第14章

Thefactthatveryfewpeoplehadclear，preciseideasastowhat，wastobedonedidnotprevent，butrathertendedtoincrease，the，reformenthusiasm。Allhadatleastonecommonfeeling——disliketo，whathadpreviouslyexisted。Itwasonlywhenitbecamenecessary，toforsakepurenegation，andtocreatesomething，thatthe，conceptionsbecameclearer，andavarietyofopinionsappeared。At，thefirstmomenttherewasmerelyunanimityinnegation，andan，impulsiveenthusiasmforbeneficentreformsingeneral。

Thefirstspecificproposalsweredirectdeductionsfromthe，lessonstaughtbythewar。Thewarhadshowninaterriblewaythe，disastrousconsequencesofhavingmerelyprimitivemeansof，communication;thePressandthepublicbegan，accordingly，to，speakaboutthenecessityofconstructingrailways，roadsand，river-steamers。Thewarhadshownthatacountrywhichhasnot，developeditsnaturalresourcesverysoonbecomesexhaustedifit，hastomakeagreatnationaleffort;accordinglythepublicandthe，Presstalkedaboutthenecessityofdevelopingthenatural，resources，andaboutthemeansbywhichthisdesirableendmightbe，attained。Ithadbeenshownbythewarthatasystemofeducation，whichtendstomakemenmereapatheticautomatacannotproduceeven，agoodarmy;accordinglythepublicandthePressbegantodiscuss，thedifferentsystemsofeducationandthenumerousquestionsof，pedagogicalscience。Ithadbeenshownbythewarthatthebest，intentionsofaGovernmentwillnecessarilybefrustratedifthe，majorityoftheofficialsaredishonestorincapable;accordingly，thepublicandthePressbegantospeakabouttheparamount，necessityofreformingtheAdministrationinallitsbranches。

Itmustnot，however，besupposedthatinthuslayingtoheartthe，lessonstaughtbythewarandendeavouringtoprofitbythem，the，Russianswereactuatedbywarlikefeelings，anddesiredtoavenge，themselvesassoonaspossibleontheirvictoriousenemies。Onthe，contrary，thewholemovementandthespiritwhichanimateditwere，eminentlypacific。PrinceGortchakof’ssaying，“LaRussieneboude，pas，elleserecueille，“wasmorethanadiplomaticrepartee——it，wasatrueandgraphicstatementofthecase。ThoughtheRussians，areveryinflammable，andcanbeveryviolentwhentheirpatriotic，feelingsarearoused，theyare，individuallyandasanation，singularlyfreefromrancourandthespiritofrevenge。Afterthe，terminationofhostilitiestheyreallyborelittlemalicetowards，theWesternPowers，excepttowardsAustria，whichwasbelievedto，havebeentreacherousandungratefultothecountrythathadsaved，herin1849。Theirpatriotismnowtooktheform，notofrevenge，butofadesiretoraisetheircountrytotheleveloftheWestern，nations。Iftheythoughtofmilitarymattersatall，theyassumed，thatmilitarypowerwouldbeobtainedasanaturalandinevitable，resultofhighcivilisationandgoodgovernment。

Asafirststeptowardstherealisationofthevastschemes，contemplated，voluntaryassociationsbegantobeformedfor，industrialandcommercialpurposes，andalawwasissuedforthe，creationoflimitedliabilitycompanies。Inthespaceoftwoyears，forty-sevencompaniesofthiskindwerefounded，withacombined，capitalof358millionsofroubles。Tounderstandthefull，significanceofthesefigures，wemustknowthatfromthefounding，ofthefirstjoint-stockcompanyin1799downto1853onlytwenty-

sixcompanieshadbeenformed，andtheirunitedcapitalamounted，onlytothirty-twomillionsofroubles。Thusinthespaceoftwo，years(1857-58)eleventimesasmuchcapitalwassubscribedto，joint-stockcompaniesashadbeensubscribedduringhalfacentury，previoustothewar。Themostexaggeratedexpectationswere，entertainedastothenationalandprivateadvantageswhichmust，necessarilyresultfromtheseundertakings，anditbecamea，patrioticdutytosubscribeliberally。Theperiodicalliterature，depictedinglowingtermsthemarvellousresultsthathadbeen，obtainedinothercountriesbytheprincipleofco-operation，and，sanguinereadersbelievedthattheyhaddiscoveredapatrioticway，ofspeedilybecomingrich。

Thesewere，however，meresecondarymatters，andthepublicwere，anxiouslywaitingfortheGovernmenttobeginthegrandreforming，campaign。Whentheeducatedclassesawoketothenecessityof，greatreforms，therewasnoclearconceptionastohowthegreat，workshouldbeundertaken。Therewassomuchtobedonethatit，wasnoeasymattertodecidewhatshouldbedonefirst。

Administrative，judicial，social，economical，financial，and，politicalreformsseemedallequallypressing。Gradually，however，itbecameevidentthatprecedencemustbegiventothequestionof，serfage。Itwasabsurdtospeakaboutprogress，humanitarianism，education，self-government，equalityintheeyeofthelaw，and，similarmatters，solongasonehalfofthepopulationwasexcluded，fromtheenjoymentofordinarycivilrights。Solongasserfage，existeditwasmeremockerytotalkaboutre-organisingRussia，accordingtothelatestresultsofpoliticalandsocialscience。

Howcouldasystemofeven-handedjusticebeintroducedwhentwenty，millionsofthepeasantryweresubjecttothearbitrarywillofthe，landedproprietors？，Howcouldagriculturalorindustrialprogress，bemadewithoutfreelabour？，HowcouldtheGovernmenttakeactive，measuresforthespreadofnationaleducationwhenithadnodirect，controloverone-halfofthepeasantry？，Aboveall，howcoulditbe，hopedthatagreatmoralregenerationcouldtakeplace，solongas，thenationvoluntarilyretainedthestigmaofserfageandslavery？

Allthiswasverygenerallyfeltbytheeducatedclasses，butno，oneventuredtoraisethequestionuntilitshouldbeknownwhat，weretheviewsoftheEmperoronthesubject。Howthequestionwas，graduallyraised，howitwastreatedbythenobles，andhowitwas，ultimatelysolvedbythefamouslawofFebruary19th(March3d)，1861，*Inowproposetorelate。

*February19thaccordingtotheoldstyle，whichisstillusedin，Russia，andMarch3daccordingtoourmethodofreckoning。

CHAPTERXXVIII

THESERFS

TheRuralPopulationinAncientTimes——ThePeasantryinthe，EighteenthCentury——HowWasThisChangeEffected？——TheCommon，ExplanationInaccurate——SerfagetheResultofPermanentEconomic，andPoliticalCauses——OriginoftheAdscriptioGlebae——Its，Consequences——SerfInsurrection——Turning-pointintheHistoryof，Serfage——SerfageinRussiaandinWesternEurope——StatePeasants——

NumbersandGeographicalDistributionoftheSerfPopulation——Serf，Dues——LegalandActualPoweroftheProprietors——TheSerfs’Means，ofDefence——Fugitives——DomesticSerfs——StrangeAdvertisementsin，theMoscowGazette——MoralInfluenceofSerfage。

BeforeproceedingtodescribetheEmancipation，itmaybewellto，explainbrieflyhowtheRussianpeasantsbecameserfs，andwhat，serfageinRussiareallywas。

IntheearliestperiodofRussianhistorytheruralpopulationwas，composedofthreedistinctclasses。Atthebottomofthescale，stoodtheslaves，whowereverynumerous。Theirnumberswere，continuallyaugmentedbyprisonersofwar，byfreemenwho，voluntarilysoldthemselvesasslaves，byinsolventdebtors，andby，certaincategoriesofcriminals。Immediatelyabovetheslaveswere，thefreeagriculturallabourers，whohadnopermanentdomicile，but，wanderedaboutthecountryandsettledtemporarilywherethey，happenedtofindworkandsatisfactoryremuneration。Inthethird，place，distinctfromthesetwoclasses，andinsomerespectshigher，inthesocialscale，werethepeasantsproperlysocalled。*

*Mychiefauthorityfortheearlyhistoryofthepeasantryhas，beenBelaef，“KrestyanyenaRusi，“Moscow，1860;amostableand，conscientiouswork。

Thesepeasantsproper，whomayberoughlydescribedassmall，farmersorcottiers，weredistinguishedfromthefreeagricultural，labourersintworespects：theywerepossessorsoflandinproperty，orusufruct，andtheyweremembersofaruralCommune。The，Communeswerefreeprimitivecorporationswhichelectedtheir，office-bearersfromamongtheheadsoffamilies，andsentdelegates，toactasjudgesorassessorsinthePrince’sCourt。Someofthe，Communespossessedlandoftheirown，whilstothersweresettledon，theestatesofthelandedproprietorsorontheextensivedomains，ofthemonasteries。Inthelattercasethepeasantpaidafixed，yearlyrentinmoney，inproduce，orinlabour，accordingtothe，termsofhiscontractwiththeproprietororthemonastery;buthe，didnottherebysacrificeinanywayhispersonalliberty。Assoon，ashehadfulfilledtheengagementsstipulatedinthecontractand，hadsettledaccountswiththeowneroftheland，hewasfreeto，changehisdomicileashepleased。

Ifweturnnowfromtheseearlytimestotheeighteenthcentury，we，findthatthepositionoftheruralpopulationhasentirelychanged，intheinterval。Thedistinctionbetweenslaves，agricultural，labourers，andpeasantshascompletelydisappeared。Allthree，categorieshavemeltedtogetherintoacommonclass，calledserfs，whoareregardedasthepropertyofthelandedproprietorsorof，theState。”Theproprietorsselltheirpeasantsanddomestic，servantsnoteveninfamilies，butonebyone，likecattle，asis，donenowhereelseinthewholeworld，fromwhichpracticethereis，notalittlewailing。”*，AndyettheGovernment，whilstprofessing，toregrettheexistenceofthepractice，takesnoenergetic，measurestopreventit。Onthecontrary，itdeprivestheserfsof，alllegalprotection，andexpresslycommandsthatifanyserfshall，daretopresentapetitionagainsthismaster，heshallbepunished，withtheknoutandtransportedforlifetotheminesofNertchinsk。

(UkazofAugust22d，1767。**)

*ThesewordsaretakenfromanImperialukazofApril15th，1721。

PolnoyeSobranyeZakonov，No。3，770。

**ThisisanukazoftheliberalandtolerantCatherine！，Howshe，reconcileditwithherrespectandadmirationforBeccaria’shumane，viewsoncriminallawshedoesnotexplain。

