第18章

Ofallkindsofcruelty，thatwhichisperhapsmostrevoltingto，civilisedmankindisthecrueltyofthehusbandtowardshiswife;

buttothiscrimetheRussianpeasantshowsespecialleniency。He，isstillinfluencedbytheoldconceptionsofthehusband’srights，andbythatlowestimateoftheweakersexwhichfindsexpression，inmanypopularproverbs。

Thepeculiarmoralconceptionsreflectedinthesefactsare，evidentlytheresultofexternalconditions，andnotofany，reconditeethnographicalpeculiarities，fortheyarenotfound，amongthemerchants，whoarenearlyallofpeasantorigin。Onthe，contrary，themerchantsaremoreseverewithregardtocrimes，againstthepersonthanwithregardtocrimesagainstproperty。

Theexplanationofthisissimple。Themerchanthasmeansof，protectinghisproperty，andifheshouldhappentosufferby，theft，hisfortuneisnotlikelytobeseriouslyaffectedbyit。

Ontheotherhand，hehasacertainsensitivenesswithregardto，suchcrimesasassault;forthoughhehascommonlynotmuchmore，intellectualandmoralculturethanthepeasant，heisaccustomed，tocomfortandmaterialwell-being，whichnaturallydevelop，sensitivenessregardingphysicalpain。

Towardsfraudthemerchantsarequiteaslenientasthepeasantry。

Thismay，perhaps，seemstrange，forfraudulentpracticesaresure，inthelongruntounderminetrade。TheRussianmerchants，however，havenotyetarrivedatthisconception，andcanpointto，manyoftherichestmembersoftheirclassasaproofthat，fraudulentpracticesoftencreateenormousfortunes。Longago，SamuelButlerjustlyremarkedthatwedamnthesinswehavenomind，to。

Astheexternalconditionshavelittleornoinfluenceonthe，religiousconceptionsofthemerchantsandthepeasantry，thetwo，classesareequallyseverewithregardtothoseactswhichare，regardedascrimesagainsttheDeity。Henceacquittalsincasesof，sacrilege，blasphemy，andthelikeneveroccurunlessthejuryis，inpartcomposedofeducatedmen。

Intheirdecisions，asintheirordinarymodesofthought，the，jurorsdrawnfromtheeducatedclassesarelittle，ifatall，affectedbytheologicalconceptions，buttheyaresometimes，influencedinanotlessunfortunatewaybyconceptionsofa，differentorder。Itmayhappen，forinstance，thatajurorwhohad，passedthroughoneofthehighereducationalestablishmentshashis，ownpeculiartheoryaboutthevalueofevidence，orheis，profoundlyimpressedwiththeideathatitisbetterthata，thousandguiltymenshouldescapethanthatoneinnocentmanshould，bepunished，orheisimbuedwithsentimentalpseudo-philanthropy，orheisconvincedthatpunishmentsareuselessbecausethey，neithercurethedelinquentnordeterothersfromcrime;inaword，hemayhaveinsomewayorotherlosthismentalbalanceinthat，moralchaosthroughwhichRussiaisatpresentpassing。In，England，France，orGermanysuchanindividualwouldhavelittle，influenceonhisfellow-jurymen，forinthesecountriesthereare，veryfewpeoplewhoallownewparadoxicalideastooverturntheir，traditionalnotionsandobscuretheircommon-sense;butinRussia，whereeventheelementarymoralconceptionsaresingularlyunstable，andpliable，amanofthistypemaysucceedinleadingajury。

MorethanonceIhaveheardmenboastofhavinginducedtheir，fellow-jurymentoacquiteveryprisonerbroughtbeforethem，not，becausetheybelievedtheprisonerstobeinnocentortheevidence，tobeinsufficient，butbecauseallpunishmentsareuselessand，barbarous。

Onewordinconclusionregardingtheindependenceandpolitical，significanceofthenewcourts。Whenthequestionofjudicial，reformwasfirstpubliclyraisedmanypeoplehopedthatthenew，courtswouldreceivecompleteautonomyandrealindependence，and，wouldthusformafoundationforpoliticalliberty。Thesehopes，likesomanyillusionsofthatstrangetime，havenotbeen，realised。Alargemeasureofautonomyandindependencewasindeed，grantedintheory。Thelawlaiddowntheprinciplethatnojudge，couldberemovedunlessconvictedofadefinitecrime，andthatthe，courtsshouldpresentcandidatesforallthevacantplacesonthe，Bench;buttheseandsimilarrightshavelittlepractical，significance。IftheMinistercannotdeposeajudge，hecan，deprivehimofallpossibilityofreceivingpromotion，andhecan，easilyforcehiminanindirectwaytosendinhisresignation;and，ifthecourtshavestilltherighttopresentcandidatesforvacant，places，theMinisterhasalsothisright，andcan，ofcourse，alwayssecurethenominationofhisowncandidate。Bythe，influenceofthatcentripetalforcewhichexistsinallcentralised，bureaucracies，theProcureurshavebecomemoreimportantpersonages，thanthePresidentsofthecourts。

Fromthepoliticalpointofviewthequestionoftheindependence，oftheCourtshasnotyetacquiredmuchpracticalimportance，becausetheGovernmentcanalwayshavepoliticaloffenderstriedby，aspecialtribunalorcansendthemtoSiberiaforanindefinite，termofyearswithoutregulartrialbythe“administrative，procedure“towhichIhaveabovereferred。

CHAPTERXXXIV

REVOLUTIONARYNIHILISMANDTHEREACTION

TheReform-enthusiasmBecomesUnpracticalandCulminatesin，Nihilism——Nihilism，theDistortedReflectionofAcademicWestern，Socialism——RussiaWellPreparedforReceptionofUltra-Socialist，Virus——SocialReorganisationAccordingtoLatestResultsof，Science——PositivistTheory——LeniencyofPress-censure——Chief，RepresentativesofNewMovement——GovernmentBecomesAlarmed——

RepressiveMeasures——ReactioninthePublic——TheTermNihilist，Invented——TheNihilistandHisTheory——FurtherRepressiveMeasures——

AttitudeofLandedProprietors——FoundationofaLiberalParty——

LiberalismCheckedbyPolishInsurrection——PracticalReform，Continued——AnAttemptatRegicideFormsaTurning-pointof，Government’sPolicy——ChangeinEducationalSystem——Declineof，Nihilism。

Therapidlyincreasingenthusiasmforreformdidnotconfineitself，topracticalmeasuressuchastheemancipationoftheserfs，the，creationoflocalself-government，andthethoroughreorganisation，ofthelaw-courtsandlegalprocedure。Intheyoungersectionof，theeducatedclasses，andespeciallyamongthestudentsofthe，universitiesandtechnicalcolleges，itproducedafeverish，intellectualexcitementandwildaspirationswhichculminatedin，whatiscommonlyknownasNihilism。

InaprecedingchapterIpointedoutthatduringthelasttwo，centuriesalltheimportantintellectualmovementsinWestern，EuropehavebeenreflectedinRussia，andthatthesereflections，havegenerallybeenwhatmayfairlybetermedexaggeratedand，distortedreproductionsoftheoriginals。*，Roughlyspeaking，the，NihilistmovementinRussiamaybedescribedastheexaggerated，distortedreflectionoftheearlierSocialistmovementsofthe，West;butithaslocalpeculiaritiesandlocalcolouringwhich，deserveattention。

*SeeChapterXXVI。

TheRussianeducatedclasseshadbeenwellpreparedbytheirpast，historyforthereceptionandrapiddevelopmentoftheSocialist，virus。Foracenturyandahalfthecountryhadbeensubjectedto，aseriesofdrasticchanges，administrativeandsocial，bythe，energeticactionoftheAutocraticPower，withlittlespontaneous，co-operationonthepartofthepeople。Inanationwithsucha，history，Socialisticideasnaturallyfoundfavour，becauseall，Socialistsystemsuntilquiterecenttimeswerefoundedonthe，assumptionthatpoliticalandsocialprogressmustbetheresult，notofslownaturaldevelopment，butratherofphilosophic，speculation，legislativewisdom，andadministrativeenergy。

ThisassumptionlayatthebottomofthereformenthusiasminSt。

PetersburgatthecommencementofAlexanderII。’sreign。Russia，mightberadicallytransformed，itwasthought，politicallyand，socially，accordingtoabstractscientificprinciples，inthespace，ofafewyears，andbetherebyraisedtothelevelofWest-European，civilisation，orevenhigher。Theoldernationshadforcenturies，gropedindarkness，orstumbledalonginthefaintlightof，practicalexperience，andconsequentlytheirprogresshadbeenslow，anduncertain。ForRussiatherewasnonecessitytofollowsuch，devious，unexploredpaths。Sheoughttoprofitbytheexperience，ofhereldersisters，andavoidtheerrorsintowhichtheyhad，fallen。Norwasitdifficulttoascertainwhattheseerrorswere，becausetheyhadbeendiscovered，examinedandexplainedbythe，mosteminentthinkersofFranceandEngland，andefficientremedies，hadbeenprescribed。Russianreformershadmerelytostudyand，applytheconclusionsatwhichtheseeminentauthoritieshad，arrived，andtheirtaskwouldbegreatlyfacilitatedbythefact，thattheycouldoperateonvirginsoil，untrammelledbythefeudal，traditions，religioussuperstitions，metaphysicalconceptions，romanticillusions，aristocraticprejudices，andsimilarobstacles，tosocialandpoliticalprogresswhichexistedinWesternEurope。

Suchwastheextraordinaryintellectualatmosphereinwhichthe，Russianeducatedclasseslivedduringtheearlyyearsofthe，sixties。Onthe“menwithaspirations，“whohadlongedinvainfor，morelightandmorepublicactivityundertheobscurantist，repressiveregimeoftheprecedingreign，ithadanintoxicating，effect。Themoreexcitableandsanguineamongstthemnowbelieved，seriouslythattheyhaddiscoveredaconvenientshort-cutto，nationalprosperity，andthatforRussiaagrandiosesocialand，politicalmillenniumwasathand。*

*IwasnotmyselfinSt。Petersburgatthatperiod，buton，arrivingafewyearsafterwardsIbecameintimatelyacquaintedwith，menandwomenwhohadlivedthroughit，andwhostillretainedmuch，oftheirearlyenthusiasm。

