第4章

Ivan’shouseholdwasagoodspecimenoftheRussianpeasantfamily，oftheoldtype。PrevioustotheEmancipationin1861therewere，manyhouseholdsofthiskind，containingtherepresentativesof，threegenerations。Allthemembers，youngandold，livedtogether，inpatriarchalfashionunderthedirectionandauthorityofthe，HeadoftheHouse，calledusuallytheKhozain——thatistosay，the，Administrator;or，insomedistricts，theBolshak，whichmeans，literally“theBigOne。”，Generallyspeaking，thisimportant，positionwasoccupiedbythegrandfather，or，ifhewasdead，by，theeldestbrother，buttherulewasnotverystrictlyobserved。

If，forinstance，thegrandfatherbecameinfirm，oriftheeldest，brotherwasincapacitatedbydisorderlyhabitsorothercause，the，placeofauthoritywastakenbysomeothermember——itmightbebya，woman——whowasagoodmanager，andpossessedthegreatestmoral，influence。

TherelationsbetweentheHeadoftheHouseholdandtheother，membersdependedoncustomandpersonalcharacter，andthey，consequentlyvariedgreatlyindifferentfamilies。IftheBigOne，wasanintelligentman，ofdecided，energeticcharacter，likemy，friendIvan，therewasprobablyperfectdisciplineinthe，household，exceptperhapsinthematteroffemaletongues，whichdo，notreadilysubmittotheauthorityevenoftheirowners;butvery，oftenithappenedthattheBigOnewasnotthoroughlywellfitted，forhispost，andinthatcaseendlessquarrelsandbickerings，inevitablytookplace。Thosequarrelsweregenerallycausedand，fomentedbythefemalemembersofthefamily——afactwhichwillnot，seemstrangeifwetrytorealisehowdifficultitmustbefor，severalsisters-in-lawtolivetogether，withtheirchildrenanda，mother-in-law，withinthenarrowlimitsofapeasant’shousehold。

Thecomplaintsoftheyoungbride，whofindsthathermother-in-law，putsallthehardworkonhershoulders，formafavouritemotivein，thepopularpoetry。

Thehouse，withitsappurtenances，thecattle，theagricultural，implements，thegrainandotherproducts，themoneygainedfromthe，saleoftheseproducts——inaword，thehouseandnearlyeverything，itcontained——werethejointpropertyofthefamily。Hencenothing，wasboughtorsoldbyanymember——notevenbytheBigOnehimself，unlesshepossessedanunusualamountofauthority——withoutthe，expressortacitconsentoftheothergrown-upmales，andallthe，moneythatwasearnedwasputintothecommonpurse。Whenoneof，thesonslefthometoworkelsewhere，hewasexpectedtobringor，sendhomeallhisearnings，exceptwhatherequiredforfood，lodgings，andothernecessaryexpenses;andifheunderstoodthe，word“necessary“intoolaxasense，hehadtolistentovery，plain-spokenreproacheswhenhereturned。Duringhisabsence，whichmightlastforawholeyearorseveralyears，hiswifeand，childrenremainedinthehouseasbefore，andthemoneywhichhe，earnedcouldbedevotedtothepaymentofthefamilytaxes。

Thepeasanthouseholdoftheoldtypeisthusaprimitivelabour，association，ofwhichthemembershaveallthingsincommon，andit，isnotalittleremarkablethatthepeasantconceivesitassuch，ratherthanasafamily。Thisisshownbythecustomary，terminology，fortheHeadoftheHouseholdisnotcalledbyany，wordcorrespondingtoPaterfamilias，butistermed，asIhavesaid，Khozain，orAdministrator——awordthatisappliedequallytoa，farmer，ashopkeeperortheheadofanindustrialundertaking，and，doesnotatallconveytheideaofblood-relationship。Itis，likewiseshownbywhattakesplacewhenahouseholdisbrokenup。

Onsuchoccasionsthedegreeofblood-relationshipisnottaken，intoconsiderationinthedistributionoftheproperty。Allthe，adultmalemembersshareequally。Illegitimateandadoptedsons，iftheyhavecontributedtheirshareoflabour，havethesame，rightsasthesonsborninlawfulwedlock。Themarrieddaughter，onthecontrary——beingregardedasbelongingtoherhusband’s，family——andthesonwhohaspreviouslyseparatedhimselffromthe，household，areexcludedfromthesuccession。Strictlyspeaking，thesuccessionorinheritanceisconfinedtothewearingapparel，andanylittlepersonaleffectsofadeceasedmember。Thehouse，andallthatitcontainsbelongtothelittlehouseholdcommunity;

and，consequently，whenitisbrokenup，bythedeathofthe，Khozainorothercause，themembersdonotinherit，butmerely，appropriateindividuallywhattheyhadhithertopossessed，collectively。Thusthereisproperlynoinheritanceorsuccession，butsimplyliquidationanddistributionofthepropertyamongthe，members。Thewrittenlawofinheritancefoundedontheconception，ofpersonalproperty，isquiteunknowntothepeasantry，andquite，inapplicabletotheirmodeoflife。Inthiswayalargeandmost，importantsectionoftheCoderemainsadeadletterforaboutfour-

fifthsofthepopulation。

Thispredominanceofpracticaleconomicconsiderationsis，exemplifiedalsobythewayinwhichmarriagesarearrangedin，theselargefamilies。Intheprimitivesystemofagriculture，usuallypractisedinRussia，thenaturallabour-unit——ifImayuse，suchaterm——comprisesaman，awoman，andahorse。Assoon，therefore，asaboybecomesanable-bodiedlabourerheoughttobe，providedwiththetwoaccessoriesnecessaryforthecompletionof，thelabour-unit。Toprocureahorse，eitherbypurchaseorby，rearingafoal，isthedutyoftheHeadoftheHouse;toprocurea，wifefortheyouthisthedutyof“thefemaleBigOne“(Bolshukha)。