Howdidthisimportantchangetakeplace，andhowisittobe，explained？

IfweaskanyeducatedRussianwhohasneverspeciallyoccupied，himselfwithhistoricalinvestigationsregardingtheoriginof，serfageinRussia，hewillprobablyreplysomewhatinthisfashion：

“InRussiaslaveryhasneverexisted(！)，andevenserfageinthe，West-Europeansensehasneverbeenrecognisedbylaw！，Inancient，timestheruralpopulationwascompletelyfree，andeverypeasant，mightchangehisdomicileonSt。George’sDay——thatistosay，at，theendoftheagriculturalyear。Thisrightofmigrationwas，abolishedbyTsarBorisGodunof——who，bytheway，washalfaTartar，andmorethanhalfausurper——andhereinliestheessenceof，serfageintheRussiansense。Thepeasantshaveneverbeenthe，propertyofthelandedproprietors，buthavealwaysbeenpersonally，free;andtheonlylegalrestrictionontheirlibertywasthatthey，werenotallowedtochangetheirdomicilewithoutthepermissionof，theproprietor。Ifso-calledserfsweresometimessold，the，practicewassimplyanabusenotjustifiedbylegislation。”

Thissimpleexplanation，inwhichmaybedetectedanoteof，patrioticpride，isalmostuniversallyacceptedinRussia;butit，contains，likemostpopularconceptionsofthedistantpast，a，curiousmixtureoffactandfiction。Serioushistorical，investigationtendstoshowthatthepoweroftheproprietorsover，thepeasantscameintoexistence，notsuddenly，astheresultofan，ukaz，butgradually，asaconsequenceofpermanenteconomicand，politicalcauses，andthatBorisGodunofwasnotmoretoblamethan，manyofhispredecessorsandsuccessors。*

*SeeespeciallyPobedonostsef，intheRusskiVestnik，1858，No。

11，and“Istoritcheskiyaizsledovaniyaistatyi“(St。Petersburg，1876)，bythesameauthor;alsoPogodin，intheRusskayaBeseda，1858，No。4。

AlthoughthepeasantsinancientRussiawerefreetowanderabout，astheychose，thereappearedataveryearlyperiod——longbefore，thereignofBorisGodunof——adecidedtendencyinthePrinces，in，theproprietors，andintheCommunes，topreventmigration。This，tendencywillbeeasilyunderstoodifwerememberthatlandwithout，labourersisuseless，andthatinRussiaatthattimethe，populationwassmallincomparisonwiththeamountofreclaimedand，easilyreclaimableland。ThePrincedesiredtohaveasmany，inhabitantsaspossibleinhisprincipality，becausetheamountof，hisregularrevenuesdependedonthenumberofthepopulation。The，landedproprietordesiredtohaveasmanypeasantsaspossibleon，hisestate，totillforhimthelandwhichhereservedforhisown，use，andtopayhimfortheremainderayearlyrentinmoney，produce，orlabour。ThefreeCommunesdesiredtohaveanumberof，memberssufficienttokeepthewholeoftheCommunallandunder，cultivation，becauseeachCommunehadtopayyearlytothePrincea，fixedsuminmoneyoragriculturalproduce，andthegreaterthe，numberofable-bodiedmembers，thelesseachindividualhadtopay。

Tousethelanguageofpoliticaleconomy，thePrinces，thelanded，proprietors，andthefreeCommunesallappearedasbuyersinthe，labourmarket;andthedemandwasfarinexcessofthesupply。

Nowadayswhenyoungcoloniesorlandedproprietorsinanoutlying，corneroftheworldaresimilarlyinneedoflabour，theyseekto，supplythewantbyorganisingaregularsystemofimporting，labourers——usingillegalviolentmeans，suchaskidnapping，expeditions，merelyasanexceptionalexpedient。InoldRussiaany，suchregularlyorganisedsystemwasimpossible，andconsequently，illegalorviolentmeasureswerenottheexception，buttherule。

Thechiefpracticaladvantageofthefrequentmilitaryexpeditions，forthosewhotookpartinthemwastheacquisitionofprisonersof，war，whowerecommonlytransformedintoslavesbytheircaptors。

Ifitbetrue，assomeassert，thatonlyunbaptisedprisonerswere，legallyconsideredlawfulbooty，itiscertainthatinpractice，beforetheunificationoftheprincipalitiesundertheTsarsof，Moscow，littledistinctionwasmadeinthisrespectbetween，unbaptisedforeignersandOrthodoxRussians。*，Asimilarmethodwas，sometimesemployedfortheacquisitionoffreepeasants：themore，powerfulproprietorsorganisedkidnappingexpeditions，andcarried，offbyforcethepeasantssettledonthelandoftheirweaker，neighbours。

*OnthissubjectseeTchitcherin，“OpytypoistoriiRusskago，prava，“Moscow，1858，p。162etseq。;andLokhvitski，“Oplennykh，podrevnemuRusskomupravu，“Moscow，1855。

Underthesecircumstancesitwasonlynaturalthatthosewho，possessedthisvaluablecommodityshoulddoallintheirpowerto，keepit。Many，ifnotall，ofthefreeCommunesadoptedthesimple，measureofrefusingtoallowamembertodepartuntilhehadfound，someonetotakehisplace。Theproprietorsnever，sofaraswe，know，laiddownformallysuchaprinciple，butinpracticetheydid，allintheirpowertoretainthepeasantsactuallysettledontheir，estates。Forthispurposesomesimplyemployedforce，whilst，othersactedundercoveroflegalformalities。Thepeasantwho，acceptedlandfromaproprietorrarelybroughtwithhimthe，necessaryimplements，cattle，andcapitaltobeginatoncehis，occupations，andtofeedhimselfandhisfamilytilltheensuing，harvest。Hewasobliged，therefore，toborrowfromhislandlord，andthedebtthuscontractedwaseasilyconvertedintoameansof，preventinghisdepartureifhewishedtochangehisdomicile。We，neednotenterintofurtherdetails。Theproprietorswerethe，capitalistsofthetime。Frequentbadharvests，plagues，fires，militaryraids，andsimilarmisfortunesoftenreducedeven，prosperouspeasantstobeggary。Themuzhikwasprobablythen，as，now，onlytooreadytoacceptaloanwithouttakingthenecessary，precautionsforrepayingit。Thelawsrelatingtodebtwere，terriblysevere，andtherewasnopowerfuljudicialorganisationto，protecttheweak。Ifwerememberallthis，weshallnotbe，surprisedtolearnthataconsiderablepartofthepeasantrywere，practicallyserfsbeforeserfagewasrecognisedbylaw。

Solongasthecountrywasbrokenupintoindependent，principalities，andeachland-ownerwasalmostanindependent，Princeonhisestate，thepeasantseasilyfoundaremedyforthese，abusesinflight。Theyfledtoaneighbouringproprietorwhocould，protectthemfromtheirformerlandlordandhisclaims，orthey，tookrefugeinaneighbouringprincipality，wheretheywere，of，course，stillsafer。Allthiswaschangedwhentheindependent，principalitiesweretransformedintotheTsardomofMuscovy。The，Tsarshadnewreasonsforopposingthemigrationofthepeasants，andnewmeansforpreventingit。TheoldPrinceshadsimplygiven，grantsoflandtothosewhoservedthem，andleftthegranteetodo，withhislandwhatseemedgoodtohim;theTsars，onthecontrary，gavetothosewhoservedthemmerelytheusufructofacertain，quantityofland，andcarefullyproportionedthequantitytothe，rankandtheobligationsofthereceiver。Inthischangetherewas，plainlyanewreasonforfixingthepeasantstothesoil。Thereal，valueofagrantdependednotsomuchontheamountoflandason，thenumberofpeasantssettledonit，andhenceanymigrationof，thepopulationwastantamounttoaremovaloftheancient，landmarks——thatistosay，toadisturbanceofthearrangements，madebytheTsar。Suppose，forinstance，thattheTsargrantedto，aBoyarorsomelesserdignitaryanestateonwhichweresettled，twentypeasantfamilies，andthatafterwardstenoftheseemigrated，toneighbouringproprietors。Inthiscasetherecipientmight，justlycomplainthathehadlosthalfofhisestate——thoughthe，amountoflandwasinnowaydiminished——andthathewas，consequentlyunabletofulfilhisobligations。Suchcomplaints，wouldberarely，ifever，madebythegreatdignitaries，forthey，hadthemeansofattractingpeasantstotheirestates;*butthe，smallproprietorshadgoodreasontocomplain，andtheTsarwas，boundtoremovetheirgrievances。Theattachingofthepeasantsto，thesoilwas，infact，thenaturalconsequenceoffeudaltenures——

anintegralpartoftheMuscovitepoliticalsystem。TheTsar，compelledthenoblestoservehim，andwasunabletopaythemin，money。Hewasobliged，therefore，toprocureforthemsomeother，meansoflivelihood。Evidentlythesimplestmethodofsolvingthe，difficultywastogivethemland，withacertainnumberof，labourers，andtopreventthelabourersfrommigrating。

*Thereareplainindicationsinthedocumentsofthetimethatthe，greatdignitarieswereatfirsthostiletotheadscriptioglebae。

WefindasimilarphenomenonatamuchmorerecentdateinLittle，Russia。Longafterserfagehadbeenlegalisedinthatregionby，CatherineII。thegreatproprietors，suchasRumyantsef，Razumofski，Bezborodko，continuedtoattracttotheirestatesthe，peasantsofthesmallerproprietors。SeethearticleofPogodinin，theRusskayaBeseda，1858，No。4，p。154。

TowardsthefreeCommunestheTsarhadtoactinthesamewayfor，similarreasons。TheCommunes，likethenobles，hadobligationsto，theSovereign，andcouldnotfulfilthemifthepeasantswere，allowedtomigratefromonelocalitytoanother。Theywere，ina，certainsense，thepropertyoftheTsar，anditwasonlynatural，thattheTsarshoulddoforhimselfwhathehaddoneforhis，nobles。

Withthesenewreasonsforfixingthepeasantstothesoilcame，as，hasbeensaid，newmeansofpreventingmigration。Formerlyitwas，aneasymattertofleetoaneighbouringprincipality，butnowall，theprincipalitieswerecombinedunderoneruler，andthe，foundationsofacentralisedadministrationwerelaid。Severe，fugitivelawswereissuedagainstthosewhoattemptedtochange，theirdomicileandagainsttheproprietorswhoshouldharbourthe，runaways。Unlessthepeasantchosetofacethedifficultiesof，“squatting“intheinhospitablenorthernforests，orresolvedto，bravethedangersofthesteppe，hecouldnowhereescapetheheavy，handofMoscow。*