Inthesecircumstancesitisnotsurprisingthatoneofthemost，prominentcharacteristicsofthetimewasaboundless，child-like，faithintheso-called“latestresultsofscience。”，Infallible，sciencewassupposedtohavefoundthesolutionofallpolitical，andsocialproblems。Whatareformerhadtodo——andwhowasnota，would-bereformerinthosedays？——wasmerelytostudythebest，authorities。Theirworkshadbeenlongrigidlyexcludedbythe，Presscensure，butnowthatitwaspossibletoobtainthem，they，werereadwithavidity。Chiefamongthenew，infallibleprophets，whoseworkswereprofoundlyveneratedwasAugusteComte，the，inventorofPositivism。Inhisclassificationofthesciencesthe，crowningoftheedificewassociology，whichtaughthowtoorganise，humansocietyonscientificprinciples。Russiahadmerelytoadopt，theprincipleslaiddownandexpoundedatgreatlengthintheCours，dePhilosophiePositive。ThereComteexplainedthathumanityhad，topassthroughthreestagesofintellectualdevelopment——the，religious，themetaphysical，andthepositive——andthatthemost，advancednations，afterspendingcenturiesinthetwofirst，were，enteringonthethird。Russiamustendeavour，therefore，toget，intothepositivestageasquicklyaspossible，andtherewas，reasontobelievethat，inconsequenceofcertainethnographical，andhistoricalpeculiarities，shecouldmakethetransitionmore，quicklythanothernations。AfterComte’sworks，thebookwhich，found，foratime，mostfavourwasBuckle’s“Historyof，Civilisation，“whichseemedtoreducehistoryandprogresstoa，matterofstatistics，andwhichlaiddowntheprinciplethat，progressisalwaysintheinverseratiooftheinfluenceof，theologicalconceptions。Thisprinciplewasregardedasofgreat，practicalimportance，andtheconclusiondrawnfromitwasthat，rapidnationalprogresswascertainifonlytheinfluenceof，religionandtheologycouldbedestroyed。Verypopular，too，was，JohnStuartMill，becausehewas“imbuedwithenthusiasmfor，humanityandfemaleemancipation“;andinhistracton，Utilitarianismheshowedthatmoralitywassimplythecrystallised，experienceofmanygenerationsastowhatwasmostconducivetothe，greatestgoodofthegreatestnumber。Theminorprophetsofthe，time，amongwhomBuchneroccupiedaprominentplace，aretoo，numeroustomention。

Strangetosay，thenewestandmostadvanceddoctrinesappeared，regularly，underaverythinandtransparentveil，intheSt。

PetersburgdailyPress，andespeciallyinthethickmonthly，magazines，whichwereasbigas，orbiggerthan，ourvenerable，quarterlies。Theartofwritingandreading“betweenthelines，“

notaltogetherunknownundertheDraconianregimeofNicholasI。，wasnowdevelopedtosuchamarvellousextentthatalmostanything，couldbewrittenclearlyenoughtobeunderstoodbytheinitiated，withoutcallingforthethunderboltsofthePresscensors，which，wasnowonlyintermittentlysevere。Indeed，thePresscensors，themselvesweresometimescarriedawaybythereformenthusiasm。

Oneofthemlongafterwardsrelatedtomethatduring“themad，time，“ashecalledit，inthecourseofasingleyearhehad，receivedfromhissuperiorsnolessthanseventeenreprimandsfor，passingobjectionablearticleswithoutremark。

Themovementfounditswarmestpartisansamongthestudentsand，youngliterarymen，butnotafewgrey-beardsweretobefound，amongtheyouthfulapostles。Allwhoreadtheperiodical，literaturebecamemoreorlessimbuedwiththenewspirit;butit，mustbepresumedthatmanyofthosewhodiscoursedmosteloquently，hadnoclearideaofwhattheyweretalkingabout;forevenata，laterdate，whenthenoviceshadhadtimetoacquaintthemselves，withthedoctrinestheyprofessed，Ioftenencounteredthemost，astoundingignorance。Letmegiveoneinstancebywayof，illustration：

Ayounggentlemanwhowasinthehabitoftalkinggliblyaboutthe，necessityofscientificallyreorganisinghumansociety，declaredto，meonedaythatnotonlysociology，butalsobiologyshouldbe，takenintoconsideration。Confessingmycompleteignoranceofthe，latterscience，Irequestedhimtoenlightenmebygivingmean，instanceofabiologicalprinciplewhichcouldbeappliedtosocial，regeneration。Helookedconfused，andtriedtorideoutofthe，difficultyonvaguegeneralphrases;butIpersistentlykepthimto，thepoint，andmaliciouslysuggestedthatasanalternativehe，mightcitetomeabiologicalprinciplewhichcouldNOTbeusedfor，suchapurpose。Againhefailed，anditbecameevidenttoall，presentthatofbiology，aboutwhichhetalkedsooften，heknew，absolutelynothingbutthename！，AfterthisIfrequentlyemployed，thesamepseudo-Socraticmethodofdiscussion，andveryoftenwith，asimilarresult。Notoneinfifty，perhaps，everattemptedto，reducethecurrenthazyconceptionstoaconcreteform。The，enthusiasmwasnotthelessintense，however，onthataccount。

Atfirstthepartisansofthemovementseemeddesirousof，assisting，ratherthanofopposingorunderminingtheGovernment，andsolongastheymerelytalkedacademicallyaboutscientific，principlesandsimilarvagueentities，theGovernmentfeltno，necessityforenergeticinterference;butasearlyas1861symptoms，ofachangeinthecharacterofthemovementbecameapparent。A

secretsocietyofofficersorganisedasmallprinting-pressinthe，buildingoftheHeadquartersStaffandissuedclandestinelythree，numbersofaperiodicalcalledtheVelikoruss(GreatRussian)，whichadvocatedadministrativereform，theconvocationofa，constituentassembly，andtheemancipationofPolandfromRussian，rule。Afewmonthslater(April，1862)aseditiousproclamation，appeared，professingtoemanatefromacentralrevolutionary，committee，anddeclaringthattheRomanoffsmustexpiatewiththeir，bloodthemiseryofthepeople。

Thesesymptomsofanundergroundrevolutionaryagitationcaused，alarmintheofficialworld，andrepressivemeasureswereatonce，adopted。Sundayschoolsfortheworkingclasses，reading-rooms，students’clubs，andsimilarinstitutionswhichmightbeusedfor，purposesofrevolutionarypropagandawereclosed;severaltrials，forpoliticaloffencestookplace;themostpopularofthemonthly，periodicals(Sovremennik)wassuspended，anditseditor，Tchernishevski，arrested。Therewasnothingtoshowthat，Tchernishevskiwasimplicatedinanytreasonabledesigns，buthe，wasundoubtedlytheleaderofagroupofyouthfulwriterswhose，aspirationswentfarbeyondtheintentionsoftheGovernment，and，itwasthoughtdesirabletocounteracthisinfluencebyshutting，himupinprison。Herehewroteandpublished，withthepermission，oftheauthoritiesandtheimprimaturofthePresscensure，anovel，called“Shtodelat’？”(“WhatistobeDone？”)，whichwasregarded，atfirstasamostharmlessproduction，butwhichisnowconsidered，oneofthemostinfluentialandbanefulworksinthewholerangeof，Nihilistliterature。Asanovelithadnopretensionstoartistic，merit，andinordinarytimesitwouldhaveattractedlittleorno，attention，butitputintoconcreteshapemanyofthevague，SocialistandCommunistnotionsthatwereatthemomentfloating，aboutintheintellectualatmosphere，anditcametobelookedupon，bytheyoungenthusiastsasasortofinformalmanifestooftheir，new-bornfaith。Itwasdividedintotwoparts;inthefirstwas，describedagroupofstudentslivingaccordingtothenewideasin，opendefianceoftraditionalconventionalities，andinthesecond，wasdepictedavillageorganisedonthecommunisticprinciples，recommendedbyFourier。Thefirstwassupposedtorepresentthe，dawnofthenewera;thesecond，thegoaltobeultimately，attained。Whentheauthoritiesdiscoveredthemistaketheyhad，committedinallowingthebooktobepublished，itwasatonce，confiscatedandwithdrawnfromcirculation，whilsttheauthor，afterbeingtriedbytheSenate，wasexiledtoNortheasternSiberia，andkepttherefornearlytwentyyears。*

*Tchernishevskiwasamanofencyclopaedicknowledgeandspecially，conversantwithpoliticaleconomy。Accordingtothetestimonyof，thosewhoknewhimintimately，hewasoneoftheablestandmost，sympatheticmenofhisgeneration。Duringhisexileaboldattempt，wasmadetorescuehim，andverynearlysucceeded。Adaringyouth，disguisedasanofficerofgendarmesandprovidedwithforged，officialpapers，reachedtheplacewherehewasconfinedand，procuredhisrelease，buttheofficerinchargehadvague，suspicions，andinsistedonthetwotravellersbeingescortedto，thenextpost-stationbyacoupleofCossacks。Therescuertried，togetridoftheescortbymeansofhisrevolver，buthefailedin，theattempt，andthefugitiveswerearrested。In1883

TchernishevskiwastransferredtothemilderclimateofAstrakhan，andin1889hewasallowedtoreturntohisnativetown，Saratof，wherehediedafewmonthsafterwards。

WiththearrestandexileofTchernishevskitheyoungwould-be，reformerswereconstrainedtorecognisethattheyhadnochanceof，carryingtheGovernmentwiththemintheirendeavourstorealise，theirpatrioticaspirations。Policesupervisionovertheyoung，generationwasincreased，andallkindsofassociation，whetherfor，mutualinstruction，mutualaid，oranyotherpurpose，were，discouragedorpositivelyforbidden。Anditwasnotmerelyinthe，mindofthepolicethatsuspicionwasaroused。Intheopinionof，thegreatmajorityofmoderate，respectablepeopletheyoung，enthusiastswerebecomingdiscredited。Theviolentlyseditious，proclamationswithwhichtheyweresupposedtosympathise，anda，seriesofdestructivefiresinSt。Petersburg，erroneously，attributedtothem，frightenedtimidLiberalsandgavethe，Reactionaries，whohadhithertoremainedsilent，anopportunityof，preachingtheirdoctrineswithtellingeffect。Thecelebrated，novelist，Turgeneif，longtheidoloftheyounggeneration，had，inadvertentlyin“FathersandChildren“inventedthetermNihilist，anditatoncecametobeappliedasanopprobriousepithet，notwithstandingtheeffortsofPissaref，apopularwriterof，remarkabletalent，toprovetothepublicthatitoughttobe，regardedasatermofhonour。

Pissaref’sattemptatrehabilitationmadenoimpressionoutsideof，hisownsmallcircle。AccordingtopopularopiniontheNihilists，wereabandoffanaticalyoungmenandwomen，mostlymedical，students，whohaddeterminedtoturntheworldupsidedownandto，introduceanewkindofsocialorder，foundedonthemostadvanced，principlesofsocialequalityandCommunism。Asafirststep，towardsthegreattransformationtheyhadreversedthetraditional，orderofthingsinthematterofcoiffure：themalesallowedtheir，hairtogrowlong，andthefemaleadeptscuttheirhairshort，addingoccasionallytheadditionalbadgeofbluespectacles。Their，unkemptappearancenaturallyshockedtheaestheticfeelingsof，ordinarypeople，buttothistheywereindifferent。Theyhad，raisedthemselvesabovethelevelofpopularnotions，tookno，accountofso-calledpublicopinion，gloriedinBohemianism，despisedPhilistinerespectability，andratherlikedtoscandalise，old-fashionedpeopleimbuedwithantiquatedprejudices。