Andthechiefconsiderationindeterminingthechoiceisinboth，casesthesame。Prudentdomesticadministratorsarenottobe，temptedbyshowyhorsesorbeautifulbrides;whattheyseekisnot，beauty，butphysicalstrengthandcapacityforwork。Whenthe，youthreachestheageofeighteenheisinformedthatheoughtto，marryatonce，andassoonashegiveshisconsentnegotiationsare，openedwiththeparentsofsomeeligibleyoungperson。Inthe，largervillagesthenegotiationsaresometimesfacilitatedby，certainoldwomencalledsvakhi，whooccupythemselvesspecially，withthiskindofmediation;butveryoftentheaffairisarranged，directlyby，orthroughtheagencyof，somecommonfriendofthe，twohouses。

Caremustofcoursebetakenthatthereisnolegalobstacle，and，theseobstaclesarenotalwayseasilyavoidedinasmallvillage，theinhabitantsofwhichhavebeenlonginthehabitof，intermarrying。AccordingtoRussianecclesiasticallaw，notonly，ismarriagebetweenfirst-cousinsillegal，butaffinityis，consideredasequivalenttoconsanguinity——thatistosayamother-

in-lawandasister-in-lawareregardedasamotherandasister——

andeventhefictitiousrelationshipcreatedbystandingtogether，atthebaptismalfontasgodfatherandgodmotherislegally，recognised，andmayconstituteabartomatrimony。Ifallthe，preliminarynegotiationsaresuccessful，themarriagetakesplace，andthebridegroombringshisbridehometothehouseofwhichhe，isamember。Shebringsnothingwithherasadowryexcepther，trousseau，butshebringsapairofgoodstrongarms，andthereby，enrichesheradoptedfamily。Ofcourseithappensoccasionally——

forhumannatureiseverywhereessentiallythesame——thatayoung，peasantfallsinlovewithoneofhisformerplaymates，andbrings，hislittleromancetoahappyconclusionatthealtar;butsuch，casesareveryrare，andasaruleitmaybesaidthatthe，marriagesoftheRussianpeasantryarearrangedundertheinfluence，ofeconomicratherthansentimentalconsiderations。

Thecustomoflivinginlargefamilieshasmanyeconomic，advantages。Weallknowtheedifyingfableofthedyingmanwho，showedtohissonsbymeansofapieceofwicker-workthe，advantagesoflivingtogetherandassistingeachother。In，ordinarytimesthenecessaryexpensesofalargehouseholdoften，membersareconsiderablylessthanthecombinedexpensesoftwo，householdscomprisingfivememberseach，andwhena“blackday“

comesalargefamilycanbeartemporaryadversitymuchmore，successfullythanasmallone。Theseareprinciplesofworld-wide，application，butinthelifeoftheRussianpeasantrytheyhavea，peculiarforce。Eachadultpeasantpossesses，asIshallhereafter，explain，ashareoftheCommunalland，butthisshareisnot，sufficienttooccupyallhistimeandworkingpower。Onemarried，paircaneasilycultivatetwoshares——atleastinallprovinces，wherethepeasantallotmentsarenotverylarge。Now，ifafamily，iscomposedoftwomarriedcouples，oneofthemencangoelsewhere，andearnmoney，whilsttheother，withhiswifeandsister-in-law，cancultivatethetwocombinedsharesofland。If，onthecontrary，afamilyconsistsmerelyofonepairwiththeirchildren，theman，musteitherremainathome——inwhichcasehemayhavedifficultyin，findingworkforthewholeofhistime——orhemustleavehome，and，entrustthecultivationofhisshareofthelandtohiswife，whose，timemustbeingreatpartdevotedtodomesticaffairs。

Inthetimeofserfagetheproprietorsclearlyperceivedtheseand，similaradvantages，andcompelledtheirserfstolivetogetherin，largefamilies。Nofamilycouldbebrokenupwithoutthe，proprietor’sconsent，andthisconsentwasnoteasilyobtained，unlessthefamilyhadassumedquiteabnormalproportionsandwas，permanentlydisturbedbydomesticdissension。Inthematrimonial，affairsoftheserfs，too，themajorityoftheproprietors，systematicallyexercisedacertainsupervision，notnecessarily，fromanypaltrymeddlingspirit，butbecausetheirownmaterial，interestsweretherebyaffected。Aproprietorwouldnot，for，instance，allowthedaughterofoneofhisserfstomarryaserf，belongingtoanotherproprietor——becausehewouldtherebylosea，femalelabourer——unlesssomecompensationwereoffered。The，compensationmightbeasumofmoney，ortheaffairmightbe，arrangedontheprincipleofreciprocitybythemasterofthe，bridegroomallowingoneofhisfemaleserfstomarryaserf，belongingtothemasterofthebride。

Howeveradvantageousthecustomoflivinginlargefamiliesmay，appearwhenregardedfromtheeconomicpointofview，ithasvery，seriousdefects，boththeoreticalandpractical。