*TheaboveaccountoftheoriginofserfageinRussiaisfounded，onacarefulexaminationoftheevidencewhichwepossessonthe，subject，butImustnotconcealthefactthatsomeofthe，statementsarefoundedoninferenceratherthanondirect，unequivocaldocumentaryevidence。Thewholequestionisoneof，greatdifficulty，andwillinallprobabilitynotbesatisfactorily，solveduntilalargenumberoftheoldlocalLand-Registers，(PistsoviyaKnigi)havebeenpublishedandcarefullystudied。

Theindirectconsequencesofthusattachingthepeasantstothe，soildidnotatoncebecomeapparent。Theserfretainedallthe，civilrightshehadhithertoenjoyed，exceptthatofchanginghis，domicile。Hecouldstillappearbeforethecourtsoflawasafree，man，freelyengageintradeorindustry，enterintoallmannerof，contracts，andrentlandforcultivation。

Butastimeworeon，thechangeinthelegalrelationbetweenthe，twoclassesbecameapparentinreallife。Inattachingthe，peasantrytothesoil，theGovernmenthadbeensothoroughly，engrossedwiththedirectfinancialaimthatitentirely，overlooked，orwilfullyshutitseyesto，theulteriorconsequences，whichmustnecessarilyflowfromthepolicyitadopted。Itwas，evidentthatassoonastherelationbetweenproprietorandpeasant，wasremovedfromtheregionofvoluntarycontractbybeingrendered，indissoluble，theweakerofthetwopartieslegallytiedtogether，mustfallcompletelyunderthepowerofthestronger，unless，energeticallyprotectedbythelawandtheAdministration。Tothis，inevitableconsequencetheGovernmentpaidnoattention。Sofar，fromendeavouringtoprotectthepeasantryfromtheoppressionof，theproprietors，itdidnotevendeterminebylawthemutual，obligationswhichoughttoexistbetweenthetwoclasses。Taking，advantageofthisomission，theproprietorssoonbegantoimpose，whateverobligationstheythoughtfit;andastheyhadnolegal，meansofenforcingfulfilment，theygraduallyintroduceda，patriarchaljurisdictionsimilartothatwhichtheyexercisedover，theirslaves，withfinesandcorporalpunishmentasmeansof，coercion。Fromthistheyerelongproceededastepfurther，and，begantoselltheirpeasantswithoutthelandonwhichtheywere，settled。Atfirstthiswasmerelyaflagrantabuseunsanctionedby，law，forthepeasanthadneverbeendeclaredtheprivateproperty，ofthelandedproprietor;buttheGovernmenttacitlysanctionedthe，practice，andevenexactedduesonsuchsales，asonthesaleof，slaves。Finallytherighttosellpeasantswithoutlandwas，formallyrecognisedbyvariousImperialukazes。*

*Forinstance，theukazesofOctober13th，1675，andJune25th，1682。SeeBelaef，pp。203-209。

TheoldCommunalorganisationstillexistedontheestatesofthe，proprietors，andhadneverbeenlegallydeprivedofitsauthority，butitwasnowpowerlesstoprotectthemembers。Theproprietor，couldeasilyovercomeanyactiveresistancebysellingor，convertingintodomesticservantsthepeasantswhodaredtooppose，hiswill。

Thepeasantryhadthussunktotheconditionofserfs，practically，deprivedoflegalprotectionandsubjecttothearbitrarywillof，theproprietors;buttheywerestillinsomerespectslegallyand，actuallydistinguishedfromtheslavesontheonehandandthe，“freewanderingpeople“ontheother。Thesedistinctionswere，obliteratedbyPetertheGreatandhisimmediatesuccessors。

Toeffecthisgreatcivilandmilitaryreforms，Peterrequiredan，annualrevenuesuchashispredecessorshadneverdreamedof，and，hewasconsequentlyalwaysonthelook-outforsomenewobjectof，taxation。Whenlookingaboutforthispurpose，hiseyenaturally，fellontheslaves，thedomesticservants，andthefree，agriculturallabourers。Noneoftheseclassespaidtaxes——afact，whichstoodinflagrantcontradictionwithhisfundamental，principleofpolity，thateverysubjectshouldinsomewayserve，theState。Hecaused，therefore，anationalcensustobetaken，in，whichallthevariousclassesoftheruralpopulation——slaves，domesticservants，agriculturallabourers，peasants——shouldbe，inscribedinonecategory;andheimposedequallyonallthe，membersofthiscategoryapoll-tax，inlieuoftheformerland-

tax，whichhadlainexclusivelyonthepeasants。Tofacilitatethe，collectionofthistaxtheproprietorsweremaderesponsiblefor，theirserfs;andthe“freewanderingpeople“whodidnotwishto，enterthearmywereordered，underpainofbeingsenttothe，galleys，toinscribethemselvesasmembersofaCommuneorasserfs，tosomeproprietor。

Thesemeasureshadaconsiderableinfluence，ifnotontheactual，positionofthepeasantry，atleastonthelegalconceptions，regardingthem。Bymakingtheproprietorpaythepoll-taxforhis，serfs，asiftheywereslavesorcattle，thelawseemedtosanction，theideathattheywerepartofhisgoodsandchattels。Besides，this，itintroducedtheentirelynewprinciplethatanymemberof，theruralpopulationnotlegallyattachedtothelandortoa，proprietorshouldberegardedasavagrant，andtreated，accordingly。Thustheprinciplethateverysubjectshouldinsome，wayservetheStatehadfounditscompleterealisation。Therewas，nolongeranyroominRussiaforfreemen。

Thechangeinthepositionofthepeasantry，togetherwiththe，hardshipsandoppressionbywhichitwasaccompanied，naturally，increasedfugitivismandvagrancy。Thousandsofserfsranaway，fromtheirmastersandfledtothesteppeorsoughtenrolmentin，thearmy。TopreventthistheGovernmentconsidereditnecessary，totakesevereandenergeticmeasures。Theserfswereforbiddento，enlistwithoutthepermissionoftheirmasters，andthosewho，persistedinpresentingthemselvesforenrolmentweretobebeaten，“cruelly“(zhestoko)withtheknout，andsenttothemines。*，The，proprietors，ontheotherhand，receivedtherighttotransport，withouttrialtheirunrulyserfstoSiberia，andeventosendthem，totheminesforlife。**

*UkazofJune2d，1742。

**SeeukazofJanuary17th，1765，andofJanuary28th，1766。

Ifthesestringentmeasureshadanyeffectitwasnotoflong，duration，fortheresoonappearedamongtheserfsastillstronger，spiritofdiscontentandinsubordination，whichthreatenedto，produceageneralagrarianrising，andactuallydidcreatea，movementresemblinginmanyrespectstheJacquerieinFranceand，thePeasantWarinGermany。Aglanceatthecausesofthis，movementwillhelpustounderstandtherealnatureofserfagein，Russia。

Uptothispointserfagehad，inspiteofitsflagrantabuses，a，certaintheoreticaljustification。Itwas，aswehaveseen，merely，apartofageneralpoliticalsysteminwhichobligatoryservice，wasimposedonallclassesofthepopulation。Theserfsservedthe，noblesinorderthatthenoblesmightservetheTsar。In1762this，theorywasentirelyoverturnedbyamanifestoofPeterIII。

abolishingtheobligatoryserviceoftheNoblesse。Accordingto，strictjusticethisactoughttohavebeenfollowedbythe，liberationoftheserfs，forifthenobleswerenolongerobliged，toservetheStatetheyhadnojustclaimtotheserviceofthe，peasants。TheGovernmenthadsocompletelyforgottentheoriginal，meaningofserfagethatitneverthoughtofcarryingoutthe，measuretoitslogicalconsequences，butthepeasantryheld，tenaciouslytotheancientconceptions，andlookedimpatientlyfor，asecondmanifestoliberatingthemfromthepowerofthe，proprietors。Reportswerespreadthatsuchamanifestoreally，existed，andwasbeingconcealedbythenobles。Aspiritof，insubordinationaccordinglyappearedamongtheruralpopulation，andlocalinsurrectionsbrokeoutinseveralpartsoftheEmpire。

AtthiscriticalmomentPeterIII。wasdethronedandassassinated，byaCourtconspiracy。Thepeasants，who，ofcourse，knewnothing，oftherealmotivesoftheconspirators，supposedthattheTsarhad，beenassassinatedbythosewhowishedtopreserveserfage，and，believedhimtobeamartyrinthecauseofEmancipation。Atthe，newsofthecatastrophetheirhopesofEmancipationfell，butsoon，theywererevivedbynewrumours。TheTsar，itwassaid，had，escapedfromtheconspiratorsandwasinhiding。Soonhewould，appearamonghisfaithfulpeasants，andwiththeiraidwouldregain，histhroneandpunishthewickedoppressors。Anxiouslyhewas，awaited，andatlastthegladtidingscamethathehadappearedin，theDoncountry，thatthousandsofCossackshadjoinedhis，standard，thathewaseverywhereputtingtheproprietorstodeath，withoutmercy，andthathewouldsoonarriveintheancient，capital！

PeterIII。wasinrealityinhisgrave，buttherewasaterrible，elementoftruthinthesereports。Apretender，aCossackcalled，Pugatchef，hadreallyappearedontheDon，andhadassumedtherole，whichthepeasantsexpectedthelateTsartoplay。Advancing，throughthecountryoftheLowerVolga，hetookseveralplacesof，importance，puttodeathalltheproprietorshecouldfind，defeatedonmorethanoneoccasionthetroopssentagainsthim，and，threatenedtoadvanceintotheheartoftheEmpire。Itseemedas，iftheoldtroubloustimeswereabouttoberenewed——asifthe，countrywasoncemoretobepillagedbythosewildCossacksofthe，southernsteppe。Butthepretendershowedhimselfincapableof，playingtheparthehadassumed。Hisinhumancrueltyestranged，manywhowouldotherwisehavefollowedhim，andhewastoo，deficientindecisionandenergytotakeadvantageoffavourable，circumstances。Ifitbetruethatheconceivedtheideaof，creatingapeasantempire(muzhitskoetsarstvo)，hewasnottheman，torealisesuchascheme。Afteraseriesofmistakesanddefeats，hewastakenprisoner，andtheinsurrectionwasquelled。*