Thiswastheridiculoussideofthemovement，butunderneaththe，absurditiestherewassomethingserious。Theseyoungmenand，women，whowerethemselvesterriblyinearnest，weresystematically，hostilenotonlytoacceptedconventionalitiesinthematterof，dress，buttoallmannerofshams，hypocrisy，andcantinthebroad，Carlyleansenseofthoseterms。Tothe“beautifulsouls“ofthe，oldergeneration，whohadhabitually，inconversationand，literature，shedpathetictearsoverthedefectsofRussiansocial，andpoliticalorganisationwithoutevermovingafingertocorrect，them——especiallythelandedproprietorswhotalkedandwroteabout，civilisation，culture，andjusticewhilelivingcomfortablyonthe，revenuesprovidedforthembytheirunfortunateserfs——thesehad，thestrongestaversion;andthisnaturallyledthemtocondemnin，stronglanguagetheworshipofaestheticculture。Buthereagain，theyfellintoexaggeration。Professingextremeutilitarianism，theyexplainedthatthehumbleshoemakerwhopractiseshiscraft，diligentlyis，inthetruesense，agreatermanthanaShakespeare，oraGoethe，becausehumanityhasmoreneedofshoesthanofdramas，andpoetry。

Suchsillyparadoxesprovoked，ofcourse，merelyasmileof，compassion;whatalarmedthesensible，respectable“Philistine“was，themethodofcleansingtheAugeanstablerecommendedbythese，enthusiasts。Havingdiscoveredinthecourseoftheirdesultory，readingthatmostoftheillsthatfleshisheirtoproceed，directlyorindirectlyfromuncontrolledsexualpassionandthe，lustofgain，theyproposedtosealhermeticallythesetwogreat，sourcesofcrimeandmiserybyabolishingtheold-fashioned，institutionsofmarriageandprivateproperty。Whensociety，they，argued，shouldbesoorganisedthatallthehealthyinstinctsof，humannaturecouldfindcompleteanduntrammelledsatisfaction，therewouldbenomotiveorinducementforcommittingcrimesor，misdemeanours。Forthousandsofyearshumanityhadbeensailingon，awrongtack。Thegreatlaw-giversoftheworld，religiousand，civil，intheirignoranceofphysicalscienceandpositivist，methods，hadcreatedinstitutions，commonlyknownaslawand，morality，whichwereutterlyunfittedtohumannature，andthenthe，magistrateandthemoralisthadendeavouredtocompelorpersuade，menandwomentoconformtothem，buttheireffortshadfailedmost，signally。Invainthepolicehadthreatenedandpunishedandthe，priestshadpreachedandadmonished。Humannaturehad，systematicallyandobstinatelyrebelled，andstillrebels，against，theunnaturalconstraint。Itistime，therefore，totryanew，system。Insteadofcontinuing，ashasbeendoneforthousandsof，years，toforcemenandwomen，asitwere，intobadlyfitting，unelasticclotheswhichcauseintensediscomfortandpreventall，healthymuscularaction，whynotadaptthecostumetotheanatomy，andphysiologyofthehumanframe？，Thentheclotheswillnolonger，berent，andthosewhowearthemwillbecontentedandhappy。

Unfortunatelyfortheprogressofhumanitythereareserious，obstaclesinthewayofthisradicalchangeofsystem。Theabsurd，antiquatedandperniciousinstitutionsandcustomsaresupportedby，abstrusemetaphysicalreasonsandenshrinedinmysticalromantic，sentiment，andinthiswaytheymaystillbepreservedfor，generationsunlesstheaxebelaidtotherootofthetree。Nowis，thecriticalmoment。Russiamustbemadetoriseatoncefromthe，metaphysicaltothepositiviststageofintellectualdevelopment;

metaphysicalreasoningandromanticsentimentmustberigorously，discarded;andeverythingmustbebroughttothetouchstoneof，nakedpracticalutility。

Onemightnaturallysupposethatmenholdingsuchopinionsmustbe，materialistsofthegrossesttype——and，indeed，manyofthem，gloriedinthenameofmaterialistandatheist——butsuchan，inferencewouldbeerroneous。Whiledenouncingmetaphysics，they，werethemselvesmetaphysiciansinsofarastheywereconstantly，jugglingwithabstractconceptions，andlettingthemselvesbe，guidedintheirwalkandconversationbyapriorideductions;while，ridiculingromanticism，theyhadromanticsentimentenoughtomake，themsacrificetheirtime，theirproperty，andsometimeseventheir，life，totheattainmentofanunrealisableideal;andwhile，congratulatingthemselvesonhavingpassedfromthereligiousto，thepositiviststageofintellectualdevelopment，theyfrequently，showedthemselvesanimatedwiththespiritoftheearlymartyrs！

Rarelyhavethestrangeinconsistenciesofhumannaturebeenso，strikinglyexemplifiedasintheseunpractical，anti-religious，fanatics。IndealingwiththemImighteasily，withoutverygreat，exaggeration，produceamostamusingcaricature，butIprefer，describingthemastheyreallywere。Afewyearsaftertheperiod，herereferredtoIknewsomeofthemintimately，andImustsay，that，withoutatallsharingorsympathisingwiththeiropinions，I

couldnothelprespectingthemashonourable，upright，quixoticmen，andwomenwhohadmadegreatsacrificesfortheirconvictions。One，ofthemwhomIhavespeciallyinviewatthismomentsuffered，patientlyforyearsfromtheuttershipwreckofhisgenerous，illusions，andwhenhecouldnolongerhopetoseethedawnofa，brighterday，heendedbycommittingsuicide。Yetthatman，believedhimselftobeaRealist，aMaterialist，andaUtilitarian，ofthepurestwater，andhabituallyprofessedascathingcontempt，foreveryformofromanticsentiment！，Inrealityhewasoneofthe，bestandmostsympatheticmenIhaveeverknown。

Toreturnfromthisdigression。Solongasthesubversiveopinions，wereveiledinabstractlanguagetheyraisedmisgivingsinonlya，comparativesmallcircle;butwhenschool-teachersputthemintoa，formsuitedtothejuvenilemind，theywereapttoproduce，startlingeffects。Inasatiricalnovelofthetimealittlegirl，isrepresentedascomingtohermotherandsaying，“Littlemamma！

MariaIvan’na(ournewschool-mistress)saysthereisnoGodandno，Tsar，andthatitiswrongtomarry！”Whethersuchincidents，actuallyoccurredinreallife，asseveralfriendsassuredme，Iam，notpreparedtosay，butcertainlypeoplebelievedthattheymight，occurintheirownfamilies，andthatwasquitesufficientto，producealarmevenintheranksoftheLiberals，tosaynothingof，therapidlyincreasingarmyoftheReactionaries。

ToillustratethegeneraluneasinessproducedinSt。Petersburg，I

mayquoteherealetterwritteninOctober，1861，byamanwho，occupiedoneofthehighestpositionsintheAdministration。Ashe，hadthereputationofbeinganultra-Liberalwhosympathised，overmuchwithYoungRussia，wemayassumethathedidnottakean，exceptionallyalarmistviewofthesituation。

“Youhavenotbeenlongabsent——merelyafewmonths;butifyou，returnednow，youwouldbeastonishedbytheprogresswhichthe，Opposition，onemightsaytheRevolutionaryParty，hasalready，made。Thedisordersintheuniversitydonotconcernmerelythe，students。Iseeintheaffairthebeginningofseriousdangersfor，publictranquillityandtheexistingorderofthings。Young，people，withoutdistinctionofcostume，uniformandorigin，take，partinthestreetdemonstrations。Besidesthestudentsofthe，university，therearethestudentsofotherinstitutions，anda，massofpeoplewhoarestudentsonlyinname。Amongtheselastare，certaingentlemeninlongbeardsandanumberofrevolutionnaires，incrinoline，whoareofallthemostfanatical。Bluecollars——the，distinguishingmarkofthestudents’uniform——havebecomethesigne，deralliement。Almostalltheprofessorsandmanyofficerstake，thepartofthestudents。Thenewspapercriticsopenlydefend，theircolleagues。Mikhailofhasbeenconvictedofwriting，printingandcirculatingoneofthemostviolentproclamationsthat，everexisted，undertheheading，’Totheyounggeneration！’，Among，thestudentsandthemenoflettersthereisunquestionablyan，organisedconspiracy，whichhasperhapsleadersoutsidethe，literarycircle……Thepolicearepowerless。Theyarrestany，onetheycanlayhandson。Abouteightypeoplehavealreadybeen，senttothefortressandexamined，butallthisleadstono，practicalresult，becausetherevolutionaryideashavetaken，possessionofallclasses，allages，allprofessions，andare，publiclyexpressedinthestreets，inthebarracks，andinthe，Ministries。Ibelievethepoliceitselfiscarriedawaybythem！

Whatthiswillleadto，itisdifficulttopredict。Iamverymuch，afraidofsomebloodycatastrophe。Evenifitshouldnotgoto，suchalengthimmediately，thepositionoftheGovernmentwillhe，extremelydifficult。Itsauthorityisshaken，andallare，convincedthatitispowerless，stupidandincapable。Onthat，pointthereisthemostperfectunanimityamongallpartiesofall，colours，eventhemostopposite。Themostdesperate’planter’*

agreesinthatrespectwiththemostdesperatesocialist。

Meanwhilethosewhohavethedirectionofaffairsdoalmostnothing，andhavenoplanordefiniteaiminview。AtpresenttheEmperor，isnotintheCapital，andnow，morethanatanyothertime，there，iscompleteanarchyintheabsenceofthemasterofthehouse。

Thereisagreatdealofbustleandtalk，andallblametheyknow，notwhom。”**

*Anepithetcommonlyapplied，atthetimeoftheEmancipation，to，thepartisansofserfageandthedefendersoftheproprietors’

rights。

**Ifoundthisinterestingletter(whichmighthavebeenwritten，today)thirtyyearsagoamongtheprivatepapersofNicholas，Milutin，whoplayedaleadingpartasanofficialinthereformsof，thetime。Itwasfirstpublishedinanarticleon“Secret，SocietiesinRussia，“whichIcontributedtotheFortnightlyReview，of1stAugust，1877。