Thatfamiliesconnectedbythetiesofblood-relationshipand，marriagecaneasilylivetogetherinharmonyisoneofthosesocial，axiomswhichareaccepteduniversallyandbelievedbynobody。We，allknowbyourownexperience，orbythatofothers，thatthe，friendlyrelationsoftwosuchfamiliesaregreatlyendangeredby，proximityofhabitation。Toliveinthesamestreetisnot，advisable;tooccupyadjoininghousesispositivelydangerous;and，toliveunderthesameroofiscertainlyfataltoprolongedamity。

Theremaybetheverybestintentionsonbothsides，andthe，arrangementmaybeinauguratedbythemostgushingexpressionsof，undyingaffectionandbythediscoveryofinnumerablesecret，affinities，butneitheraffinities，affection，norgoodintentions，canwithstandtheconstantfrictionandoccasionaljerkswhich，inevitablyensue。

NowthereadermustendeavourtorealisethatRussianpeasants，evenwhencladinsheep-skins，arehumanbeingslikeourselves。

Thoughtheyareoftenrepresentedasabstractentities——asfigures，inatableofstatisticsordotsonadiagram——theyhaveinreality，“organs，dimensions，senses，affections，passions。”，Ifnotexactly，“fedwiththesamefood，“theyareatleast“hurtwiththesame，weapons，subjecttothesamediseases，healedbythesamemeans，“

andliabletobeirritatedbythesameannoyancesasweare。And，thoseofthemwholiveinlargefamiliesaresubjectedtoakindof，probationthatmostofushaveneverdreamedof。Thefamilies，comprisingalargehouseholdnotonlylivetogether，buthave，nearlyallthingsincommon。Eachmemberworks，notforhimself，butforthehousehold，andallthatheearnsisexpectedtogointo，thefamilytreasury。Thearrangementalmostinevitablyleadsto，oneoftworesults——eithertherearecontinualdissensions，or，orderispreservedbyapowerfuldomestictyranny。

Itisquitenatural，therefore，thatwhentheauthorityofthe，landedproprietorswasabolishedin1861，thelargepeasant，familiesalmostallcrumbledtopieces。Thearbitraryruleofthe，Khozainwasbasedon，andmaintainedby，thearbitraryruleofthe，proprietor，andbothnaturallyfelltogether。Householdslikethat，ofourfriendIvanwerepreservedonlyinexceptionalcases，where，theHeadoftheHousehappenedtopossessanunusualamountof，moralinfluenceovertheothermembers。

Thischangehasunquestionablyhadaprejudicialinfluenceonthe，materialwelfareofthepeasantry，butitmusthaveadded，considerablytotheirdomesticcomfort，andmayperhapsproduce，goodmoralresults。Forthepresent，however，theevil，consequencesarebyfarthemostprominent。Everymarriedpeasant，strivestohaveahouseofhisown，andmanyofthem，inorderto，defraythenecessaryexpenses，havebeenobligedtocontractdebts。

Thisisaveryseriousmatter。Evenifthepeasantscouldobtain，moneyatfiveorsixpercent。thepositionofthedebtorswould，bebadenough，butitisinrealitymuchworse，forthevillage，usurersconsidertwentyortwenty-fivepercent。abynomeans，exorbitantrateofinterest。Alaudableattempthasbeenmadeto，remedythisstateofthingsbyvillagebanks，butthesehaveproved，successfulonlyincertainexceptionallocalities。Asarulethe，peasantwhocontractsdebtshasahardstruggletopaytheinterest，inordinarytimes，andwhensomemisfortuneovertakeshim——when，forinstance，theharvestisbadorhishorseisstolen——he，probablyfallshopelesslyintopecuniaryembarrassments。Ihave，seenpeasantsnotspeciallyaddictedtodrunkennessorother，ruinoushabitssinktoahelplessstateofinsolvency。Fortunately，forsuchinsolventdebtors，theyaretreatedbythelawwith，extremeleniency。Theirhouse，theirshareofthecommonland，theiragriculturalimplements，theirhorse——inaword，allthatis，necessaryfortheirsubsistence，isexemptfromsequestration。The，Commune，however，maybringstrongpressuretobearonthosewhodo，notpaytheirtaxes。WhenIlivedamongthepeasantryinthe，seventies，corporalpunishmentinflictedbyorderoftheCommune，wasamongthemeansusuallyemployed;andthoughthecustomwas，recentlyprohibitedbyanImperialdecreeofNicholasII，Iamnot，atallsurethatithasentirelydisappeared。

CHAPTERVII

THEPEASANTRYOFTHENORTH

CommunalLand——SystemofAgriculture——ParishFetes——Fasting——

WinterOccupations——YearlyMigrations——DomesticIndustries——

InfluenceofCapitalandWholesaleEnterprise——TheStatePeasants——

Serf-dues——Buckle’s“HistoryofCivilisation“——Aprecocious，Yamstchik——“PeopleWhoPlayPranks“——AMidnightAlarm——TheFar，North。

Ivanofkamaybetakenasafairspecimenofthevillagesinthe，northernhalfofthecountry，andabriefdescriptionofits，inhabitantswillconveyatolerablycorrectnotionofthenorthern，peasantryingeneral。