*WhilstlivingamongtheBashkirsoftheprovinceofSamarain1872

Ifoundsomeinterestingtraditionsregardingthispretender。

Thoughnearlyacenturyhadelapsedsincehisdeath(1775)，his，name，hispersonalappearance，andhisexploitswerewellknown，eventotheyoungergeneration。Myinformantsfirmlybelievedthat，hewasnotanimpostor，butthegenuineTsar，dethronedbyhis，ambitiousconsort，andthatheneverwastakenprisoner，but“went，awayintoforeignlands。”，WhenIaskedwhetherhewasstillalive，andwhetherhemightnotonedayreturn，theyrepliedthattheydid，notknow。

MeanwhilePeterIII。hadbeensucceededbyhisconsort，Catherine，II。Asshehadnolegalrighttothethrone，andwasbybirtha，foreigner，shecouldnotgaintheaffectionsofthepeople，andwas，obligedtocourtthefavouroftheNoblesse。Insuchadifficult，positionshecouldnotventuretoapplyherhumaneprinciplesto，thequestionofserfage。Evenduringthefirstyearsofherreign，whenshehadnoreasontofearagrariandisturbances，sheincreased，ratherthandiminishedthepoweroftheproprietorsovertheir，serfs，andthePugatchefaffairconfirmedherinthislineof，policy。Duringherreignserfagemaybesaidtohavereachedits，climax。Theserfswereregardedbythelawaspartofthemaster’s，immovableproperty*——aspartoftheworkingcapitaloftheestate——

andassuchtheywerebought，sold，andgivenaspresents**in，hundredsandthousands，sometimeswiththeland，andsometimes，withoutit，sometimesinfamilies，andsometimesindividually。The，onlylegalrestrictionwasthattheyshouldnotbeofferedforsale，atthetimeoftheconscription，andthattheyshouldatnotimebe，soldpubliclybyauction，becausesuchacustomwasconsideredas，“unbecominginaEuropeanState。”，Inallotherrespectstheserfs，mightbetreatedasprivateproperty;andthisviewistobefound，notonlyinthelegislation，butalsointhepopularconceptions。

Itbecamecustomary——acustomthatcontinueddowntotheyear1861——

tocomputeanoble’sfortune，notbyhisyearlyrevenueorthe，extentofhisestate，butbythenumberofhisserfs。Insteadof，sayingthatamanhadsomanyhundredsorthousandsayear，orso，manyacres，itwascommonlysaidthathehadsomanyhundredsor，thousandsof“souls。”，Andoverthese“souls“heexercisedthemost，unlimitedauthority。Theserfshadnolegalmeansofself-defence。

TheGovernmentfearedthatthegrantingtothemofjudicialor，administrativeprotectionwouldinevitablyawakeninthemaspirit，ofinsubordination，andhenceitwasorderedthatthosewho，presentedcomplaintsshouldbepunishedwiththeknoutandsentto，themines。***，Itwasonlyinextremecases，whensomeinstanceof，atrociouscrueltyhappenedtoreachtheearsoftheSovereign，that，theauthoritiesinterferedwiththeproprietor’sjurisdiction，and，thesecaseshadnottheslightestinfluenceontheproprietorsin，general。****

*SeeukazofOctober7th，1792。

**Asanexampleofmakingpresentsofserfs，thefollowingmaybe，cited。CountPaninpresentedsomeofhissubordinatesforan，Imperialrecompense，andonreceivingarefusal，madethema，presentof4000serfsfromhisownestates——Belaef，p。320。

***SeetheukazesofAugust22d，1767，andMarch30th，1781。

****Perhapsthemosthorriblecaseonrecordisthatofacertain，ladycalledSaltykof，whowasbroughttojusticein1768。

Accordingtotheukazregardinghercrimes，shehadkilledby，inhumantorturesinthecourseoftenorelevenyearsabouta，hundredofherserfs，chieflyofthefemalesex，andamongthem，severalyounggirlsofelevenandtwelveyearsofage。According，topopularbeliefhercrueltyproceededfromcannibalpropensities，butthiswasnotconfirmedbythejudicialinvestigation。Details，intheRusskiArkhiv，1865，pp。644-652。Theatrocitiespractised，ontheestateofCountAraktcheyef，thefavouriteofAlexanderI。

atthecommencementoflastcentury，havebeenfrequently，described，andarescarcelylessrevolting。

Thelastyearsoftheeighteenthcenturymayberegardedasthe，turning-pointinthehistoryofserfage。Uptillthattimethe，poweroftheproprietorshadsteadilyincreased，andtheareaof，serfagehadrapidlyexpanded。UndertheEmperorPaul(1796-1801)

wefindthefirstdecidedsymptomsofareaction。Heregardedthe，proprietorsashismostefficientofficersofpolice，buthe，desiredtolimittheirauthority，andforthispurposeissuedan，ukaztotheeffectthattheserfsshouldnotbeforcedtoworkfor，theirmastersmorethanthreedaysintheweek。Withtheaccession，ofAlexanderI。in1801，commencedalongseriesofabortive，projectsforageneralemancipation，andendlessattemptsto，correctthemoreglaringabuses;andduringthereignofNicholas，nolessthansixcommitteeswereformedatdifferenttimesto，considerthequestion。Butthepracticalresultoftheseefforts，wasextremelysmall。Thecustomofgivinggrantsoflandwith，peasantswasabolished;certainslightrestrictionswereplacedon，theauthorityoftheproprietors;anumberoftheworstspecimens，oftheclasswereremovedfromtheadministrationoftheirestates;

afewwhowereconvictedofatrociouscrueltywereexiledto，Siberia;*andsomethousandsofserfswereactuallyemancipated;

butnodecisiveradicalmeasureswereattempted，andtheserfsdid，notreceiveeventherightofmakingformalcomplaints。Serfage，had，infact，cometoberegardedasavitalpartoftheState，organisation，andtheonlysurebasisforautocracy。Itwas，thereforetreatedtenderly，andtherightsandprotectionaccorded，byvariousukazeswerealmostentirelyillusory。

*Speranski，forinstance，whenGovernoroftheprovinceofPenza，broughttojustice，amongothers，aproprietorwhohadcausedone，ofhisserfstobefloggedtodeath，andaladywhohadmurdereda，serfboybyprickinghimwithapen-knifebecausehehadneglected，totakepropercareofatamerabbitcommittedtohischarge！——

Korff，“ZhiznSperanskago，“II。p。127，note。

IfwecomparethedevelopmentofserfageinRussiaandinWestern，Europe，wefindverymanypointsincommon，butinRussiathe，movementhadcertainpeculiarities。Oneofthemostimportantof，thesewascausedbytherapiddevelopmentoftheAutocraticPower。

InfeudalEurope，wheretherewasnostrongcentralauthorityto，controltheNoblesse，thefreeruralCommunesentirely，oralmost，entirely，disappeared。Theywereeitherappropriatedbythenobles，orvoluntarilysubmittedtopowerfullandedproprietorsorto，monasteries，andinthiswaythewholeofthereclaimedland，with，afewrareexceptions，becamethepropertyofthenoblesorofthe，Church。InRussiawefindthesamemovement，butitwasarrested，bytheImperialpowerbeforeallthelandhadbeenappropriated。

Thenoblescouldreducetoserfagethepeasantssettledontheir，estates，buttheycouldnottakepossessionofthefreeCommunes，becausesuchanappropriationwouldhaveinfringedtherightsand，diminishedtherevenuesoftheTsar。Downtothecommencementof，thelastcentury，itistrue，largegrantsoflandwithserfswere，madetofavouredindividualsamongtheNoblesse，andinthereign，ofPaul(1796-1801)aconsiderablenumberofestateswereaffected，totheuseoftheImperialfamilyunderthenameofappanages，(Udyelniyaimteniya);butontheotherhand，theextensiveChurch，lands，whensecularisedbyCatherineII。werenotdistributed，amongthenobles，asinmanyothercountries，butweretransformed，intoStateDomains。Thus，atthedateoftheEmancipation(1861)，byfarthegreaterpartoftheterritorybelongedtotheState，and，one-halfoftheruralpopulationwereso-calledStatePeasants，(Gosudarstvenniyekrestyanye)。

RegardingtheconditionoftheseStatePeasants，orPeasantsofthe，Domains，astheyaresometimescalled，Imaysaybrieflythatthey，were，inacertainsense，serfs，beingattachedtothesoillike，theothers;buttheirconditionwas，asarule，somewhatbetter，thantheserfsinthenarroweracceptationoftheterm。Theyhad，tosuffermuchfromthetyrannyandextortionofthespecial，administrationunderwhichtheylived，buttheyhadmorelandand，morelibertythanwascommonlyenjoyedontheestatesofresident，proprietors，andtheirpositionwasmuchlessprecarious。Itis，oftenassertedthattheofficialsoftheDomainswereworsethan，theserf-owners，becausetheyhadnotthesameinterestinthe，prosperityofthepeasantry;butthisapriorireasoningdoesnot，standthetestofexperience。

Itisnotalittleinterestingtoobservethenumericalproportion，andgeographicaldistributionofthesetworuralclasses。In，EuropeanRussia，asawhole，aboutthree-eighthsofthepopulation，werecomposedofserfsbelongingtothenobles;*butifwetakethe，provincesseparatelywefindgreatvariationsfromthisaverage。

Infiveprovincestheserfswerelessthanthreepercent。while，inotherstheyformedmorethanseventypercent。ofthe，population！，Thisisnotanaccidentalphenomenon。Inthe，geographicaldistributionofserfagewecanseereflectedthe，originandhistoryoftheinstitution。

*Theexactnumbers，accordingtoofficialdata，were——

EntirePopulation，60，909，309

PeasantryofallClasses，49，486，665

Oftheselattertherewere——

StatePeasants，23，138，191

PeasantsontheLandsofProprietors，23，022，390

PeasantsoftheAppanagesandotherDepartments，3，326，084——

49，486，665

Ifweweretoconstructamapshowingthegeographicaldistribution，oftheserfpopulation，weshouldatonceperceivethatserfage，radiatedfromMoscow。Startingfromthatcityasacentreand，travellinginanydirectiontowardstheconfinesoftheEmpire，we，findthat，aftermakingallowanceforafewdisturbinglocal，influences，theproportionofserfsregularlydeclinesinthe，successiveprovincestraversed。Intheregionrepresentingtheold，MuscoviteTsardomtheyformconsiderablymorethanahalfofthe，ruralpopulation。Immediatelytothesouthandeastofthis，in，theterritorythatwasgraduallyannexedduringtheseventeenthand，firsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury，theproportionvariesfrom，twenty-fivetofiftypercent。andinthemorerecentlyannexed，provincesitsteadilydecreasestillitalmostreacheszero。