Theexpectedrevolutiondidnottakeplace，buttimidpeoplehadno，difficultyinperceivingsignsofitsapproach。ThePress，continuedtodisseminate，underamoreorlessdisguisedform，ideaswhichwereconsidereddangerous。TheKolokol，aRussian，revolutionarypaperpublishedinLondonbyHerzenandstrictly，prohibitedbythePress-censure，founditswayinlargequantities，intothecountry，and，asisrecordedinanearlierchapter，was，readbythousands，includingthehigherofficialsandtheEmperor，himself，whofounditregularlyonhiswriting-table，laidthereby，someunknownhand。InSt。PetersburgthearrestofTchernishevski，andthesuspensionofhismagazine，TheContemporary，madethe，writersalittlemorecautiousintheirmodeofexpression，butthe，spiritofthearticlesremainedunchanged。Theseenergetic，intolerantleadersofpublicopinionwerenovihominesnot，personallyconnectedwiththesocialstratainwhichmoderateviews，andretrogradetendernesshadbeguntoprevail。Mostlysonsof，priestsorofpettyofficials，theybelongedtoarecentlycreated，literaryproletariatcomposedofyoungmenwithboundless，aspirationsandmeagrenationalresources，whoearnedaprecarious，subsistencebyjournalismorbygivinglessonsinprivatefamilies。

Livinghabituallyinaworldoftheoriesandunrestrainedby，practicalacquaintancewithpubliclife，theywereready，fromthe，purestandmostdisinterestedmotivestodestroyruthlesslythe，existingorderofthingsinordertorealisetheircrudenotionsof，socialregeneration。Theirheatedimaginationshowedtheminthe，nearfutureaNewRussia，composedofindependentfederated，Communes，withoutanybureaucracyoranycentralpower——ahappy，landinwhicheverybodyvirtuouslyandautomaticallyfulfilledhis，publicandprivateduties，andinwhichthepolicemanandallother，embodimentsofmaterialconstraintwerewhollysuperfluous。

GovernmentsarenoteasilyconvertedtoUtopianschemesofthat，idyllictype，anditisnotsurprisingthatevenaGovernmentwith，liberalhumanitarianaspirationslikethatofAlexanderII。should，havebecomealarmedandshouldhaveattemptedtostemthecurrent。

Whatistoberegrettedisthattherepressivemeasuresadopted，werealittletooOrientalintheircharacter。Scoresofyoung，studentsofbothsexes——fortheNihilistarmyincludedastrong，femalecontingent——weresecretlyarrestedandconfinedformonths，inunwholesomeprisons，andmanyofthemwerefinallyexiled，withoutanyregulartrial，todistantprovincesinEuropeanRussia，ortoSiberia。Theirexile，itistrue，wasnotatallsoterrible，asiscommonlysupposed，becausepoliticalexilesarenotusually，confinedinprisonsorcompelledtolabourinthemines，butare，obligedmerelytoresideatagivenplaceunderpolicesupervision。

Still，suchpunishmentwassevereenoughforeducatedyoungmenand，women，especiallywhentheirlotwascastamongapopulation，composedexclusivelyofpeasantsandsmallshop-keepersorof，Siberianaborigines，andwhentherewerenomeansofsatisfyingthe，mostelementaryintellectualwants。Forthosewhohadnoprivate，resourcesthepunishmentwasparticularlysevere，becausethe，Governmentgrantedmerelyamiserablemonthlypittance，hardly，sufficienttopurchasefoodofthecoarsestkind，andtherewas，rarelyanopportunityofaddingtothemeagreofficialallowanceby，intellectualormanuallabour。Inallcasesthetreatmentaccorded，totheexileswoundedtheirsenseofjusticeandincreasedthe，existingdiscontentamongtheirfriendsandacquaintances。Instead，ofactingasadeterrent，thesystemproducedafeelingofprofound，indignation，andultimatelytransformednotafewsentimental，dreamersintoactiveconspirators。

Atfirsttherewasnoconspiracyorregularlyorganisedsecret，societyandnothingofwhichthecriminallawinWesternEurope，couldhavetakencognisance。Studentsmetineachother’sroomsto，discussprohibitedbooksonpoliticalandsocialscience，and，occasionallyshortessaysonthesubjectsdiscussedwerewrittenin，arevolutionaryspiritbymembersofthecoterie。Thiswascalled，mutualinstruction。Betweenthevariouscoteriesorgroupsthere，wereprivatepersonalrelations，notonlyinthecapital，butalso，intheprovinces，sothatmanuscriptsandprintedpaperscouldbe，transmittedfromonegrouptoanother。Fromtimetotimethe，policecapturedtheseacademicdisquisitions，andmaderaidsonthe，meetingsofstudentswhohadcometogethermerelyforconversation，anddiscussion;andthefresharrestscausedbytheseincidents，increasedthehostilitytotheGovernment。

Intheletterabovequoteditissaidthattherevolutionaryideas，hadtakenpossessionofallclasses，allages，andallprofessions。

ThismayhavebeentruewithregardtoSt。Petersburg，butitcould，nothavebeensaidoftheprovinces。Therethelandedproprietors，wereinaverydifferentframeofmind。Theyhadtostrugglewith，amultitudeofurgentpracticalaffairswhichleftthemlittletime，foridyllicdreamingaboutanimaginarymillennium。Theirserfs，hadbeenemancipated，andwhatremainedtothemoftheirestates，hadtobereorganisedonthebasisoffreelabour。Intothesemi-

chaoticstateofthingscreatedbysuchfar-reachingchanges，legal，andeconomic，theydidnotwishtoseeanymoreconfusion，introduced，andtheydidnotatallfeelthattheycoulddispense，withtheCentralGovernmentandthepoliceman。Onthecontrary，theCentralGovernmentwasurgentlyneededinordertoobtaina，littlereadymoneywherewithtoreorganisetheestatesinthenew，conditions，andthepoliceorganisationrequiredtobestrengthened，inordertocompeltheemancipatedserfstofulfiltheirlegal，obligations。Thesemenandtheirfamilieswere，therefore，much，moreconservativethantheclasscommonlydesignated“theyoung，generation，“andtheynaturallysympathisedwiththe“Philistines“

inSt。Petersburg，whohadbeenalarmedbytheexaggerationsofthe，Nihilists。

Eventhelandedproprietors，however，werenotsoentirelyfree，fromdiscontentandtroublesomepoliticalaspirationsasthe，Governmentwouldhavedesired。Theyhadnotforgottenthe，autocraticandbureaucraticwayinwhichtheEmancipationhadbeen，prepared，andtheirindignationhadbeenonlypartiallyappeasedby，theirbeingallowedtocarryouttheprovisionsofthelawwithout，muchbureaucraticinterference。Somuchforthediscontent。As，forthereformaspirations，theythoughtthat，asacompensation，forhavingconsentedtotheliberationoftheirserfsandfor，havingbeenexpropriatedfromaboutahalfoftheirland，they，oughttoreceiveextensivepoliticalrights，andbeadmitted，like，theupperclassesinWesternEurope，toafairshareinthe，governmentofthecountry。UnlikethefieryyoungNihilistsofSt。

Petersburg，theydidnotwanttoabolishorparalysethecentral，power;whattheywantedwastoco-operatewithitloyallyandto，givetheiradviceonimportantquestionsbymeansofrepresentative，institutions。Theyformedaconstitutionalgroupwhichexists，stillatthepresentday，asweshallseeinthesequel，butwhich，hasneverbeenallowedtodevelopintoanorganisedpolitical，party。Itsaimsweresomoderatethatitsprogrammemighthave，beenusedasaconvenientsafety-valvefortheexplosiveforces，whichweresteadilyaccumulatingunderthesurfaceofSociety，but，itneverfoundfavourintheofficialworld。Whensomeofits，leadingmembersventuredtohintinthePressandinloyal，addressestotheEmperorthattheGovernmentwoulddowellto，consultthecountryonimportantquestions，theirrespectful，suggestionswerecoldlyreceivedorbluntlyrejectedbythe，bureaucracyandtheAutocraticPower。

Themoretherevolutionaryandconstitutionalgroupssoughtto，strengthentheirposition，themorepronouncedbecamethe，reactionarytendenciesintheofficialworld，andthesereceivedin，1863animmenseimpetusfromthePolishinsurrection，withwhich，theNihilistsandevensomeoftheLiberalssympathised。*，That，ill-advisedattemptonthepartofthePolestorecovertheir，independencehadacuriouseffectonRussianpublicopinion。

AlexanderII。withthewarmapprovalofthemoreLiberalsection，oftheeducatedclasses，wasinthecourseofcreatingforPoland，almostcompleteadministrativeautonomyundertheviceroyaltyofa，RussianGrandDuke;andtheEmperor’sbrotherConstantinewas，preparingtocarryouttheschemeinagenerousspirit。Soonit，becameevidentthatwhatthePoleswantedwasnotadministrative，autonomy，butpoliticalindependence，withthefrontierswhich，existedbeforethefirstpartition！，Trustingtotheexpected，assistanceoftheWesternPowersandthesecretconnivanceof，Austria，theyraisedthestandardofinsurrection，andsome，triflingsuccessesweremagnifiedbythepro-PolishPressinto，importantvictories。AsthenewsoftherisingspreadoverRussia，therewasamomentofhesitation。Thosewhohadbeenforsome，yearshabituallyextollinglibertyandself-governmentasthe，normalconditionsofprogress，whohadbeensympathisingwarmly，witheveryLiberalmovement，whetherathomeorabroad，andwhohad，putforwardavoluntaryfederationofindependentCommunesasthe，idealStateorganism，couldnotwellfrownonthepolitical，aspirationsofthePolishpatriots。TheLiberalsentimentofthat，timewassoextremelyphilosophicalandcosmopolitanthatithardly，distinguishedbetweenPolesandRussians，andlibertywassupposed，tobethebirthrightofeverymanandwomantowhatevernationality，theymighthappentobelong。Butunderneaththesebeautiful，artificialcloudsofcosmopolitanLiberalsentimentlaythevolcano，ofnationalpatriotism，dormantforthemoment，butbynomeans，extinct。ThoughtheRussiansareinsomerespectsthemost，cosmopolitanofEuropeannations，theyareatthesametimecapable，ofindulginginviolentoutburstsofpatrioticfanaticism;and，eventsinWarsawbroughtintohostilecontactthesetwo，contradictoryelementsinthenationalcharacter。Thestrugglewas，onlymomentary。Erelongthepatrioticfeelingsgainedtheupper，handandcrushedallcosmopolitansympathywithpoliticalfreedom。

