid，notcontenthimselfwithexercisinghisautocraticpowerina，comfortablearmchair。LiketheGreekgods，hewentdownfromhis，Olympusandtookhisplaceintheranksofordinarymortals，superintendingtheworkwithhisowneyes，andtakingpartinit，withhisownhands。Ifhewasasarbitraryandoppressiveasany，ofthepyramid-buildingPharaohs，hecouldatleastsayinself-

justificationthathedidnotsparehimselfanymorethanhis，people，butexposedhimselffreelytothediscomfortsanddangers，underwhichthousandsofhisfellow-labourerssuccumbed。

InreadingtheaccountofPeter’slife，writteninpartbyhisown，pen，wecaneasilyunderstandhowthepiouslyConservativesection，ofhissubjectsfailedtorecogniseinhimthelegitimatesuccessor，oftheorthodoxTsars。TheoldTsarshadbeenmenofgrave，pompousdemeanour，deeplyimbuedwiththeconsciousnessoftheir，semi-religiousdignity。LivinghabituallyinMoscoworits，immediateneighbourhood，theyspenttheirtimeinattendinglong，religiousservices，inconsultingwiththeirBoyars，inbeing，presentatceremonioushunting-parties，invisitingthe，monasteries，andinholdingedifyingconversationswith，ecclesiasticaldignitariesorreveredascetics。Iftheyundertook，ajourney，itwasprobablytomakeapilgrimagetosomeholy，shrine;and，whetherinMoscoworelsewhere，theywerealways，protectedfromcontactwithordinaryhumanitybyaformidable，barricadeofcourtceremonial。Inshort，theycombinedthe，charactersofaChristianmonkandofanOrientalpotentate。

Peterwasamanofanentirelydifferenttype，andplayedinthe，calm，dignified，orthodox，ceremoniousworldofMoscowthepartof，thebullinthechinashop，outragingruthlesslyandwantonlyall，thetime-honoredtraditionalconceptionsofproprietyand，etiquette。Utterlyregardlessofpublicopinionandpopular，prejudices，hesweptawaytheoldformalities，avoidedceremonies，ofallkinds，scoffedatancientusage，preferredforeignsecular，bookstoedifyingconversations，choseprofanehereticsashisboon，companions，travelledinforeigncountries，dressedinheretical，costume，defacedtheimageofGodandputhissoulinjeopardyby，shavingoffhisbeard，compelledhisnoblestodressandshavelike，himself，rushedabouttheEmpireasifgoadedonbythedemonof，unrest，employedhissacredhandsincarpenteringandothermenial，occupations，tookpartopenlyintheuproariousorgiesofhis，foreignsoldiery，and，inshort，dideverythingthat“theLord’s，anointed“mightreasonablybeexpectednottodo。Nowonderthe，Muscoviteswerescandalisedbyhisconduct，andthatsomeofthem，suspectedhewasnottheTsaratall，butAntichristindisguise。

AndnowonderhefelttheatmosphereofMoscowoppressive，and，preferredlivinginthenewcapitalwhichhehadhimselfcreated。

HisavowedobjectinbuildingSt。Petersburgwastohave“awindow，bywhichtheRussiansmightlookintocivilisedEurope“;andwell，hasthecityfulfilleditspurpose。Fromitsfoundationmaybe，datedtheEuropeanperiodofRussianhistory。BeforePeter’stime，RussiabelongedtoAsiaratherthantoEurope，andwasdoubtless，regardedbyEnglishmenandFrenchmenprettymuchaswenowadays，regardBokharaorKashgar;sincethattimeshehasformedan，integralpartoftheEuropeanpoliticalsystem，andher，intellectualhistoryhasbeenbutareflectionoftheintellectual，historyofWesternEurope，modifiedandcolouredbynational，characterandbypeculiarlocalconditions。

Whenwespeakoftheintellectualhistoryofanationwegenerally，meaninrealitytheintellectualhistoryoftheupperclasses。

WithregardtoRussia，moreperhapsthanwithregardtoanyother，country，thisdistinctionmustalwayscarefullybeborneinmind。

PetersucceededinforcingEuropeancivilisationonthenobles，but，thepeopleremainedunaffected。Thenationwas，asitwere，cleft，intwo，andwitheachsucceedinggenerationtheclefthaswidened。

Whilstthemassesclungobstinatelytotheirtime-honouredcustoms，andbeliefs，thenoblescametolookontheobjectsofpopular，venerationastherelicsofabarbarouspast，ofwhichacivilised，nationoughttobeashamed。

TheintellectualmovementinauguratedbyPeterhadapurely，practicalcharacter。Hewashimselfathoroughutilitarian，and，perceivedclearlythatwhathispeopleneededwasnottheological，orphilosophicalenlightment，butplain，practicalknowledge，suitablefortherequirementsofeverydaylife。Hewantedneither，theologiansnorphilosophers，butmilitaryandnavalofficers，administrators，artisans，miners，manufacturers，andmerchants，and，forthispurposeheintroducedseculartechnicaleducation。For，theyounggenerationprimaryschoolswerefounded，andformore，advancedpupilsthebestforeignworksonfortification，architecture，navigation，metallurgy，engineeringandcognate，subjectsweretranslatedintothenativetongue。Scientificmen，andcunningartificerswerebroughtintothecountry，andyoung，Russiansweresentabroadtolearnforeignlanguagesandtheuseful，arts。Inaword，everythingwasdonethatseemedlikelytoraise，theRussianstothelevelofmaterialwell-beingalreadyattained，bythemoreadvancednations。