Wemayperceive，too，thatthepercentageofserfsdecreases，towardsthenorthmuchmorerapidlythantowardstheeastand，south。Thispointstotheessentiallyagriculturalnatureof，serfageinitsinfancy。Inthesouthandeasttherewasabundance，ofrich“blackearth“celebratedforitsfertility，andthenobles，inquestofestatesnaturallypreferredthisregiontothe，inhospitablenorth，withitspoorsoilandsevereclimate。

Amorecarefulexaminationofthesupposedmap*wouldbringout，otherinterestingfacts。Letmenoticeonebywayofillustration。

Hadserfagebeentheresultofconquestweshouldhavefoundthe，SlavonicracesettledontheStateDomains，andtheFinnishand，Tartartribessupplyingtheserfsofthenobles。Inrealitywe，findquitethereverse;theFinnsandTartarswerenearlyallState，Peasants，andtheserfsoftheproprietorswerenearlyallof，Slavonicrace。Thisistobeaccountedforbythefactthatthe，FinnishandTartartribesinhabitchieflytheoutlyingregions，in，whichserfageneverattainedsuchdimensionsasinthecentreof，theEmpire。

*SuchamapwasactuallyconstructedbyTroinitski(“Krepostnoe，NaseleniyevRossii，“St。Petersburg，1861)，butitisnotnearly，sographicasismighthavebeen。

Theduespaidbytheserfswereofthreekinds：labour，money，and，farmproduce。Thelast-namedissounimportantthatitmaybe，dismissedinafewwords。Itconsistedchieflyofeggs，chickens，lambs，mushrooms，wildberries，andlinencloth。Theamountof，thesevariousproductsdependedentirelyonthewillofthemaster。

Theothertwokindsofdues，asmoreimportant，wemustexamine，moreclosely。

Whenaproprietorhadabundanceoffertilelandandwishedtofarm，onhisownaccount，hecommonlydemandedfromhisserfsasmuch，labouraspossible。Undersuchamastertheserfswereprobably，freefrommoneydues，andfulfilledtheirobligationstohimby，labouringinhisfieldsinsummerandtransportinghisgrainto，marketinwinter。When，onthecontrary，aland-ownerhadmore，serflabourathisdisposalthanherequiredforthecultivationof，hisfields，heputthesuperfluousserfs“onobrok，“——thatisto，say，heallowedthemtogoandworkwheretheypleasedoncondition，ofpayinghimafixedyearlysum。Sometimestheproprietordidnot，farmatallonhisownaccount，inwhichcaseheputalltheserfs，“onobrok，“andgenerallygavetotheCommuneinusufructthewhole，ofthearablelandandpasturage。InthiswaytheMirplayedthe，partofatenant。

Wehaveherethebasisforasimpleandimportantclassificationof，estatesinthetimeofserfage：(1)Estatesonwhichthedueswere，exclusivelyinlabour;(2)estatesonwhichthedueswerepartlyin，labourandpartlyinmoney;and(3)estatesonwhichthedueswere，exclusivelyinmoney。

Inthemannerofexactingthelabourduestherewasconsiderable，variety。AccordingtothefamousmanifestoofPaulI。thepeasant，couldnotbecompelledtoworkmorethanthreedaysintheweek;

butthislawwasbynomeansuniversallyobserved，andthosewho，didobserveithadvariousmethodsofapplyingit。Afewtookit，literallyandlaiddownarulethattheserfsshouldworkforthem，threedefinitedaysintheweek——forexample，everyMonday，Tuesday，andWednesday——butthiswasanextremelyinconvenient，method，foritpreventedthefieldlabourfrombeingcarriedon，regularly。Amuchmorerationalsystemwasthataccordingtowhich，one-halfoftheserfsworkedthefirstthreedaysoftheweek，and，theotherhalftheremainingthree。Inthiswaytherewas，without，anycontraventionofthelaw，aregularandconstantsupplyof，labour。Itseems，however，thatthegreatmajorityofthe，proprietorsfollowednostrictmethod，andpaidnoattention，whatevertoPaul’smanifesto，whichgavetothepeasantsnolegal，meansofmakingformalcomplaints。Theysimplysummoneddailyas，manylabourersastheyrequired。Theevilconsequencesofthisfor，thepeasants’cropswereinpartcounteractedbymakingthe，peasantssowtheirowngrainalittlelaterthanthatofthe，proprietor，sothatthemaster’sharvestworkwasfinished，or，nearlyfinished，beforetheirgrainwasripe。Thiscombinationdid，not，however，alwayssucceed，andincaseswheretherewasa，conflictofinterests，theserfwas，ofcourse，thelosingparty。

Allthatremainedforhimtodoinsuchcaseswastoworkalittle，inhisownfieldsbeforesixo’clockinthemorningandafternine，o’clockatnight，andinordertorenderthispossiblehe，economisedhisstrength，andworkedaslittleaspossibleinhis，master’sfieldsduringtheday。

Ithasfrequentlybeenremarked，andwithmuchtruth——thoughthe，indiscriminateapplicationoftheprinciplehasoftenledto，unjustifiablelegislativeinactivity——thatthepracticalresultof，institutionsdependslessontheintrinsicabstractnatureofthe，institutionsthemselvesthanonthecharacterofthosewhowork，them。Soitwaswithserfage。Whenaproprietorhabituallyacted，towardshisserfsinanenlightened，rational，humaneway，theyhad，littlereasontocomplainoftheirposition，andtheirlifewas，mucheasierthanthatofmanymenwholiveinastateofcomplete，individualfreedomandunlimited，unrestrictedcompetition。

Howeverparadoxicalthestatementmayseemtothosewhoareinthe，habitofregardingallformsofslaveryfromthesentimentalpoint，ofview，itisunquestionablethattheconditionofserfsunder，suchaproprietorasIhavesupposedwasmoreenviablethanthatof，themajorityofEnglishagriculturallabourers。Eachfamilyhada，houseofitsown，withacabbage-garden，oneormorehorses，oneor，twocows，severalsheep，poultry，agriculturalimplements，ashare，oftheCommunalland，andeverythingelsenecessaryforcarryingon，itssmallfarmingoperations;andinreturnforthisithadto，supplytheproprietorwithanamountoflabourwhichwasbyno，meansoppressive。If，forinstance，aserfhadthreeadultsons——

andthehouseholds，asIhavesaid，wereatthattimegenerally，numerous——twoofthemmightworkfortheproprietorwhilsthe，himselfandtheremainingsoncouldattendexclusivelytothe，familyaffairs。Bytheeventswhichusedtobecalled“the，visitationsofGod“hehadnofearofbeingpermanentlyruined。If，hishousewasburnt，orhiscattlediedfromtheplague，ora，seriesof“badyears“lefthimwithoutseedforhisfields，he，couldalwayscountupontemporaryassistancefromhismaster。He，wasprotected，too，againstalloppressionandexactionsonthe，partoftheofficials;forthepolice，whentherewasanycallfor，itsinterference，appliedtotheproprietor，whowastoacertain，extentresponsibleforhisserfs。Thustheserfmightlivea，tranquil，contentedlife，anddieataripeoldage，withoutever，havingbeenconsciousthatserfagewasagrievousburden。

Ifalltheserfshadlivedinthiswaywemight，perhaps，regret，thattheEmancipationwaseverundertaken。Inrealitytherewas，astheFrenchsay，lereversdelamedaille，andserfagegenerally，appearedunderaformverydifferentfromthatwhichIhavejust，depicted。Theproprietorswere，unfortunately，notallofthe，enlightened，humanetype。Amongstthemweremanywhodemandedfrom，theirserfsaninordinateamountoflabour，andtreatedthemina，veryinhumanfashion。

Theseoppressorsoftheirserfsmaybedividedintofour，categories。First，thereweretheproprietorswhomanagedtheir，ownestates，andoppressedsimplyforthepurposeofincreasing，theirrevenues。Secondly，therewereanumberofretiredofficers，whowishedtoestablishacertainorderanddisciplineontheir，estates，andwhoemployedforthispurposethebarbarousmeasures，whichwereatthattimeusedinthearmy，believingthatmerciless，corporalpunishmentwastheonlymeansofcuringlaziness，disorderlinessandothervices。Thirdly，thereweretheabsentees，wholivedbeyondtheirmeans，anddemandedfromtheirsteward，underpainofgivinghimorhissonasarecruit，amuchgreater，yearlysumthantheestatecouldbereasonablyexpectedtoyield。

Lastly，inthelatteryearsofserfage，therewereanumberofmen，whoboughtestatesasamercantilespeculation，andmadeasmuch，moneyoutofthemastheycouldintheshortestpossiblespaceof，time。

Ofallhardmasters，thelast-namedwerethemostterrible。

Utterlyindifferenttothewelfareoftheserfsandtheultimate，fateoftheproperty，theycutdownthetimber，soldthecattle，exactedheavymoneyduesunderthreatsofgivingtheserfsortheir，childrenasrecruits，presentedtothemilitaryauthoritiesa，numberofconscriptsgreaterthanwasrequiredbylaw——sellingthe，conscriptionreceipts(zatchetniyakvitantsii)tothemerchantsand，burgherswhowereliabletotheconscriptionbutdidnotwishto，serve——compelledsomeofthericherserfstobuytheirlibertyat，anenormousprice，and，inaword，usedeverymeans，legaland，illegal，forextractingmoney。Bythissystemofmanagementthey，ruinedtheestatecompletelyinthecourseofafewyears;butby，thattimetheyhadrealisedprobablythewholesumpaid，witha，veryfairprofitfromtheoperation;andthisprofitcouldbe，considerablyaugmentedbysellinganumberofthepeasantfamilies，fortransportationtoanotherestate(nasvoz)，orbymortgaging，thepropertyintheOpekunskiSovet——aGovernmentinstitutionwhich，lentmoneyonlandedpropertywithoutexaminingcarefullythe，natureofthesecurity。

Astothemeanswhichtheproprietorspossessedofoppressingtheir，peasants，wemustdistinguishbetweenthelegalandtheactual。

Thelegalwerealmostascompleteasanyonecoulddesire。”The，proprietor，“itissaidintheLaws(Vol。IX，p。1045，ed。an。