TheMoscowGazette，thefirstofthepaperstorecoveritsmental，equilibrium，thunderedagainstthepseudo-Liberalsentimentalism，whichwould，ifunchecked，necessarilyleadtothedismembermentof，theEmpire，anditseditor，Katkoff，becameforatimethemost，influentialprivateindividualinthecountry。Afew，indeed，remainedtruetotheirconvictions。Herzen，forinstance，wrotein，theKolokolaglowingpanegyricontwoRussianofficerswhohad，refusedtofireontheinsurgents;andhereandthereagood，OrthodoxRussianmightbefoundwhoconfessedthathewasashamed，ofMuravieff’sextremeseverityinLithuania。Butsuchmenwere，few，andwerecommonlyregardedastraitors，especiallyafterthe，ill-adviseddiplomaticinterventionoftheWesternPowers。Even，Herzen，byhispubliclyexpressedsympathywiththeinsurgents，lostentirelyhispopularityandinfluenceamonghisfellow-

countrymen。Thegreatmajorityofthepublicthoroughlyapproved，ofthesevereenergeticmeasuresadoptedbytheGovernment，and，whentheinsurrectionwassuppressed，menwhohadafewmonths，previouslyspokenandwritteninmagniloquenttermsabout，humanitarianLiberalismjoinedintheovationsofferedto，Muravieff！，Atagreatdinnergiveninhishonour，thatruthless，administratoroftheoldMuscovitetype，whohadsystematically，opposedtheemancipationoftheserfsandhadneverconcealedhis，contemptfortheLiberalideasinfashion，couldironicallyexpress，hissatisfactionatseeingaroundhimsomany“newfriends“！**

ThisrevulsionofpublicfeelinggavetheMoscowSlavophilsan，opportunityofagainpreachingtheirdoctrinethatthesafetyand，prosperityofRussiaweretobefound，notintheLiberalismand，ConstitutionalismofWesternEurope，butinpatriarchalautocracy，EasternOrthodoxy，andotherpeculiaritiesofRussiannationality。

Thusthereactionarytendenciesgainedground;butAlexanderII。，whilecausingallpoliticalagitationtoberepressed，didnotat，onceabandonhispolicyofintroducingradicalreformsbymeansof，theAutocraticPower。Onthecontrary，hegaveordersthatthe，preparatoryworkforcreatinglocalself-governmentand，reorganisingtheLawCourtsshouldbepushedonenergetically。The，importantlawsfortheestablishmentoftheZemstvoandforthe，greatjudicialreforms，whichIhavedescribedinprevious，chapters，bothdatefromtheyear1864。

*ThestudentsoftheSt。PetersburgUniversityscandalisedtheir，morepatrioticfellow-countrymenbymakingapro-Polish，demonstration。

**InfairnesstoCountMuravieffImustsaythathewasnotquite，soblackashewaspaintedinthePolishandWest-EuropeanPress。

Heleftaninterestingautobiographicalfragmentrelatingtothe，historyofthistime，butitisnotlikelytobeprintedforsome，years。Asanhistoricaldocumentitisvaluable，butmustbeused，withcautionbythefuturehistorian。Acopyofitwasforsome，timeinmypossession，butIwasboundbyapromisenottomake，extracts。

Theseandotherreformsofalessimportantkindmadenoimpression，ontheyoungirreconcilables。Asmallgroupofthem，underthe，leadershipofacertainIshutin，formedinMoscowasmallsecret，society，andconceivedthedesignofassassinatingtheEmperor，in，thehopethathissonandsuccessor，whowaserroneouslysupposed，tobeimbuedwithultra-Liberalideas，mightcontinuethework，whichhisfatherhadbegunandhadnotthecouragetocomplete。In，April，1866，theattemptonthelifeoftheEmperorwasmadebya，youthcalledKarakozofashisMajestywasleavingapublicgarden，inSt。Petersburg，butthebullethappilymisseditsmark，andthe，culpritwasexecuted。

Thisincidentformedaturning-pointinthepolicyofthe，Government。AlexanderII。begantofearthathehadgonetoofar，or，atleast，tooquickly，inhispolicyofradicalreform。An，Imperialrescriptannouncedthatlaw，property，andreligionwere，indanger，andthattheGovernmentwouldleanontheNoblesseand，otherconservativeelementsofSociety。Thetwoperiodicalswhich，advocatedthemostadvancedviews(SovremennikandRusskoyeSlovo)

weresuppressedpermanently，andprecautionsweretakentoprevent，theannualassembliesoftheZemstvofromgivingpublicexpression，totheaspirationsofthemoderateLiberals。

Asecretofficialinquiryshowedthattherevolutionaryagitation，proceededinallcasesfromyoungmenwhowerestudying，orhad，recentlystudied，intheuniversities，theseminaries，orthe，technicalschools，suchastheMedicalAcademyandtheAgricultural，Institute。Plainly，therefore，thesystemofeducationwasat，fault。Thesemi-militarysystemofthetimeofNicholashadbeen，supplantedbyoneinwhichdisciplinewasreducedtoaminimumand，thestudyofnaturalscienceformedaprominentelement。Hereit，wasthought，laythechiefrootoftheevil。Englishmenmayhave，somedifficultyinimaginingapossibleconnectionbetweennatural，scienceandrevolutionaryagitation。Tothemthetwothingsmust，seemwideasthepolesasunder。Surelymathematics，chemistry，physiology，andsimilarsubjectshavenothingtodowithpolitics。

WhenayoungEnglishmantakestostudyinganybranchofnatural，sciencehegetsuphissubjectbymeansoflectures，text-books，andmuseumsorlaboratories，andwhenhehasmasteredithe，probablyputshisknowledgetosomepracticaluse。InRussiaitis，otherwise。Fewstudentsconfinethemselvestotheirspeciality。

Themajorityofthemdislikethelaboriousworkofmasteringdry，details，and，withthepresumptionwhichisoftenfoundin，conjunctionwithyouthandasmatteringofknowledge，theyaspire，tobecomesocialreformersandimaginethemselvesspecially，qualifiedforsuchactivity。

Butwhat，itmayheasked，hassocialreformtodowithnatural，science？，IhavealreadyindicatedtheconnectionintheRussian，mind。Thoughveryfewofthestudentsofthattimehadeverread，thevoluminousworksofAugusteComte，theywereallmoreorless，imbuedwiththespiritofthePositivePhilosophy，inwhichallthe，sciencesaresubsidiarytosociology，andsocialreorganisationis，theultimateobjectofscientificresearch。Theimaginative，Positivistcanseewithpropheticeyehumanityreorganisedon，strictlyscientificprinciples。Cool-headedpeoplewhohavehada，littleexperienceoftheworld，iftheyeverindulgeinsuch，delightfuldreams，recogniseclearlythatthisultimategoalof，humanintellectualactivity，ifitisevertobereached，isstill，alongwayoffinthemistydistanceofthefuture;butthewould-

besocialreformersamongtheRussianstudentsofthesixtieswere，tooyoung，tooinexperienced，andtoopresumptuouslyself-confident，torecognisethisplain，simpletruth。Theyfeltthattoomuch，valuabletimehadbeenalreadylost，andtheyweremadlyimpatient，tobeginthegreatworkwithoutfurtherdelay。Assoonastheyhad，acquiredasmatteringofchemistry，physiology，andbiologythey，imaginedthemselvescapableofreorganisinghumansocietyfromtop，tobottom，andwhentheyhadacquiredthisconvictiontheywereof，courseunfittedforthepatient，ploddingstudyofdetails。

Toremedytheseevils，CountDimitriTolstoy，whowasregardedasa，pillarofConservatism，wasappointedMinisterofPublic，Instruction，withthemissionofprotectingtheyounggeneration，againstperniciousideas，anderadicatingfromtheschools，colleges，anduniversitiesallrevolutionarytendencies。He，determinedtointroducemoredisciplineintoalltheeducational，establishmentsandtosupplanttoacertainextentthesuperficial，studyofnaturalsciencebythethoroughstudyoftheclassics——

thatistosay，LatinandGreek。Thisscheme，whichbecameknown，beforeitwasactuallyputintoexecution，producedastormof，discontentintheyounggeneration。Disciplineatthattimewas，regardedasanantiquatedanduselessremnantofpatriarchal，tyranny，andyoungmenwhowereimpatienttotakepartinsocial，reorganisationresentedbeingtreatedasnaughtyschoolboys。To，themitseemedthattheLatingrammarwasaningeniousinstrument，forstultifyingyouthfulintelligence，destroyingintellectual，development，andcheckingpoliticalprogress。Ingenious，speculationsaboutthepossibleorganisationoftheworkingclasses，andgrandioseviewsofthefutureofhumanityaresomuchmore，interestingandagreeablethantherulesofLatinsyntaxandthe，Greekirregularverbs！

CountTolstoycouldcongratulatehimselfontheefficacyofhis，administration，forfromthetimeofhisappointmenttherewasa，lullinthepoliticalexcitement。Duringthreeorfouryearsthere，wasonlyonepoliticaltrial，andthataninsignificantone;

whereastherehadbeentwentybetween1861and1864，andallmore，orlessimportant。Iamnotatallsure，however，thatthe，educationalreformwhichcreatedmuchmomentaryirritationand，discontenthadanythingtodowiththeimprovementinthe，situation。Inanycase，therewereotherandmorepotentcausesat，work。Theexcitementwastoointensetobelong-lived，andthe，fashionabletheoriestoofancifultostandthewearandtearof，everydaylife。Theyevaporated，therefore，withamazingrapidity，whentheleadersofthemovementhaddisappeared——Tchernishevski，andothersbyexile，andDobrolubofandPissarefbydeath——andwhen，amongthelessprominentrepresentativesoftheyoungergeneration，manysuccumbedtothesoberinginfluencesoftimeandexperienceor，driftedintolucrativeprofessions。Besidesthis，thereactionary，currentsweremakingthemselvesfelt，especiallysincetheattempt，onthelifeoftheEmperor。Solongasthesehadbeenconfinedto，theofficialworldtheyhadnotmuchaffectedtheliterature，exceptexternallythroughthePress-censure，butwhenthey，permeatedthereadingpublictheirinfluencewasmuchstronger。

Whateverthecause，thereisnodoubtthat，inthelastyearsof，thesixties，therewasasubsidenceofexcitementandenthusiasm，andthepeculiarintellectualphenomenonwhichhadbeennicknamed，Nihilismwassupposedtobeathingofthepast。Inrealitythe，movementofwhichNihilismwasaprominentmanifestationhadmerely，lostsomethingofitsacademiccharacterandwasenteringonanew，stageofdevelopment。

CHAPTERXXXV

SOCIALISTPROPAGANDA，REVOLUTIONARYAGITATION，ANDTERRORISM

CloserRelationswithWesternSocialism——AttemptstoInfluencethe，Masses——BakuninandLavroff——“GoinginamongthePeople“——The，MissionariesofRevolutionarySocialism——Distinctionbetween，PropagandaandAgitation——RevolutionaryPamphletsfortheCommon，People——AimsandMotivesofthePropagandists——Failureof，Propaganda——EnergeticRepression——FruitlessAttemptsatAgitation——