Nearlythewholeofthefemalepopulation，andaboutone-halfof，themaleinhabitants，arehabituallyengagedincultivatingthe，Communalland，whichcomprisesabouttwothousandacresofalight，sandysoil。Thearablepartofthislandisdividedintothree，largefields，eachofwhichiscutupintolongnarrowstrips。The，firstfieldisreservedforthewintergrain——thatistosay，rye，whichforms，intheshapeofblackbread，theprincipalfoodofthe，ruralpopulation。Inthesecondareraisedoatsforthehorses，andbuckwheat，whichislargelyusedforfood。Thethirdlies，fallow，andisusedinthesummeraspasturageforthecattle。

Allthevillagersinthispartofthecountrydividethearable，landinthisway，inordertosuitthetriennialrotationofcrops。

Thistriennialsystemisextremelysimple。Thefieldwhichisused，thisyearforraisingwintergrainwillbeusednextyearfor，raisingsummergrain，andinthefollowingyearwillliefallow。

Beforebeingsownwithwintergrainitoughttoreceiveacertain，amountofmanure。Everyfamilypossessesineachofthetwofields，undercultivationoneormoreofthelongnarrowstripsorbelts，intowhichtheyaredivided。

Theannuallifeofthepeasantryisthatofsimplehusbandman，inhabitingacountrywherethewinterislongandsevere。The，agriculturalyearbeginsinAprilwiththemeltingofthesnow。

Naturehasbeenlyingdormantforsomemonths。Awakingnowfrom，herlongsleep，andthrowingoffherwhitemantle，shestrivesto，makeupforlosttime。Nosoonerhasthesnowdisappearedthanthe，freshyounggrassbeginstoshootup，andverysoonafterwardsthe，shrubsandtreesbegintobud。Therapidityofthistransition，fromwintertospringastonishestheinhabitantsofmoretemperate，climes。

OnSt。George’sDay(April23rd*)thecattlearebroughtoutfor，thefirsttime，andsprinkledwithholywaterbythepriest。They，areneververyfat，butatthisperiodoftheyeartheirappearance，istrulylamentable。Duringthewintertheyhavebeencoopedupin，smallunventilatedcow-houses，andfedalmostexclusivelyonstraw;

now，whentheyarereleasedfromtheirimprisonment，theylooklike，theghostsoftheirformeremaciatedselves。Allareleanand，weak，manyarelame，andsomecannotrisetotheirfeetwithout，assistance。

*Withregardtosaints’days，Ialwaysgivethedateaccordingto，theoldstyle。Tofindthedateaccordingtoourcalendar，thirteendaysmustbeadded。

Meanwhilethepeasantsareimpatienttobeginthefieldlabour。An，oldproverbwhichtheyallknowsays：“Sowinmudandyouwillbea，prince“;andtheyalwaysactinaccordancewiththisdictateof，traditionalwisdom。Assoonasitispossibletoploughtheybegin，topreparethelandforthesummergrain，andthislabouroccupies，themprobablytilltheendofMay。Thencomestheworkofcarting，outmanureandpreparingthefallowfieldforthewintergrain，whichwilllastprobablytillaboutSt。Peter’sDay(June29th)，whenthehay-makinggenerallybegins。Afterthehay-makingcomes，theharvest，byfarthebusiesttimeoftheyear。Fromthemiddle，ofJuly——especiallyfromSt。Elijah’sDay(July20th)，whenthe，saintisusuallyheardrumblingalongtheheavensinhischariotof，fire*——untiltheendofAugust，thepeasantmayworkdayandnight，andyethewillfindthathehasbarelytimetogetallhiswork，done。Inlittlemorethanamonthhehastoreapandstackhis，grain——rye，oats，andwhateverelsehemayhavesowneitherin，springorintheprecedingautumn——andtosowthewintergrainfor，nextyear。Toaddtohistroubles，itsometimeshappensthatthe，ryeandtheoatsripenalmostsimultaneously，andhispositionis，thenstillmoredifficult。

*Itisthusthatthepeasantsexplainthethunder，whichisoften，heardatthatseason。

Whethertheseasonsfavourhimornot，thepeasanthasatthistime，ahardtask，forhecanrarelyaffordtohiretherequisitenumber，oflabourers，andhasgenerallytheassistancemerelyofhiswife，andfamily;buthecanatthisseasonworkforashorttimeathigh，pressure，forhehastheprospectofsoonobtainingagoodrestand，anabundanceoffood。AbouttheendofSeptemberthefieldlabour，isfinished，andonthefirstdayofOctobertheharvestfestival，begins——ajoyousseason，duringwhichtheparishfetesarecommonly，celebrated。

Tocelebrateaparishfeteintrueorthodoxfashionitisnecessary，topreparebeforehandalargequantityofbraga——akindofhome-

brewedsmallbeer——andtobakeaplentifulsupplyofpiroghior，meatpies。Oil，too，hastobeprocured，andvodka(ryespirit)in，goodlyquantity。Atthesametimethebigroomoftheizba，asthe，peasant’shouseiscalled，hastobecleared，thefloorwashed，and，thetableandbenchesscrubbed。Theeveningbeforethefete，while，thepiroghiarebeingbaked，alittlelampburnsbeforetheIconin，thecorneroftheroom，andperhapsoneortwoguestsfroma，distancearriveinorderthattheymayhaveonthemorrowafull，day’senjoyment。