1857)，“mayimposeonhisserfseverykindoflabour，maytakefrom，themmoneydues(obrok)anddemandfromthempersonalservice，with，thisonerestriction，thattheyshouldnotbetherebyruined，and，thatthenumberofdaysfixedbylawshouldbelefttothemfor，theirownwork。”*，Besidesthis，hehadtherighttotransform，peasantsintodomesticservants，andmight，insteadofemploying，theminhisownservice，hirethemouttootherswhohadtherights，andprivilegesofNoblesse(pp。1047-48)。Foralloffences，committedagainsthimselforagainstanyoneunderhisjurisdiction，hecouldsubjecttheguiltyonestocorporalpunishmentnot，exceedingfortylasheswiththebirchorfifteenblowswiththe，stick(p。1052);andifheconsideredanyofhisserfsas，incorrigible，hecouldpresentthemtotheauthoritiestobe，draftedintothearmyortransportedtoSiberiaashemightdesire，(pp。1053-55)。Incasesofinsubordination，wheretheordinary，domesticmeansofdisciplinedidnotsuffice，hecouldcallinthe，policeandthemilitarytosupporthisauthority。

*IgiveherethereferencestotheCode，becauseRussianscommonly，believeandassertthatthehiringoutofserfs，theinflictionof，corporalpunishment，andsimilarpracticesweremerelyabuses，unauthorisedbylaw。

Suchwerethelegalmeansbywhichtheproprietormightoppresshis，peasants，anditwillbereadilyunderstoodthattheywerevery，considerableandveryelastic。Bylawhehadthepowertoimpose，anyduesinlabourormoneywhichhemightthinkfit，andinall，casestheserfswereorderedtobedocileandobedient(p。1027)。

Corporalpunishment，thoughrestrictedbylaw，hecouldinreality，applytoanyextent。Certainlynoneoftheserfs，andveryfewof，theproprietors，wereawarethatthelawplacedanyrestrictionon，thisright。Alltheproprietorswereinthehabitofusing，corporalpunishmentastheythoughtproper，andunlessaproprietor，becamenotoriousforinhumancrueltytheauthoritiesneverthought，ofinterfering。Butintheeyesofthepeasantscorporal，punishmentwasnottheworst。Whattheyfearedinfinitelymore，thanthebirchorthestickwastheproprietor’spowerofgiving，themortheirsonsasrecruits。Thelawassumedthatthisextreme，meanswouldbeemployedonlyagainstthoseserfswhoshowed，themselvesincorrigiblyviciousorinsubordinate;butthe，authoritiesacceptedthosepresentedwithoutmakingany，investigations，andconsequentlytheproprietormightusethis，powerasaneffectivemeansofextortion。

Againstthesemeansofextortionandoppressiontheserfshadno，legalprotection。Thelawprovidedthemwithnomeansofresisting，anyinjusticetowhichtheymightbesubjected，orofbringingto，punishmentthemasterwhooppressedandruinedthem。The，Government，notwithstandingitssinceredesiretoprotectthemfrom，inordinateburdensandcrueltreatment，rarelyinterferedbetween，themasterandhisserfs，beingafraidoftherebyunderminingthe，authorityoftheproprietors，andawakeningamongthepeasantrya，spiritofinsubordination。Theserfswereleft，therefore，to，theirownresources，andhadtodefendthemselvesasbestthey，could。Thesimplestwaywasopenmutiny;butthiswasrarely，employed，fortheyknewbyexperiencethatanyattemptofthekind，wouldbeatonceputdownbythemilitaryandmercilesslypunished。

Muchmorefavouriteandefficientmethodswerepassiveresistance，flight，andfire-raisingormurder。

Wemightnaturallysupposethatanunscrupulousproprietor，armed，withtheenormouslegalandactualpowerwhichIhavejust，described，couldveryeasilyextortfromhispeasantsanythinghe，desired。Inreality，however，theprocessofextortion，whenit，exceededacertainmeasure，wasaverydifficultoperation。The，Russianpeasanthasacapacityofpatientendurancethatwoulddo，honourtoamartyr，andapowerofcontinued，dogged，passive，resistancesuchasispossessed，Ibelieve，bynootherclassof，meninEurope;andthesequalitiesformedaverypowerfulbarrier，againsttherapacityofunconscientiousproprietors。Assoonas，theserfsremarkedintheirmasteratendencytorapacityand，extortion，theyatoncetookmeasurestodefendthemselves。Their，firststepwastosellsecretlythelivestocktheydidnot，actuallyrequire，andalltheirmovablepropertyexceptthefew，articlesnecessaryforeverydayuse;thenthelittlecapital，realisedwascarefullyhidden。

Whenthishadbeeneffected，theproprietormightthreatenand，punishasheliked，butherarelysucceededinunearthingthe，treasure。Manyapeasant，undersuchcircumstances，borepatiently，themostcruelpunishment，andsawhissonstakenawayasrecruits，andyethepersistedindeclaringthathehadnomoneytoransom，himselfandhischildren。Aspectatorinsuchacasewould，probablyhaveadvisedhimtogiveuphislittlestoreofmoney，and，therebyliberatehimselffrompersecution;butthepeasants，reasonedotherwise。Theywereconvinced，andnotwithoutreason，thatthesacrificeoftheirlittlecapitalwouldmerelyputoffthe，evilday，andthatthepersecutionwouldverysoonrecommence。In，thiswaytheywouldhavetosufferasbefore，andhavethe，additionalmortificationoffeelingthattheyhadspenttono，purposethelittlethattheypossessed。Theirfatalisticbeliefin，the“perhaps“(avos’)cameheretotheiraid。Perhapsthe，proprietormightbecomewearyofhiseffortswhenhesawthatthey，ledtonoresult，orperhapssomethingmightoccurwhichwould，removethepersecutor。

Italwayshappened，however，thatwhenaproprietortreatedhis，serfswithextremeinjusticeandcruelty，someofthemlost，patience，andsoughtrefugeinflight。Astheestateslay，perfectlyopenonallsides，anditwasutterlyimpossibleto，exerciseastrictsupervision，nothingwaseasierthantorunaway，andthefugitivemightbeahundredmilesoffbeforehisabsence，wasnoticed。Buttheoppressedserfwasreluctanttoadoptsuchan，extrememeasure。Hehadalmostalwaysawifeandfamily，andhe，couldnotpossiblytakethemwithhim;flight，therefore，was，expatriationforlifeinitsmostterribleform。Besidesthis，the，lifeofafugitivewasbynomeansenviable。Hewasliableatany，momenttofallintothehandsofthepolice，andtobeputinto，prisonorsentbacktohismaster。Solittlecharm，indeed，did，thislifepresentthatnotinfrequentlyafterafewmonthsorafew，yearsthefugitivereturnedofhisownaccordtohisformer，domicile。

Regardingfugitivesorpassportlesswanderersingeneral，Imay，hereremarkparentheticallythatthereweretwokinds。Inthe，firstplace，therewastheyoung，able-bodiedpeasant，whofled，fromtheoppressionofhismasterorfromtheconscription。Sucha，fugitivealmostalwayssoughtoutforhimselfanewdomicile——

generallyinthesouthernprovinces，wheretherewasagreat，scarcityoflabourers，andwheremanyproprietorshabitually，welcomedallpeasantswhopresentedthemselves，withoutmakingany，inquiriesastopassports。Inthesecondplace，therewerethose，whochosefugitivismasapermanentmodeoflife。Thesewere，for，themostpart，menorwomenofacertainage——widowersorwidows——

whohadnoclosefamilyties，andwhoweretooinfirmortoolazy，towork。Themajorityoftheseassumedthecharacterofpilgrims。

Assuchtheycouldalwaysfindenoughtoeat，andcouldgenerally，evencollectafewroubleswithwhichtogreasethepalmofany，zealouspolice-officerwhoshouldarrestthem。Foralifeofthis，kindRussiapresentedpeculiarfacilities。Therewasabundanceof，monasteries，whereallcomerscouldliveforthreedayswithout，questionsbeingasked，andwherethosewhowerewillingtodoa，littleworkforthepatronsaintmightliveforamuchlonger，period。Thentherewerethetowns，wheretherichmerchants，consideredalmsgivingasveryprofitableforsalvation。And，lastly，therewerethevillages，whereaprofessingpilgrimwas，suretobehospitablyreceivedandentertainedsolongashe，refrainedfromstealingandotheractstoogrosslyinconsistent，withhisassumedcharacter。Forthosewhocontentedthemselves，withsimplefare，anddidnotseektoavoidtheusualprivationsof，awanderer’slife，theseordinarymeansofsubsistencewereamply，sufficient。Thosewhoweremoreambitiousandmorecunningoften，employedtheirtalentswithgreatsuccessintheworldoftheOld，RitualistsandSectarians。

Thelastandmostdesperatemeansofdefensewhichtheserfs，possessedwerefire-raisingandmurder。Withregardtotheamount，offire-raisingtherearenotrustworthystatistics。Withregard，tothenumberofagrarianmurdersIonceobtainedsomeinteresting，statisticaldata，butunfortunatelylostthem。Imaysay，however，thatthesecaseswerenotverynumerous。Thisistobeexplained，inpartbythepatient，long-sufferingcharacterofthepeasantry，andinpartbythefactthatthegreatmajorityoftheproprietors，werebynomeanssuchinhumantaskmastersasissometimessupposed。

Whenacasedidoccur，theAdministrationalwaysmadeastrict，investigation——punishingtheguiltywithexemplaryseverity，and，takingnoaccountoftheprovocationtowhichtheyhadbeen，subjected。Thepeasantry，onthecontrary——atleast，whentheact，wasnottheresultofmerepersonalvengeance——secretlysympathised，with“theunfortunates，“andlongcherishedtheirmemoryasthatof，menwhohadsufferedfortheMir。

InspeakingoftheserfsIhavehithertoconfinedmyattentionto，themembersoftheMir，orruralCommune——thatistosay，the，peasantsinthenarrowersenseoftheterm;butbesidesthesethere，weretheDvorovuye，ordomesticservants，andoftheseImustadda，wordortwo。

TheDvorovuyeweredomesticslavesratherthanserfsintheproper，senseoftheterm。Letus，however，avoidwoundingunnecessarily，Russiansensibilitiesbytheuseoftheill-soundingword。Wemay，calltheclassinquestion“domestics“——remembering，ofcourse，thattheywerenotquitedomesticservantsintheordinarysense。

Theyreceivednowages，werenotatlibertytochangemasters，possessedalmostnolegalrights，andmightbepunished，hiredout，orsoldbytheirownerswithoutanyinfractionofthewrittenlaw。