ProposaltoCombinewithLiberals——GenesisofTerrorism——My，PersonalRelationswiththeRevolutionists——ShadowersandShadowed——

ASeriesofTerroristCrimes——ARevolutionistCongress——

UnsuccessfulAttemptstoAssassinatetheTsar——IneffectualAttempt，atConciliationbyLorisMelikof——AssassinationofAlexanderII——

TheExecutiveCommitteeShowsItselfUnpractical——Widespread，IndignationandSevereRepression——TemporaryCollapseofthe，RevolutionaryMovement——ANewRevolutionaryMovementinSight。

CountTolstoy’seducationalreformhadoneeffectwhichwasnot，anticipated：itbroughttherevolutionistsintoclosercontactwith，WesternSocialism。Manystudents，findingtheirpositioninRussia，uncomfortable，determinedtogoabroadandcontinuetheirstudies，inforeignuniversities，wheretheywouldbefreefromthe，inconveniencesofpolicesupervisionandPress-censure。Thoseof，thefemalesexhadanadditionalmotivetoemigrate，becausethey，couldnotcompletetheirstudiesinRussia，buttheyhadmore，difficultyincarryingouttheirintention，becauseparents，naturallydislikedtheideaoftheirdaughtersgoingabroadtolead，aBohemianlife，andtheyveryoftenobstinatelyrefusedtogive，theirconsent。Insuchcasesthepersistentdaughterfoundherself，inadilemma。Thoughshemightrunawayfromherfamilyand，possiblyearnherownliving，shecouldnotcrossthefrontier，withoutapassport，andwithouttheparentalsanctionapassport，couldnotbeobtained。Ofcourseshemightmarryandgetthe，consentofherhusband，butmostoftheyoungladiesobjectedto，thetrammelsofmatrimony。Occasionallytheproblemwassolvedby，meansofafictitiousmarriage，andwhenayoungmancouldnotbe，foundtoco-operatevoluntarilyinthearrangement，theTerrorist，methods，whichtherevolutionistsadoptedafewyearslaterfor，otherpurposes，mightbeemployed。Ihaveheardofatleastone，caseinwhichanardentfemaledevoteeofmedicalscience，threatenedtoshootastudentwhowasgoingabroadifhedidnot，submittothematrimonialceremonyandallowhertoaccompanyhim，tothefrontierashisofficialwife！

Strangeasthisstorymayseem，itcontainsnothinginherently，improbable。Atthattimetheenergeticyoungladiesofthe，Nihilistschoolwerenottobedivertedfromtheirpurposeby，triflingobstacles。Weshallmeetsomeofthemhereafter，displayinggreatcourageandtenacityinrevolutionaryactivity。

Oneofthem，forexample，attemptedtomurderthePrefectofSt。

Petersburg;andanother，ayoungpersonofconsiderablerefinement，andgreatpersonalcharm，gavethesignalfortheassassinationof，AlexanderII。andexpiatedhercrimeonthescaffoldwithoutthe，leastsignofrepentance。

MostofthestudiousemigresofbothsexeswenttoZurich，where，femalestudentswereadmittedtothemedicalclasses。Herethey，madetheacquaintanceofnotedSocialistsfromvariouscountries，whohadsettledinSwitzerland，andbeinginsearchofpanaceasfor，socialregeneration，theynaturallyfellundertheirinfluence，at，thesametimetheyreadwithaviditytheworksofProudhon，Lassalle，Buchner，Marx，Flerovski，Pfeiffer，andotherwritersof，“advancedopinions。”

AmongtheapostlesofsocialismlivingatthattimeinSwitzerland，theyfoundasympatheticfellow-countrymaninthefamousAnarchist，Bakunin，whohadsucceededinescapingfromSiberia。Hisidealwas，theimmediateoverthrowofallexistingGovernments，the，destructionofalladministrativeorganisation，theabolitionof，allbourgeoisinstitutions，andtheestablishmentofanentirely，neworderofthingsonthebasisofafreefederationofproductive，Communes，inwhichallthelandshouldbedistributedamongthose，capableoftillingitandtheinstrumentsofproductionconfidedto，co-operativeassociations。Effortstoobtainmerepolitical，reforms，evenofthemostradicaltype，wereregardedbyhimwith，contemptasmiserablepalliatives，whichcouldbeofnoreal，permanentbenefittothemasses，andmightbepositivelyinjurious，byprolongingthepresenteraofbourgeoisdomination。

Forthedisseminationoftheseprinciplesaspecialorgancalled，TheCauseofthePeople(NarodnoyeDyelo)wasfoundedinGenevain，1868andwassmuggledacrosstheRussianfrontierinconsiderable，quantities。Itaimedatdrawingawaytheyounggenerationfrom，AcademicNihilismtomorepracticalrevolutionaryactivity，butit，evidentlyremainedtosomeextentundertheoldinfluences，forit，indulgedoccasionallyinveryabstractphilosophicaldisquisitions。

Initsfirstnumber，forexample，itpublishedaprogrammeinwhich，theeditorsthoughtitnecessarytodeclarethattheywere，materialistsandatheists，becausethebeliefinGodandafuture，life，aswellaseveryotherkindofidealism，demoralisesthe，people，inspiringitwithmutuallycontradictoryaspirations，and，therebydeprivingitoftheenergynecessaryfortheconquestof，itsnaturalrightsinthisworld，andthecompleteorganisationof，afreeandhappylife。Attheendoftwoyearsthisorganfor，moralisingthepeoplecollapsedfromwantoffunds，butother，periodicalsandpamphletswereprinted，andtheclandestine，relationsbetweentheexilesinSwitzerlandandtheirfriendsin，St。Petersburgweremaintainedwithoutdifficulty，notwithstanding，theeffortsofthepolicetocuttheconnection。InthiswayYoung，RussiabecamemoreandmoresaturatedwiththeextremeSocialist，theoriescurrentinWesternEurope。

Thankspartlytothisforeigninfluenceandpartlytotheirown，practicalexperience，thewould-bereformerswhoremainedathome，cametounderstandthatacademictalkinganddiscussingcouldbring，aboutnoseriousresults。Studentsalone，howevernumerousand，howeverdevotedtothecause，couldnothopetooverthroworcoerce，theGovernment。Itwaschildishtosupposethatthewallsofthe，autocraticJerichowouldfallbytheblastsofacademictrumpets。

Attemptsatrevolutioncouldnotbesuccessfulwithouttheactive，supportofthepeople，andconsequentlytherevolutionaryagitation，mustbeextendedtothemasses。Sofartherewascomplete，agreementamongtherevolutionists，butwithregardtothemodus，operandiemphaticdifferencesofopinionappeared。Thosewhowere，carriedawaybythestirringaccentsofBakuninimaginedthatif，themassescouldonlybemadetofeelthemselvesthevictimsof，administrativeandeconomicoppression，theywouldriseandfree，themselvesbyaunitedeffort。Accordingtothisviewallthatwas，requiredwasthatpopulardiscontentshouldbeexcitedandthat，precautionsshouldbetakentoensurethattheexplosionsof，discontentshouldtakeplacesimultaneouslyalloverthecountry。

Therestmightsafelybeleft，itwasthought，totheoperationof，naturalforcesandtheinspirationofthemoment。Againstthis，dangerousillusionwarningvoiceswereraised。Lavroff，for，example，whileagreeingwithBakuninthatmerepoliticalreforms，wereoflittleornovalue，andthatanygenuineimprovementinthe，conditionoftheworkingclassescouldproceedonlyfromeconomic，andsocialreorganisation，maintainedstoutlythattherevolution，tobepermanentandbeneficial，mustbeaccomplished，notby，demagoguesdirectingtheignorantmasses，butbythepeopleasa，whole，afterithadbeenenlightenedandinstructedastoitstrue，interests。Thepreparatoryworkwouldnecessarilyrequireawhole，generationofeducatedpropagandists，livingamongthelabouring，populationruralandurban。

Forsometimetherewasaconflictbetweenthesetwocurrentsof，opinion，buttheviewsofLavroff，whichweresimplyapractical，developmentofacademicNihilism，gainedfarmoreadherentsthan，theviolentanarchicalproposalsofBakunin，andfinallythe，grandioseschemeofrealisinggraduallytheSocialistidealby，indoctrinatingthemasseswasadoptedwithenthusiasm。InSt。

Petersburg，Moscowandotherlargetownsthestudentassociation，formutualinstruction，towhichIhavereferredintheforegoing，chapter，becamecentresofpopularpropaganda，andtheacademic，Nihilistsweretransformedintoactivemissionaries。Scoresof，maleandfemalestudents，impatienttoconvertthemassestothe，gospeloffreedomandterrestrialfelicity，soughttogetinto，touchwiththecommonpeoplebysettlinginthevillagesasschool-

teachers，medicalpractitioners，midwives，etc。orbyworkingas，commonfactoryhandsintheindustrialcentres。Inordertoobtain，employmentinthefactoriesandconcealtheirrealpurpose，they，procuredfalsepassports，inwhichtheyweredescribedasbelonging，tothelowerclasses;andeventhosewhosettledinthevillages，livedgenerallyunderassumednames。Thuswasformedaclassof，professionalrevolutionists，sometimescalledtheIllegals，who，wereliabletobearrestedatanymomentbythepolice。As，compensationfortheprivationsandhardshipswhichtheyhadto，endure，theyhadtheconsolationofbelievingthattheywere，advancingthegoodcause。Themeanstheyusuallyemployedwere，formalconversationsandpamphletsexpresslywrittenforthe，purpose。Themoreenthusiasticandperseveringofthese，missionarieswouldcontinuetheireffortsformonthsandyears，remainingincommunicationwiththeheadquartersinthecapitalor，someprovincialtowninordertoreportprogress，obtainafresh，supplyofpamphlets，andgettheirforgedpassportsrenewed。This，extraordinarymovementwascalled“goinginamongthepeople，“and，itspreadamongtheyounggenerationlikeanepidemic。In1873it，wassuddenlyreinforcedbyadetachmentoffreshrecruits。Overa，hundredRussianstudentswererecalledbytheGovernmentfrom，Switzerland，inordertosavethemfromthebanefulinfluenceof，Bakunin，Lavroff，andothernotedSocialists，andalarge，proportionofthemjoinedtheranksofthepropagandists。*

*Instancesofgoinginamongthepeoplehadhappenedasearlyas，1864，buttheydidnotbecomefrequenttillafter1870。