Onthemorningofthefetetheproceedingsbeginbyalongservice，inthechurch，atwhichalltheinhabitantsarepresentintheir，bestholidaycostumes，exceptthosematronsandyoungwomenwho，remainathometopreparethedinner。Aboutmid-daydinneris，servedineachizbaforthefamilyandtheirfriends。Ingeneral，theRussianpeasant’sfareisofthesimplestkind，andrarely，comprisesanimalfoodofanysort——notfromanyvegetarian，proclivities，butmerelybecausebeef，mutton，andporkaretoo，expensive;butonaholiday，suchasaparishfete，thereisalways，onthedinnertableaconsiderablevarietyofdishes。Inthehouse，ofawell-to-dofamilytherewillbenotonlygreasycabbage-soup，andkasha——adishmadefrombuckwheat——butalsopork，mutton，and，perhapsevenbeef。Bragawillbesuppliedinunlimitedquantities，andmorethanoncevodkawillbehandedround。Whentherepastis，finished，allrisetogether，and，turningtowardstheIconinthe，corner，bowandcrossthemselvesrepeatedly。Thegueststhensay，totheirhost，“Spasibozakhelbzasol“——thatistosay，“Thanks，foryourhospitality，“ormoreliterally，“Thanksforbreadand，salt“;andthehostreplies，“Donotbedispleased，sitdownonce，moreforgoodluck“——orperhapsheputsthelastpartofhis，requestintotheformofarhymingcouplettothefollowingeffect：

“Sitdown，thatthehensmaybrood，andthatthechickensandbees，maymultiply！”Allobeythisrequest，andthereisanotherround，ofvodka。

Afterdinnersomestrollabout，chattingwiththeirfriends，orgo，tosleepinsomeshadynook，whilstthosewhowishtomakemerrygo，tothespotwheretheyoungpeoplearesinging，playing，and，amusingthemselvesinvariousways。Asthesunsinkstowardsthe，horizon，themoregrave，staidguestswendtheirwayhomewards，but，manyremainforsupper;andaseveningadvancestheeffectsofthe，vodkabecomemoreandmoreapparent。Soundsofrevelryareheard，morefrequentlyfromthehouses，andalargeproportionofthe，inhabitantsandguestsappearontheroadinvariousdegreesof，intoxication。Someofthesevoweternalaffectiontotheir，friends，orwithflaccidgesturesandinincoherenttonesharangue，invisibleaudiences;othersstaggeraboutaimlesslyinbesotted，self-contentment，tilltheydropdowninastateofcomplete，unconsciousness。Theretheywilllietranquillytilltheyare，pickedupbytheirlessintoxicatedfriends，ormoreprobablytill，theyawakeoftheirownaccordnextmorning。

Asawhole，avillagefeteinRussiaisasaddeningspectacle。It，affordsanewproof——where，alas！nonewproofwasrequired——that，wenorthernnations，whoknowsowellhowtowork，havenotyet，learnedtheartofamusingourselves。

IftheRussianpeasant’sfoodwerealwaysasgoodandplentifulas，atthisseasonoftheyear，hewouldhavelittlereasonto，complain;butthisisbynomeansthecase。Gradually，asthe，harvest-timerecedes，itdeterioratesinquality，andsometimes，diminishesinquantity。Besidesthis，duringagreatpartofthe，yearthepeasantisprevented，bytherulesoftheChurch，from，usingmuchthathepossesses。

Insouthernclimes，wheretheseruleswereelaboratedandfirst，practised，theprescribedfastsareperhapsusefulnotonlyina，religious，butalsoinasanitarysense。Havingabundanceoffruit，andvegetables，theinhabitantsdowelltoabstainoccasionally，fromanimalfood。ButincountrieslikeNorthernandCentral，Russiatheinfluenceoftheserulesisverydifferent。TheRussian，peasantcannotgetasmuchanimalfoodasherequires，whilstsour，cabbageandcucumbersareprobablytheonlyvegetableshecan，procure，andfruitofanykindisforhimanunattainableluxury。

Underthesecircumstances，abstinencefromeggsandmilkinall，theirformsduringseveralmonthsoftheyearseemstothesecular，mindasuperfluousbitofasceticism。IftheChurchwoulddirect，hermaternalsolicitudetothepeasant’sdrinking，andleavehimto，eatwhathepleases，shemightexerciseabeneficialinfluenceon，hismaterialandmoralwelfare。Unfortunatelyshehasagreatdeal，toomuchinherentimmobilitytoattemptanythingofthekind，so，themuzhik，whilefreetodrinkcopiouslywheneverhegetsthe，chance，mustfastduringthesevenweeksofLent，duringtwoor，threeweeksinJune，fromthebeginningofNovembertillChristmas，andonallWednesdaysandFridaysduringtheremainderoftheyear。

Fromthefestivaltimetillthefollowingspringthereisno，possibilityofdoinganyagriculturalwork，forthegroundishard，asiron，andcoveredwithadeeplayerofsnow。Themalepeasants，therefore，whoremaininthevillages，haveverylittletodo，and，mayspendthegreaterpartoftheirtimeinlyingidlyonthe，stove，unlesstheyhappentohavelearnedsomehandicraftthatcan，bepractisedathome。Formerly，manyofthemwereemployedin，transportingthegraintothemarkettown，whichmightbeseveral，hundredmilesdistant;butnowthisspeciesofoccupationhasbeen，greatlydiminishedbytheextensionofrailways。

Anotherwinteroccupationwhichwasformerlypractised，andhasnow，almostfallenintodisuse，wasthatofstealingwoodintheforest。