These“domestics“wereverynumerous——outofallproportiontothe，worktobeperformed——andcouldconsequentlyleadaverylazy，life;*butthepeasantconsidereditagreatmisfortunetobe，transferredtotheirranks，forhetherebylosthisshareofthe，Communallandandthelittleindependencewhichheenjoyed。It，veryrarelyhappened，however，thattheproprietortookanable-

bodiedpeasantasdomestic。Theclassgenerallykeptupits，numbersbythelegitimateandillegitimatemethodofnatural，increase;andinvoluntaryadditionswereoccasionallymadewhen，orphanswereleftwithoutnearrelatives，andnootherfamily，wishedtoadoptthem。Tothisclassbelongedthelackeys，servant-

girls，cooks，coachmen，stable-boys，gardeners，andalargenumber，ofnondescriptoldmenandwomenwhohadnoveryclearlydefined，functions。Iftheproprietorhadaprivatetheatreororchestra，itwasfromthisclassthattheactorsandmusiciansweredrawn。

Thoseofthemwhoweremarriedandhadchildrenoccupiedaposition，intermediatebetweentheordinarydomesticservantandthepeasant。

Ontheonehand，theyreceivedfromthemasteramonthlyallowance，offoodandayearlyallowanceofclothes，andtheywereobligedto，liveintheimmediatevicinityofthemansion-house;but，onthe，otherhand，theyhadeachaseparatehouseorapartment，witha，littlecabbage-garden，andcommonlyasmallplotofflax。The，unmarriedoneslivedinallrespectslikeordinarydomestic，servants。

*Thoseproprietorswhokeptorchestras，largepacksofhounds，&c。hadsometimesseveralhundreddomesticserfs。

Thenumberofthesedomesticserfsbeinggenerallyoutofall，proportiontotheamountofworktheyhadtoperform，theywere，imbuedwithahereditaryspiritofindolence，andtheyperformed，lazilyandcarelesslywhattheyhadtodo。Ontheotherhand，they，wereoftensincerelyattachedtothefamilytheyserved，and，occasionallyprovedbyactstheirfidelityandattachment。Hereis，aninstanceoutofmanyforwhichIcanvouch。Anoldnurse，whose，mistresswasdangerouslyill，vowedthat，intheeventofthe，patient’srecovery，shewouldmakeapilgrimage，firsttoKief，the，HolyCityontheDnieper，andafterwardstoSolovetsk，amuch，reveredmonasteryonanislandintheWhiteSea。Thepatient，recovered，andtheoldwoman，infulfilmentofhervow，walkedmore，thantwothousandmiles！

Thisclassofserfsmightwellbecalleddomesticslaves，butI

mustwarnthereaderthatheoughtnottousetheexpressionwhen，speakingwithRussians，becausetheyareextremelysensitiveonthe，point。Serfage，theysay，wassomethingquitedifferentfrom，slavery，andslaveryneverexistedinRussia。

Thefirstpartofthisassertionisperfectlytrue，andthesecond，partperfectlyfalse。Inoldtimes，asIhavesaidabove，slavery，wasarecognisedinstitutioninRussiaasinothercountries。One，canhardlyreadafewpagesoftheoldchronicleswithoutstumbling，onreferencestoslaves;andIdistinctlyremember——thoughIcannot，atthismomentgivechapterandverse——thatoneoftheoldRussian，Princeswassovaliantandsosuccessfulinhiswarsthatduring，hisreignaslavemightbeboughtforafewcoppers。Aslateas，thebeginningoflastcenturythedomesticserfsweresoldvery，muchasdomesticslavesusedtobesoldincountrieswhereslavery，wasrecognisedasalegalinstitution。Hereisanexampleofthe，customaryadvertisement;ItakeitalmostatrandomfromtheMoscow，Gazetteof1801：——

“TOBESOLD：threecoachmen，welltrainedandhandsome;andtwo，girls，theoneeighteen，andtheotherfifteenyearsofage，both，ofthemgood-looking，andwellacquaintedwithvariouskindsof，handiwork。Inthesamehousethereareforsaletwohairdressers;

theone，twenty-oneyearsofage，canread，write，playona，musicalinstrument，andactashuntsman;theothercandress，ladies’andgentlemen’shair。Inthesamehousearesoldpianos，andorgans。”

Alittlefartheroninthesamenumberofthepaper，afirst-rate，clerk，acarver，andalackeyareofferedforsale，andthereason，assignedisasuperabundanceofthearticlesinquestion(za，izlishestvom)。Insomeinstancesitseemsasiftheserfsandthe，cattlewereintentionallyputinthesamecategory，asinthe，followingannouncement：“Inthishouseonecanbuyacoachmananda，Dutchcowabouttocalve。”，Thestyleoftheseadvertisements，and，thefrequentrecurrenceofthesameaddresses，showthattherewas，atthistimeinMoscowaregularclassofslave-dealers。The，humaneAlexanderI。prohibitedadvertisementsofthiskind，buthe，didnotputdownthecustomwhichtheyrepresented，andhis，successor，NicholasI。tooknoeffectivemeasuresforits，repression。

Ofthewholenumberofserfsbelongingtotheproprietors，the，domesticsformed，accordingtothecensusof1857，nolessthan6

3/4percent。(6。79)，andtheirnumberswereevidentlyrapidly，increasing，forintheprecedingcensustheyrepresentedonly4。79

percent。ofthewhole。Thisfactseemsallthemoresignificant，whenweobservethatduringthisperiodthenumberofpeasantserfs，haddiminished。

Imustnowbringthislongchaptertoanend。Myaimhasbeento，representserfageinitsnormal，ordinaryformsratherthaninits，occasionalmonstrousmanifestations。OftheselatterIhavea，collectioncontainingamplematerialsforawholeseriesof，sensationnovels，butIrefrainfromquotingthem，becauseIdonot，believethatthecriminalannalsofacountrygiveafair，representationofitsrealcondition。Ontheotherhand，Idonot，wishtowhitewashserfageorattenuateitsevilconsequences。No，greatbodyofmencouldlongwieldsuchenormousuncontrolledpower，withoutabusingit，*andnolargebodyofmencouldlongliveunder，suchpowerwithoutsufferingmorallyandmateriallyfromits，perniciousinfluence。Ifserfagedidnotcreatethatmoralapathy，andintellectuallethargywhichformed，asitwere，theatmosphere，ofRussianprovinciallife，itdidmuchatleasttopreserveit。

Inshort，serfagewasthechiefbarriertoallmaterialandmoral，progress，andinatimeofmoralawakeningsuchasthatwhichI

havedescribedintheprecedingchapter，thequestionof，Emancipationnaturallycameatoncetothefront。

*Thenumberofdeposedproprietors——orratherthenumberof，estatesplacedundercuratorsinconsequenceoftheabuseof，authorityonthepartoftheirowners——amountedin1859to215。So，atleastIfoundinanofficialMS。documentshowntomebythe，lateNicholasMilutin。

CHAPTERXXIX

THEEMANCIPATIONOFTHESERFS

TheQuestionRaised——ChiefCommittee——TheNoblesoftheLithuanian，Provinces——TheTsar’sBroadHinttotheNoblesse——Enthusiasminthe，Press——TheProprietors——PoliticalAspirations——NoOpposition——The，Government——PublicOpinion——FearoftheProletariat——TheProvincial，Committees——TheElaborationCommission——TheQuestionRipens——

ProvincialDeputies——DiscontentandDemonstrations——TheManifesto——

FundamentalPrinciplesoftheLaw——IllusionsandDisappointmentof，theSerfs——ArbitersofthePeace——ACharacteristicIncident——

Redemption——WhoEffectedtheEmancipation？

ItisafundamentalprincipleofRussianpoliticalorganisation，thatallinitiativeinpublicaffairsproceedsfromtheAutocratic，Power。Thewidespreaddesire，therefore，fortheEmancipationof，theserfsdidnotfindfreeexpressionsolongastheEmperorkept，silenceregardinghisintentions。Theeducatedclasseswatched，anxiouslyforsomesign，andsoonasignwasgiventothem。In，March，1856——afewdaysafterthepublicationofthemanifesto，announcingtheconclusionofpeacewiththeWesternPowers——his，MajestysaidtotheMarshalsofNoblesseinMoscow：“Forthe，removalofcertainunfoundedreportsIconsideritnecessaryto，declaretoyouthatIhavenotatpresenttheintentionof，annihilatingserfage;butcertainly，asyouyourselvesknow，the，existingmannerofpossessingserfscannotremainunchanged。Itis，bettertoabolishserfagefromabovethantoawaitthetimewhenit，willbegintoabolishitselffrombelow。Irequestyou，gentlemen，toconsiderhowthiscanbeputintoexecution，andtosubmitmy，wordstotheNoblessefortheirconsideration。”

ThesewordswereintendedtosoundtheNoblesseandinducethemto，makeavoluntaryproposal，buttheyhadnotthedesiredeffect。

Abolitionistenthusiasmwasrareamongthegreatnobles，andthose，whoreallywishedtoseeserfageabolishedconsideredtheImperial，utterancetoovagueandoraculartojustifythemintakingthe，initiative。Asnofurtherstepsweretakenforsometime，the，excitementcausedbytheincidentsoonsubsided，andmanypeople，assumedthattheconsiderationoftheproblemhadbeenindefinitely，postponed。”TheGovernment，“itwassaid，“evidentlyintendedto，raisethequestion，butonperceivingtheindifferenceorhostility，ofthelandedproprietors，itbecamefrightenedanddrewback。”

TheEmperorwasinrealitydisappointed。Hehadexpectedthathis，“faithfulMoscowNoblesse，“ofwhichhewaswonttosayhewas，himselfamember，wouldatoncerespondtohiscall，andthatthe，ancientcapitalwouldhavethehonourofbeginningthework。And，iftheexamplewerethusgivenbyMoscow，hehadnodoubtthatit，wouldsoonbefollowedbytheotherprovinces。Henowperceived，thatthefundamentalprinciplesonwhichtheEmancipationshouldbe，effectedmustbelaiddownbytheGovernment，andforthispurpose，hecreatedasecretcommitteecomposedofseveralgreatofficersof，State。

This“ChiefCommitteeforPeasantAffairs，“asitwasafterwards，called，devotedsixmonthstostudyingthehistoryofthequestion。