Withregardtotheaimsandmethodsofthepropagandists，agood，dealofinformationwasobtainedinthecourseofajudicial，inquiryinstitutedin1875。Apeasant，whowasatthesametimea，factoryworker，informedthepolicethatcertainpersonswere，distributingrevolutionarypamphletsamongthefactory-hands，and，asaproofofwhathesaidheproducedsomepamphletswhichhehad，himselfreceived。Thisledtoaninvestigation，whichshowedthat，anumberofyoungmenandwomen，evidentlybelongingtothe，educatedclasses，weredisseminatingrevolutionaryideasbymeans，ofpamphletsandconversation。Arrestsfollowed，anditwassoon，discoveredthattheseagitatorsbelongedtoalargesecret，association，whichhaditscentreinMoscowandlocalbranchesin，Ivanovo，Tula，andKief。InIvanovo，forinstance——amanufacturing，townaboutahundredmilestothenortheastofMoscow——thepolice，foundasmallapartmentinhabitedbythreeyoungmenandfouryoung，women，allofwhom，thoughbelongingbybirthtotheeducated，classes，hadtheappearanceofordinaryfactoryworkers，prepared，theirownfood，didwiththeirownhandsallthedomesticwork，and，soughttoavoideverythingwhichcoulddistinguishthemfromthe，labouringpopulation。Intheapartmentwerefound240copiesof，revolutionarypamphlets，aconsiderablesumofmoney，alarge，amountofcorrespondenceincypher，andseveralforgedpassports。

Howmanypersonsthesocietycontained，itisimpossibletosay，becausealargeportionofthemeludedthevigilanceofthepolice;

butmanywerearrested，andultimatelyforty-sevenwerecondemned。

Ofthese，elevenwerenoble，sevenweresonsofparishpriests，and，theremainderbelongtothelowerclasses——thatistosay，the，smallofficials，burghers，andpeasants。Theaverageageofthe，prisonerswastwenty-four，theoldestbeingthirty-sixandthe，youngestunderseventeen！，Onlyfiveorsixwereovertwenty-five，andnoneofthesewereringleaders。Thefemaleelementwas，representedbynolessthanfifteenyoungpersons，whoseageswere，onanaverageundertwenty-two。Twoofthese，tojudgebytheir，photographs，wereofrefined，prepossessingappearance，and，seeminglylittlefittedfortakingpartinwholesalemassacressuch，asthesocietytalkedoforganising。

Thecharacterandaimsofthesocietywereclearlydepictedinthe，documentaryandoralevidenceproducedatthetrial。Accordingto，thefundamentalprinciples，thereshouldexistamongthemembers，absoluteequality，completemutualresponsibilityandfull，franknessandconfidencewithregardtotheaffairsofthe，association。Amongtheconditionsofadmissionwefindthatthe，candidateshoulddevotehimselfentirelytorevolutionaryactivity;

thatheshouldbereadytoseverallties，whetheroffriendshipor，oflove，forthegoodcause;thatheshouldpossessgreatpowersof，self-sacrificeandthecapacityforkeepingsecrets;andthathe，shouldconsenttobecome，whennecessary，acommonlabourerina，factory。Thedesiretomaintainabsoluteequalityiswell，illustratedbythearticleofthestatutesregardingthe，administration：theoffice-bearersarenottobechosenby，election，butallmembersaretobeoffice-bearersinturn，andthe，termofofficemustnotexceedonemonth！

Theavowedaimofthesocietywastodestroytheexistingsocial，order，andtoreplaceitbyoneinwhichthereshouldbenoprivate，propertyandnodistinctionsofclassorwealth;or，asitis，expressedinonedocument，“tofoundontheruinsofthepresent，socialorganisationtheEmpireoftheworkingclasses。”，Themeans，tobeemployedwereindicatedinageneralway，buteachmemberwas，toadapthimselftocircumstancesandwastodevoteallhisenergy，toforwardingthecauseoftherevolution。Fortheguidanceofthe，inexperienced，thefollowingmeanswererecommended：simple，conversations，disseminationofpamphlets，theexcitingof，discontent，theformationoforganisedgroups，thecreationof，fundsandlibraries。These，takentogether，constitute，inthe，terminologyofrevolutionaryscience，“propaganda，“andinaddition，toitthereshouldbe“agitation。”，Thetechnicaldistinction，betweenthesetwoprocessesisthatpropagandahasapurely，preparatorycharacter，andaimsmerelyatenlighteningthemasses，regardingthetruenatureoftherevolutionarycause，whereas，agitationaimsatexcitinganindividualoragrouptoactswhich，areconsidered，intheexistingregime，asillegal。Intimeof，peace“pureagitation“wastobecarriedonbymeansoforganised，bandswhichshouldfrightentheGovernmentandtheprivileged，classes，drawawaytheattentionoftheauthoritiesfromlessovert，kindsofrevolutionaryaction，raisethespiritofthepeopleand，therebyrenderitmoreaccessibletorevolutionaryideas，obtain，pecuniarymeansforfurtheractivity，andliberatepolitical，prisoners。Intimeofinsurrectionthemembersshouldgivetoall，movementseveryassistanceintheirpower，andimpressonthema，Socialisticcharacter。Thecentraladministrationandthelocal，branchesshouldestablishrelationswithpublishers，andtakesteps，tosecurearegularsupplyofprohibitedbooksfromabroad。Such，areafewcharacteristicextractsfromadocumentwhichmight，fairlybecalledatreatiseonrevolutionology。

Asaspecimenoftherevolutionarypamphletscirculatedbythe，propagandistsandagitatorsImaygivehereabriefaccountofone，whichiswellknowntothepoliticalpolice。Itisentitled，KhitrayaMekhanika(CunningMachinery)，andgivesagraphicpicture，oftheideasandmethodsemployed。Themiseensceneisextremely，simple。Twopeasants，StepanandAndrei，arerepresentedas，meetinginagin-shopanddrinkingtogether。Stepanisdescribed，asgoodandkindlywhenhehastodowithmenofhisownclass，but，verysharp-tonguedwhenspeakingwithaforemanormanager。Always，readywithananswer，hecanonoccasionssilenceevenanofficial！

HehastravelledallovertheEmpire，hasassociatedwithallsorts，andconditionsofmen，seeseverythingmostclearly，andis，in，short，averyremarkableman。Oneofhisexcellentqualitiesis，that，being“enlightened“himself，heisalwaysreadytoenlighten，others，andhenowfindsanopportunityofdisplayinghispowers。

WhenAndrei，whoisstillunenlightened，proposesthattheyshould，drinkanotherglassofvodka，herepliesthattheTsar，together，withthenoblesandtraders，barsthewaytothethroat。Ashis，companiondoesnotunderstandthismetaphoricallanguage，he，explainsthatiftherewerenoTsars，nobles，ortraders，hecould，getfiveglassesofvodkaforthesumthathenowpaysforone，glass。Thisnaturallysuggestswidertopics，andStepangives，somethinglikealecture。Thecommonpeople，heexplains，payby，farthegreaterpartofthetaxation，andatthesametimedoall，thework;theyploughthefields，buildthehousesandchurches，workinthemillsandfactories，andinreturntheyare，systematicallyrobbedandbeaten。Andwhatisdonewithallthe，moneythatistakenfromthem？，Firstofall，theTsargetsnine，millionsofroubles——enoughtofeedhalfaprovince——andwiththat，sumheamuseshimself，hashunting-parties，andfeasts，eats，drinks，makesmerry，andlivesinstonehouses。Hegaveliberty，itistrue，tothepeasants;butweknowwhattheEmancipation，reallywas。Thebestlandwastakenawayandthetaxeswere，increased，lestthemuzhikshouldgetfatandlazy。TheTsaris，himselftherichestlandedproprietorandmanufacturerinthe，country。Henotonlyrobsusasmuchashepleases，buthehas，soldintoslavery(byforminganationaldebt)ourchildrenand，grandchildren。Hetakesoursonsassoldiers，shutsthemupin，barrackssothattheyshouldnotseetheirbrother-peasants，and，hardenstheirheartssothattheybecomewildbeasts，readytorend，theirparents。Thenoblesandtraderslikewiserobthepoor，peasants。Inshort，alltheupperclasseshaveinventedabitof，cunningmachinerybywhichthemuzhikismadetopayfortheir，pleasuresandluxuries。Thepeoplewillonedayriseandbreak，thismachinerytopieces。Whenthatdaycomestheymustbreak，everypartofit，forifonebitescapesdestructionalltheother，partsofitwillimmediatelygrowupagain。Alltheforceison，thesideofthepeasants，iftheyonlyknewhowtouseit。

Knowledgewillcomeintime。Theywillthendestroythismachine，andperceivethattheonlyrealremedyforallsocialevilsis，brotherhood。Peopleshouldlivelikebrothers，havingnomineand，thine，butallthingsincommon。Whenwehavecreatedbrotherhood，therewillbenorichesandnothieves，butrightandrighteousness，withoutend。Inconclusion，Stepanaddressesawordto“the，torturers“：“Whenthepeoplerise，theTsarwillsendtroops，againstus，andthenoblesandcapitalistswillstaketheirlast，roubleontheresult。Iftheydonotsucceed，theymustnotexpect，anyquarterfromus。Theymayconquerusonceortwice，butwe，shallatlastgetourown，forthereisnopowerthatcanwithstand，thewholepeople。Thenweshallcleansethecountryofour，persecutors，andestablishabrotherhoodinwhichtherewillbeno，mineandthine，butallwillworkforthecommonweal。Weshall，constructnocunningmachinery，butshallpluckupevilbythe，roots，andestablisheternaljustice！”

Theabove-mentioneddistinctionbetweenPropagandaandAgitation，whichplaysaconsiderablepartinrevolutionaryliterature，hadat，thattimemoretheoreticalthanpracticalimportance。Thegreat，majorityofthosewhotookanactivepartinthemovementconfined，theireffortstoindoctrinatingthemasseswithSocialisticand，subversiveideas，andsometimestheirmethodswereratherchildish。

AsanillustrationImayciteanamusingincidentrelatedbyoneof，theboldestandmosttenaciousoftherevolutionists，who，subsequentlyacquiredacertainsenseofhumour。Heandafriend，werewalkingonedayonacountryroad，whentheywereovertakenby，apeasantinhiscart。Everanxioustosowthegoodseed，theyat，onceenteredintoconversationwiththerustic，tellinghimthathe，oughtnottopayhistaxes，becausethetchinovniksrobbedthe，people，andtryingtoconvincehimbyquotationsfromScripture，thatheoughttoresisttheauthorities。Theprudentmuzhik，whippeduphishorseandtriedtogetoutofhearing，butthetwo，zealotsranafterhimandcontinuedthesermontilltheywere，completelyoutofbreath。Otherpropagandistsweremorepractical，andpreachedaspeciesofagrariansocialismwhichtherural，populationcouldunderstand。AtthetimeoftheEmancipationthe，peasantswereconvincedasIhavementionedinapreviouschapter，thattheTsarmeanttogivethemalltheland，andtocompensate，thelandedproprietorsbysalaries。Evenwhenthelawwasreadand，explainedtothem，theyclungobstinatelytotheiroldconvictions，andconfidentlyexpectedthattheREALEmancipationwouldbe，proclaimedshortly。Takingadvantageofthisstateofthings，the，propagandiststowhomIreferconfirmedthepeasantsintheir，error，andsoughtinthiswaytosowdiscontentagainstthe，proprietorsandtheGovernment。Theirwatchwordwas“Landand，Liberty，“andtheyformedforagoodmanyyearsadistinctgroup，underthattitle(ZemlyaiVolya，ormorebrieflyZemlevoltsi)。