Thiswas，accordingtopeasantmorality，nosin，oratmostavery，venialoffence，forGodplantsandwatersthetrees，andtherefore，forestsbelongproperlytonoone。Sothoughtthepeasantry，but，thelandedproprietorsandtheAdministrationoftheDomainshelda，differenttheoryofproperty，andconsequentlyprecautionshadto，betakentoavoiddetection。Inordertoensuresuccessitwas，necessarytochooseanightwhentherewasaviolentsnowstorm，whichwouldimmediatelyobliteratealltracesoftheexpedition;

andwhensuchanightwasfound，theoperationwascommonly，performedwithsuccess。Duringthehoursofdarknessatreewould，befelled，strippedofitsbranches，draggedintothevillage，and，cutupintofirewood，andatsunrisetheactorswouldbetranquilly，sleepingonthestoveasiftheyhadspentthenightathome。In，recentyearsthejudicialauthoritieshavedonemuchtowards，puttingdownthispracticeanderadicatingthelooseconceptionsof，propertywithwhichitwasconnected。

Forthefemalepartofthepopulationthewinterusedtobeabusy，time，foritwasduringthesefourorfivemonthsthatthespinning，andweavinghadtobedone，butnowthebigfactories，withtheir，cheapmethodsofproduction，arerapidlykillingthehome，industries，andtheyounggirlsarenotlearningtoworkatthe，jennyandtheloomastheirmothersandgrandmothersdid。

Inmanyofthenorthernvillages，whereancientusageshappentobe，preserved，thetediumofthelongwintereveningsisrelievedby，so-calledBesedy，awordwhichsignifiesliterallyconversazioni。

ABeseda，however，isnotexactlyaconversazioneasweunderstand，theterm，butresemblesratherwhatisbysomeladiescalleda，Dorcasmeeting，withthisessentialdifference，thatthosepresent，workforthemselvesandnotforanybenevolentpurposes。Insome，villagesasmanyasthreeBesedyregularlyassembleaboutsunset;

oneforthechildren，thesecondfortheyoungpeople，andthe，thirdforthematrons。Eachofthethreehasitspeculiar，character。Inthefirst，thechildrenworkandamusethemselves，underthesuperintendenceofanoldwoman，whotrimsthetorch*and，endeavourstokeeporder。Thelittlegirlsspinflaxina，primitivewaywithouttheaidofajenny，andtheboys，whoare，on，thewhole，muchlessindustrious，makesimplebitsofwicker-work。

Formerly——Imeanwithinmyownrecollection——manyofthemusedto，makerudeshoesofplaitedbark，calledlapty，butthesearebeing，rapidlysupplantedbyleatherboots。Theseoccupationsdonot，preventanalmostincessanthumoftalk，frequentdiscordant，attemptstosinginchorus，andoccasionalquarrelsrequiringthe，energeticinterferenceoftheoldwomanwhocontrolsthe，proceedings。Toamusehernoisyflockshesometimesrelatesto，them，forthehundredthtime，oneofthosewonderfuloldstories，thatlosenothingbyrepetition，andalllistentoherattentively，asiftheyhadneverheardthestorybefore。

*Thetorch(lutchina)hasnowalmostentirelydisappearedandbeen，replacedbythepetroleumlamp。

ThesecondBesedaisheldinanotherhousebytheyoungpeopleofa，riperage。Heretheworkersarenaturallymorestaid，lessgiven，toquarrelling，singmoreinharmony，andrequirenoonetolook，afterthem。Somepeople，however，mightthinkthatachaperonor，inspectorofsomekindwouldbebynomeansoutofplace，fora，gooddealofflirtationgoeson，andifvillagescandalistobe，trusted，strictproprietyinthought，word，anddeedisnotalways，observed。HowfarthesereportsaretrueIcannotpretendtosay，forthepresenceofastrangeralwaysactsonthecompanylikethe，presenceofasevereinspector。InthethirdBesedathereis，alwaysatleaststrictdecorum。Herethemarriedwomenwork，togetherandtalkabouttheirdomesticconcerns，enliveningthe，conversationoccasionallybytheintroductionoflittlebitsof，villagescandal。

Suchistheordinarylifeofthepeasantswholivebyagriculture;

butmanyofthevillagersliveoccasionallyorpermanentlyinthe，towns。Probablythemajorityofthepeasantsinthisregionhave，atsomeperiodoftheirlivesgainedalivingelsewhere。Manyof，theabsenteesspendyearlyafewmonthsathome，whilstothers，visittheirfamiliesonlyoccasionally，and，itmaybe，atlong，intervals。Innocase，however，dotheysevertheirconnection，withtheirnativevillage。Eventhepeasantwhobecomesarich，merchantandsettlespermanentlywithhisfamilyinMoscoworSt。

PetersburgremainsprobablyamemberoftheVillageCommune，and，payshisshareofthetaxes，thoughhedoesnotenjoyanyofthe，correspondingprivileges。OnceIrememberaskingarichmanof，thiskind，theproprietorofseverallargehousesinSt。

Petersburg，whyhedidnotfreehimselffromallconnectionwith，hisnativeCommune，withwhichhehadnolongeranyinterestsin，common。Hisanswerwas，“Itisallverywelltobefree，andI

don’twantanythingfromtheCommunenow;butmyoldfatherlives，there，mymotherisburiedthere，andIliketogobacktotheold，placesometimes。Besides，Ihavechildren，andouraffairsare，commercial(nashedyelotorgovoe)。Whoknowsbutmychildrenmay，heverygladsomedaytohaveashareoftheCommuneland？”