EmancipationschemeswerebynomeansanewphenomenoninRussia。

EversincethetimeofCatherineII。theGovernmenthadthoughtof，improvingtheconditionoftheserfs，andonmorethanoneoccasion，ageneralemancipationhadbeencontemplated。Inthiswaythe，questionhadslowlyripened，andcertainfundamentalprincipleshad，cometobeprettygenerallyrecognised。Oftheseprinciplesthe，mostimportantwasthattheStateshouldnotconsenttoanyproject，whichwoulduprootthepeasantfromthesoilandallowhimto，wanderaboutatwill;forsuchameasurewouldrenderthe，collectionofthetaxesimpossible，andinallprobabilityproduce，themostfrightfulagrariandisorders。Andtothisgeneral，principletherewasanimportantcorollary：ifsevererestrictions，weretobeplacedonfreemigration，itwouldbenecessaryto，providethepeasantrywithlandintheimmediatevicinityofthe，villages;otherwisetheymustinevitablyfallbackunderthepower，oftheproprietors，andanewandworsekindofserfagewouldthus，becreated。Butinordertogivelandtothepeasantryitwouldbe，necessarytotakeitfromtheproprietors;andthisexpropriation，seemedtomanyamostunjustifiableinfringementofthesacred，rightsofproperty。Itwasthisconsiderationthathadrestrained，Nicholasfromtakinganydecisivemeasureswithregardtoserfage;

andithadnowconsiderableweightwiththemembersofthe，committee，whowerenearlyallgreatland-owners。

NotwithstandingthestrenuousexertionsoftheGrandDuke，Constantine，whohadbeenappointedamemberfortheexpress，purposeofacceleratingtheproceedings，thecommitteedidnotshow，asmuchzealandenergyaswasdesired，andordersweregivento，takesomedecidedstep。Atthatmomentaconvenientopportunity，presenteditself。

IntheLithuanianProvinces，wherethenobleswerePolishbyorigin，andsympathies，themiserableconditionofthepeasantryhad，inducedtheGovernmentintheprecedingreigntolimitthe，arbitrarypoweroftheserf-ownersbyso-calledInventories，in，whichthemutualobligationsofmastersandserfswereregulated，anddefined。TheseInventorieshadcausedgreatdissatisfaction，andtheproprietorsnowproposedthattheyshouldberevised。Of，thistheGovernmentdeterminedtotakeadvantage。Onthesomewhat，violentassumptionthattheseproprietorswishedtoemancipate，theirserfs，anImperialrescriptwaspreparedapprovingoftheir，supposeddesire，andempoweringthemtoformcommitteesforthe，preparationofdefiniteprojects。*，Intherescriptitselftheword，emancipationwasstudiouslyavoided，buttherecouldbenodoubtas，totheimpliedmeaning，foritwasexpresslystatedinthe，supplementaryconsiderationsthat“theabolitionofserfagemustbe，effectednotsuddenly，butgradually。”，Fourdayslaterthe，MinisteroftheInterior，inaccordancewithasecretorderfrom，theEmperor，sentacirculartotheGovernorsandMarshalsof，NoblessealloverRussiaproper，informingthemthatthenoblesof，theLithuanianProvinces“hadrecognisedthenecessityof，liberatingthepeasants，“andthat“thisnobleintention“had，affordedpeculiarsatisfactiontohisMajesty。Acopyofthe，rescriptandthefundamentalprinciplestobeobservedaccompanied，thecircular，“incasethenoblesofotherprovincesshouldexpress，asimilardesire。”

*Thiscelebrateddocumentisknownas“TheRescripttoNazimof。”

MorethanonceinthecourseofconversationIdidallinmypower，withinthelimitsofpolitenessanddiscretion，toextractfrom，GeneralNazimofadetailedaccountofthisimportantepisode，but，myeffortswereunsuccessful。

Thiscircularproducedanimmensesensationthroughoutthecountry。

Noonecouldforamomentmisunderstandthesuggestionthatthe，noblesofotherprovincesMIGHTPOSSIBLYexpressadesireto，liberatetheirserfs。Suchvaguewords，whenspokenbyan，autocrat，haveaverydefiniteandunmistakablemeaning，which，prudentloyalsubjectshavenodifficultyinunderstanding。Ifany，doubted，theirdoubtsweresoondispelled，fortheEmperor，afew，weekslater，publiclyexpressedahopethat，withthehelpofGod，andtheco-operationofthenobles，theworkwouldbesuccessfully，accomplished。

Thediewascast，andtheGovernmentlookedanxiouslytoseethe，result。

TheperiodicalPress——whichwasatoncetheproductandthe，fomenteroftheliberalaspirations——hailedtheraisingofthe，questionwithboundlessenthusiasm。TheEmancipation，itwassaid，wouldcertainlyopenanewandgloriousepochinthenational，history。Serfagewasdescribedasanulcerthathadlongbeen，poisoningthenationalblood;asanenormousweightunderwhichthe，wholenationgroaned;asaninsurmountableobstacle，preventingall，materialandmoralprogress;asacumbrousloadwhichrenderedall，free，vigorousactionimpossible，andpreventedRussiafromrising，totheleveloftheWesternnations。IfRussiahadsucceededin，stemmingthefloodofadversefortuneinspiteofthismillstone，roundherneck，whatmightshenotaccomplishwhenfreeand，untrammelled？，Allsectionsoftheliteraryworldhadargumentsto，offerinsupportoftheforegoneconclusion。Themoralists，declaredthatalltheprevailingvicesweretheproductofserfage，andthatmoralprogresswasimpossibleinanatmosphereofslavery;

thelawyersheldthatthearbitraryauthorityoftheproprietors，overthepeasantshadnolegalbasis;theeconomistsexplainedthat，freelabourwasanindispensableconditionofindustrialand，commercialprosperity;thephilosophicalhistoriansshowedthatthe，normalhistoricaldevelopmentofthecountrydemandedtheimmediate，abolitionofthissuperannuatedremnantofbarbarism;andthe，writersofthesentimental，gushingtypepouredforthendless，effusionsaboutbrotherlylovetotheweakandtheoppressed。Ina，word，thePresswasforthemomentunanimous，anddisplayeda，feverishexcitementwhichdemandedaliberaluseofsuperlatives。

Thisenthusiastictoneaccordedperfectlywiththefeelingsofa，largesectionofthenobles。NearlythewholeoftheNoblessewas，moreorlessaffectedbythenewbornenthusiasmforeverything，just，humanitarian，andliberal。Theaspirationsfound，ofcourse，theirmostardentrepresentativesamongtheeducatedyouth;but，theywerebynomeansconfinedtotheyoungermen，whohadpassed，throughtheuniversitiesandhadalwaysregardedserfageasastain，onthenationalhonour。ManyaSaulwasfoundamongtheprophets。

Manyanoldman，withgreyhairsandgrandchildren，whohadallhis，lifeplacidlyenjoyedthefruitsofserflabour，wasnowheardto，speakofserfageasanantiquatedinstitutionwhichcouldnotbe，reconciledwithmodernhumanitarianideas;andnotafewofall，ages，whohadformerlyneverthoughtofreadingbooksor，newspapers，nowperusedassiduouslytheperiodicalliterature，and，pickeduptheliberalandhumanitarianphraseswithwhichitwas，filled。

ThisAbolitionistfervourwasconsiderablyaugmentedbycertain，politicalaspirationswhichdidnotappearinthenewspapers，but，whichwereatthattimeverygenerallyentertained。Inspiteof，thePress-censurealargesectionoftheeducatedclasseshad，becomeacquaintedwiththepoliticalliteratureofFranceand，Germany，andhadimbibedtherefromanunboundedadmirationfor，Constitutionalgovernment。AConstitution，itwasthought，would，necessarilyremoveallpoliticalevilsandcreatesomethinglikea，politicalMillennium。AnditwasnottobeaConstitutionofthe，ordinarysort——thefruitofcompromisebetweenhostilepolitical，parties——butaninstitutiondesignedcalmlyaccordingtothelatest，resultsofpoliticalscience，andsoconstructedthatallclasses，wouldvoluntarilycontributetothegeneralwelfare。Thenecessary，preludetothishappyeraofpoliticallibertywas，ofcourse，the，abolitionofserfage。Whenthenobleshadgivenuptheirpower，overtheirserfstheywouldreceiveaConstitutionasan，indemnificationandreward。

Therewere，however，manynoblesoftheoldschoolwhoremained，impervioustoallthesenewfeelingsandideas。Onthemthe，raisingoftheEmancipationquestionhadaverydifferenteffect。

Theyhadnosourceofrevenuebuttheirestates，andtheycouldnot，conceivethepossibilityofworkingtheirestateswithoutserf，labour。Ifthepeasantwasindolentandcarelessevenunderstrict，supervision，whatwouldhebecomewhennolongerunderthe，authorityofamaster？，Iftheprofitsfromfarmingwerealready，small，whatwouldtheybewhennoonewouldworkwithoutwages？

Andthiswasnottheworst，foritwasquiteevidentfromthe，circularthatthelandquestionwastoberaised，andthata，considerableportionofeachestatewouldbetransferred，atleast，foratime，totheemancipatedpeasants。

Totheproprietorswholookedatthequestioninthiswaythe，prospectofEmancipationwascertainlynotatallagreeable，butwe，mustnotimaginethattheyfeltasEnglishland-ownerswouldfeel，ifthreatenedbyasimilardanger。InEnglandahereditaryestate，hasforthefamilyavaluefarbeyondwhatitwouldbringinthe，market。Itisregardedasoneandindivisible，andany，dismembermentofitwouldbelookeduponasagravefamily，misfortune。InRussia，onthecontrary，estateshavenothingof，thissemi-sacredcharacter，andmaybeatanytimedismembered，withoutoutragingfamilyfeelingortraditionalassociations。

Indeed，itisnotuncommonthatwhenaproprietordies，leaving，onlyoneestateandseveralchildren，thepropertyisbrokenup，intofractionsanddividedamongtheheirs。Eventheprospectof，pecuniarysacrificedidnotalarmtheRussianssomuchasitwould，alarmEnglishmen。Menwhokeepnoaccountsandtakelittlethought，forthemorrowaremuchlessaversetomakingpecuniarysacrifices——

whetherforawiseorafoolishpurpose——thanthosewhocarefully，arrangetheirmodeoflifeaccordingtotheirincome。

Still，afterdueallowancehasbeenmadeforthesepeculiarities，itmustbeadmittedthatthefeelingofdissatisfactionandalarm，wasverywidespread。EvenRussiansdonotliketheprospectof，losingapartoftheirlandandincome。Noprotest，however，was，entered，andnooppositionwasmade。Thosewhowerehostiletothe，measurewereashamedtoshowthemselvesselfishandunpatriotic。