IntheSt。Petersburggroup，whichaspiredtodirectandcontrol，thismovement，therewereoneortwomenwhohelddifferentviews，astotherealobjectofpropagandaandagitation。Oneofthese，PrinceKrapotkin，hastoldtheworldwhathisobjectwasatthat，time。HehopedthattheGovernmentwouldbefrightenedandthat，theAutocraticPower，asinFranceontheeveoftheRevolution，wouldseeksupportinthelandedproprietors，andcalltogethera，NationalAssembly。Thusaconstitutionwouldbegranted，and，thoughthefirstAssemblymightbeconservativeinspirit，autocracywouldbecompelledinthelongruntoyieldto，parliamentarypressure。

Nosuchelaborateprojectswereentertained，Ibelieve，bythe，majorityofthepropagandists。Theirreasoningwasmuchsimpler：

“TheGovernment，havingbecomereactionary，triestopreventus，fromenlighteningthepeople;wewilldoitinspiteofthe，Government！”Thedangerstowhichtheyexposedthemselvesonly，confirmedthemintheirresolution。Thoughtheyhonestlybelieved，themselvestobeRealistsandMaterialists，theywereatheart，romanticIdealists，pantingtodosomethingheroic。Theyhadbeen，taughtbytheapostleswhomtheyvenerated，fromBelinski，downwards，thatthemanwhosimplytalksaboutthegoodofthe，people，anddoesnothingtopromoteit，isamongthemost，contemptibleofhumanbeings。Nosuchreproachmustbeaddressed，tothem。IftheGovernmentopposedandthreatened，thatwasno，excuseforinactivity。Theymustbeupanddoing。”Forward！

forward！Letusplungeintothepeople，identifyourselveswith，them，andworkfortheirbenefit！，Sufferingisinstoreforus，butwemustendureitwithfortitude！”Thetypewhich，Tchernishevskihaddepictedinhisfamousnovel，underthenameof，Rakhmetof——theyouthwholedanasceticlifeandsubjectedhimself，toprivationandsufferingasapreparationforfuture，revolutionaryactivity——nowappearedintheflesh。Ifwemay，creditBakunin，theseRakhmetofshadnoteventheconsolationof，believinginthepossibilityofarevolution，butastheycouldnot，andwouldnotremainpassivespectatorsofthemisfortunesofthe，people，theyresolvedtogoinamongthemassesinordertoshare，withthemfraternallytheirsufferings，andatthesametimeto，teachandprepare，nottheoretically，butpracticallybytheir，livingexample。*，Thisis，Ibelieve，anexaggeration。The，propagandistswere，forthemostpartofincrediblysanguine，temperament。

*Bakunin：“Gosudarstvennost’iAnarkhiya“(“StateOrganisationand，Anarchy“)，Zurich，1873。

Thesuccessofthepropagandaandagitationwasnotatallin，proportiontothenumbersandenthusiasmofthosewhotookpartin，it。Mostofthesedisplayedmorezealthanmother-witand，discretion。TheirSocialismwastooabstractandscientifictobe，understoodbyrustics，andwhentheysucceededinmakingthemselves，intelligibletheyawakenedintheirhearersmoresuspicionthan，sympathy。Themuzhikisaverymatter-of-factpracticalperson，totallyincapableofunderstandingwhatAmericanscall“hifalutin“

tendenciesinspeechandconduct，andashelistenedtothe，preachingofthenewGospeldoubtsandquestioningsspontaneously，roseinhismind：“Whatdothoseyoungpeople，whobetraytheir，gentlefolkoriginbytheirdelicatewhitehands，theirforeign，phrases，theirignoranceofthecommonthingsofeverydaypeasant，life，reallywant？，Whyaretheybearinghardshipsandtakingso，muchtrouble？，Theytellusitisforourgood，butwearenotsuch，foolsandsimpletonsastheytakeusfor。Theyarenotdoingit，allfornothing。Whatdotheyexpectfromusinreturn？，Whatever，itis，theyareevidentlyevil-doers，andperhapsmoshenniki，(swindlers)。Deviltakethem！”andthereuponthecautiousmuzhik，turnshisbackuponhisdisinterestedself-sacrificingteachers，or，goesquietlyanddenouncesthemtothepolice！，Itisnotonlyin，SpainthatweencounterDonQuixotesandSanchoPanzas！

Occasionallyaworsefatebefellthemissionaries。Iftheyallowed，themselves，astheysometimesdid，to“blaspheme“againstreligion，ortheTsar，theyrantheriskofbeingmaltreatedonthespot。I

haveheardofonecaseinwhichthepunishmentforblasphemywas，appliedbysturdypeasantmatrons。Evenwhentheyescapedsuch，mishapstheyhadnotmuchreasontocongratulatethemselveson，theirsuccess。Afterthreeyearsofarduouslabourthehundredsof，apostlescouldnotboastofmorethanascoreortwoofconverts，amongthegenuineworkingclasses，andeventhesefewdidnotall，remainfaithfuluntodeath。Someofthem，however，itmustbe，admitted，labouredandsufferedtotheendwiththecourageand，enduranceoftruemartyrs。

Itwasnotmerelytheindifferenceorhostilityofthemassesthat，thepropagandistshadtocomplainof。Thepolicesoongotontheir，track，anddidnotconfinethemselvestopersuasionandlogical，arguments。Towardstheendof1873theyarrestedsomemembersof，thecentraldirectorygroupinSt。Petersburg，andinthefollowing，MaytheydiscoveredintheprovinceofSaratofanaffiliated，organisationwithwhichnearly800personswereconnected，about，one-fifthofthembelongingtothefemalesex。Afewcameofwell-

to-dofamilies——sonsanddaughtersofminorofficialsorsmall，landedproprietors——butthegreatmajoritywerepoorstudentsof，humblerorigin，alargecontingentbeingsuppliedbythesonsof，thepoorparishclergy。Inotherprovincestheauthoritiesmade，similardiscoveries。Beforetheendoftheyearalargeproportion，ofthepropagandistswereinprison，andthecentralised，organisation，sofarassuchathingexisted，wasdestroyed。

GraduallyitdawnedonthemindsevenoftheDonQuixotesthat，pacificpropagandawasnolongerpossible，andthatattemptsto，continueitcouldleadonlytouselesssacrifices。

Foratimetherewasuniversaldiscouragementintherevolutionary，ranks;andamongthosewhohadescapedarrestthereweremutual，recriminationsandendlessdiscussionsaboutthecausesoffailure，andthechangestobemadeinmodesofaction。Thepractical，resultsoftheserecriminationsanddiscussionswasthatthe，partisansofaslow，pacificpropagandaretiredtothebackground，andthemoreimpatientrevolutionaryagitatorstookpossessionof，themovement。Thesemaintainedstoutlythataspacificpropaganda，hadbecomeimpossible，strongermethodsmustbeadopted。The，massesmustbeorganisedsoastooffersuccessfulresistanceto，theGovernment。Conspiraciesmustthereforebeformed，local，disordersprovoked，andbloodmadetoflow。Thepartofthe，countrywhichseemedbestadaptedforexperimentsofthiskindwas，thesouthernandsoutheasternregion，inhabitedbythedescendants，oftheturbulentCossackpopulationwhichhadraisedformidable，insurrectionsunderStenkaRazinandPugatcheffintheseventeenth，andeighteenthcenturies。Here，then，themoreimpatientagitators，begantheirwork。AKiefgroupcalledtheBuntari(rioters)，composedofabouttwenty-fiveindividuals，settledinvarious，localitiesassmallshopkeepersorhorsedealers，orwentaboutas，workmenorpeddlers。Onememberofthegrouphasgivenusinhis，reminiscencesanamusingaccountoftheexperiment。Everywherethe，agitatorsfoundthepeasantssuspiciousandinhospitable，and，consequentlytheyhadtosufferagreatdealofdiscomfort。Some，ofthematoncegaveupthetaskashopeless。Theotherssettled，inavillageandbeganoperations。Havingmadeatopographic，surveyofthelocality，theyworkedoutaningeniousplanof，campaign;buttheyhadnorecruitsforthefuturearmyof，insurrection，andiftheyhadbeenabletogetrecruits，theyhad，noarmsforthem，andnomoneywherewithtopurchasearmsor，anythingelse。Inthesecircumstancestheygravelyappointeda，committeetocollectfunds，knowingverywellthatnomoneywould，beforthcoming。Itwasasifashipwreckedcrewinanopenboat，havingreachedthebrinkofstarvation，appointedacommitteeto，obtainasupplyoffreshwaterandprovisions！，Inthehopeof，obtainingassistancefromheadquarters，adelegatewassenttoSt。

PetersburgandMoscowtoexplainthatforthearmingofthe，populationaboutaquarterofamillionofroubleswasrequired。

Thedelegatebroughtbackthirtysecond-handrevolvers！，The，revolutionistwhoconfessesallthis*recognisesthatthewhole，schemewaschildishlyunpractical：“Wechosethepathofpopular，insurrectionbecausewehadfaithintherevolutionaryspiritof，themasses，initspoweranditsinvincibility。Thatwastheweak，sideofourposition;andthemostcuriouspartofitwasthatwe，drewproofsinsupportofourtheoryfromhistory——fromthe，abortiveinsurrectionsofPazinandPugatcheff，whichtookplacein，anagewhentheGovernmenthadonlyasmallregulararmyandno，railwaysortelegraphs！，Wedidnoteventhinkofattemptinga，propagandaamongthemilitary！”InthedistrictofTchigirinthe，agitatorshadalittlemomentarysuccess，buttheresultwasthe，same。ThereastudentcalledStefanovitchpretendedthattheTsar，wasstrugglingwiththeofficialstobenefitthepeasantry，andhe，showedthesimplerusticsaforgedimperialmanifestoinwhichthey，wereorderedtoformasocietyforthepurposeofraisingan，insurrectionagainsttheofficials，thenobles，andthepriests。

Atonemoment(April，1877)，thesocietyhadabout600members，but，afewmonthslateritwasdiscoveredbythepolice，andtheleaders，andpeasantswerearrested。

*Debogorio-Mokrievitch。”Vospominaniya“(“Reminiscences“)。

Paris，1894-99。