Inrespecttothesenon-agriculturaloccupations，eachdistricthas，itsspecialty。TheprovinceofYaroslavl，forinstance，supplies，thelargetownswithwaitersforthetraktirs，orlowerclassof，restaurants，whilstthebesthotelsinPetersburgaresuppliedby，theTartarsofKasimof，celebratedfortheirsobrietyandhonesty。

OnepartoftheprovinceofKostromahasaspecialreputationfor，producingcarpentersandstove-builders，whilstanotherpart，asI

oncediscoveredtomysurprise，sendsyearlytoSiberia——notas，convicts，butasfreelaborours——alargecontingentoftailorsand，workersinfelt！，Onquestioningsomeyoungsterswhowere，accompanyingasapprenticesoneofthesebands，Iwasinformedbya，bright-eyedyouthofaboutsixteenthathehadalreadymadethe，journeytwice，andintendedtogoeverywinter。”Andyoualways，bringhomeabigpileofmoneywithyou？”Iinquired。”Nitchevo！”

repliedthelittlefellow，gaily，withanairofprideandself-

confidence;“lastyearIbroughthomethreeroubles！”Thisanswer，was，atthemoment，notaltogetherwelcome，forIhadjustbeen，discussingwithaRussianfellow-travellerastowhetherthe，peasantrycanfairlybecalledindustrious，andtheboy’sreply，enabledmyantagonisttoscoreapointagainstme。”Youhear，that！”hesaid，triumphantly。”ARussianpeasantgoesalltheway，toSiberiaandbackforthreeroubles！，CouldyougetanEnglishman，toworkatthatrate？”“Perhapsnot，“Ireplied，evasively，thinkingatthesametimethatifayouthweresentseveraltimes，fromLand’sEndtoJohno’Groat’sHouse，andobligedtomakethe，greaterpartofthejourneyincartsoronfoot，hewouldprobably，expect，bywayofremunerationforthetimeandlabourexpended，rathermorethansevenandsixpence！

Veryoftenthepeasantsfindindustrialoccupationswithoutleaving，home，forvariousindustrieswhichdonotrequirecomplicated，machineryarepractisedinthevillagesbythepeasantsandtheir，families。Woodenvessels，wroughtiron，pottery，leather，rush-

matting，andnumerousotherarticlesarethusproducedinenormous，quantities。Occasionallywefindnotonlyawholevillage，but，evenawholedistrictoccupiedalmostexclusivelywithsomeone，kindofmanualindustry。IntheprovinceofVladimir，forexample，alargegroupofvillageslivebyIcon-painting;inonelocality，nearNizhni-Novgorodnineteenvillagesareoccupiedwiththe，manufactureofaxes;roundaboutPavlovo，inthesameprovince，eightyvillagesproducealmostnothingbutcutlery;andina，localitycalledOuloma，onthebordersofNovgorodandTver，no，lessthantwohundredvillageslivebynail-making。

Thesedomesticindustrieshavelongexisted，andwereformerlyan，abundantsourceofrevenue——providingacertaincompensationfor，thepovertyofthesoil。Butatpresenttheyareinavery，criticalposition。Theybelongtotheprimitiveperiodofeconomic，development，andthatperiodinRussia，asIshallexplainina，futurechapter，isnowrapidlydrawingtoaclose。Formerlythe，HeadofaHouseholdboughttherawmaterial，haditworkedupat，home，andsoldwithareasonableprofitthemanufacturedarticles，atthebazaars，asthelocalfairsarecalled，orperhapsatthe，greatannualyarmarkt*ofNizhni-Novgorod。Thisprimitivesystem，isnowrapidlybecomingobsolete。Capitalandwholesaleenterprise，havecomeintothefieldandarerevolutionisingtheoldmethodsof，productionandtrade。Alreadywholegroupsofindustrialvillages，havefallenunderthepowerofmiddle-men，whoadvancemoneytothe，workinghouseholdsandfixthepriceoftheproducts。Attemptsare，frequentlymadetobreaktheirpowerbyvoluntaryco-operative，associations，organisedbythelocalauthoritiesorbenevolent，landedproprietorsoftheneighbourhood——likethebenevolentpeople，inEnglandwhotrytopreservethetraditionalcottageindustries——

andsomeoftheassociationsworkverywell;buttheultimate，successofsuch“effortstostemthecurrentofcapitalism“is，extremelydoubtful。Atthesametime，theperiodicalbazaarsand，yarmarki，atwhichproducersandconsumerstransactedtheiraffairs，withoutmediation，arebeingreplacedbypermanentstoresandby，variousclassesoftradesmen——wholesaleandretail。

*ThistermisacorruptionoftheGermanwordJahrmarkt。

Tothepoliticaleconomistoftherigidlyorthodoxschoolthis，importantchangemayaffordgreatsatisfaction。Accordingtohis，theoriesitisagiganticstepintherightdirection，andmust，necessarilyredoundtotheadvantageofallpartiesconcerned。The，producernowreceivesaregularsupplyofrawmaterial，and，regularlydisposesofthearticlesmanufactured;andthetimeand，troublewhichheformerlydevotedtowanderingaboutinsearchof，customershecannowemploymoreprofitablyinproductivework。

Thecreationofaclassbetweentheproducersandtheconsumersis，animportantsteptowardsthatdivisionandspecialisationof，labourwhichisanecessaryconditionofindustrialandcommercial，prosperity。Theconsumernolongerrequirestogoonafixedday，tosomedistantpoint，onthechanceoffindingtherewhathe，requires，butcanalwaysbuywhathepleasesinthepermanent，stores。Aboveall，theproductionisgreatlyincreasedinamount，andthepriceofmanufacturedgoodsisproportionallylessened。

Allthisseemsclearenoughintheory，andanyonewhovalues，intellectualtranquillitywillfeeldisposedtoacceptthisviewof，thecasewithoutquestioningitsaccuracy;buttheunfortunate，travellerwhoisobligedtousehiseyesaswellashislogical，facultiesmayfindsomelittledifficultyinmakingthefactsfit，intotheaprioriformula。Farbeitfrommetoquestionthe，wisdomofpoliticaleconomists，butIcannotrefrainfromremarking，thatofthethreeclassesconcerned——smallproducers，middle-men，andconsumers——twofailtoperceiveandappreciatethebenefits，whichhavebeenconferreduponthem。Thesmallproducerscomplain，thatonthenewsystemtheyworkmoreandgainless;andthe，consumerscomplainthatthemanufacturedarticles，ifcheaperand，moreshowyinappearance，arefarinferiorinquality。The，middlemen，whoareaccused，rightlyorwrongly，oftakingfor，themselvesthelion’sshareoftheprofits，aloneseemsatisfied，withthenewarrangement。

Interestingasthisquestionundoubtedlyis，itisnotofpermanent，importance，becausethepresentstateofthingsismerely，transitory。Thoughthepeasantsmaycontinueforatimetoworkat，homeforthewholesaledealers，theycannotinthelongruncompete，withthebigfactoriesandworkshops，organisedontheEuropean，modelwithsteam-powerandcomplicatedmachinery，whichalready，existinmanyprovinces。Onceacountryhasbeguntomoveforward，onthegreathighwayofeconomicprogress，thereisnopossibility，ofstoppinghalfway。

Hereagaintheorthodoxeconomistsfindreasonforcongratulation，becausebigfactoriesandworkshopsarethecheapestandmost，productiveformofmanufacturingindustry;andagain，theobservant，travellercannotshuthiseyestouglyfactswhichforcethemselves，onhisattention。Henoticesthatthischeapestandmost，productiveformofmanufacturingindustrydoesnotseemtoadvance，thematerialandmoralwelfareofthepopulation。Nowhereisthere，moredisease，drunkenness，demoralisationandmiserythaninthe，manufacturingdistricts。

ThereadermustnotimaginethatinmakingthesestatementsIwish，tocalumniatethespiritofmodernenterprise，ortoadvocatea，returntoprimitivebarbarism。Allgreatchangesproduceamixture，ofgoodandevil，andatfirsttheevilisprettysuretocome，prominentlyforward。Russiaisatthismomentinastateof，transition，andthenewconditionofthingsisnotyetproperly，organised。Withimprovedorganisationmanyoftheexistingevils，willdisappear。AlreadyinrecentyearsIhavenoticedsporadic，signsofimprovement。Whenfactorieswerefirstestablishedno，properarrangementsweremadeforhousingandfeedingtheworkmen，andtheconsequenthardshipswerespeciallyfeltwhenthefactories，werefounded，asisoftenthecase，inruraldistricts。Now，the，richerandmoreenterprisingmanufacturersbuildlargebarracksfor，theworkmenandtheirfamilies，andprovidethemwithcommon，kitchens，wash-houses，steam-baths，schools，andsimilarrequisites，ofcivilisedlife。AtthesametimetheGovernmentappoints，inspectorstosuperintendthesanitaryarrangementsandseethat，thehealthandcomfortoftheworkersareproperlyattendedto。

Onthewholewemustassumethattheactivityoftheseinspectors，tendstoimprovetheconditionoftheworking-classes。Certainly，insomeinstancesithasthateffect。Iremember，forexample，somethirtyyearsago，visitingalucifer-matchfactoryinwhich，thehandsemployedworkedhabituallyinanatmosphereimpregnated，withthefumesofphosphorus，whichproduceinsidiousandvery，painfuldiseases。Suchathingishardlypossiblenowadays。On，theotherhand，officialinspection，likeFactoryActs，everywhere，givesrisetoagooddealofdissatisfactionanddoesnotalways，improvetherelationsbetweenemployersandemployed。Someofthe，Russianinspectors，ifImaycreditthetestimonyofemployers，are，younggentlemenimbuedwithsocialistnotions，whointentionally，stirupdiscontentorwhomakemischieffrominexperience。An，amusingillustrationofthecurrentcomplaintscameundermynotice，when，in1903，Iwasvisitingalandedproprietorofthesouthern，provinces，whohasalargesugarfactoryonhisestate。The，inspectorobjectedtothetraditionalcustomofthemensleepingin，largedormitoriesandinsistedonsleeping-cotsbeingconstructed，forthemindividually。Assoonasthechangewasmadetheworkmen，cametotheproprietortocomplain，andputtheirgrievanceinan，interrogativeform：“Arewecattlethatweshouldbethuscoupedup，installs？”

Toreturntothenorthernagriculturalregion，theruralpopulation，haveapeculiartype，whichistobeaccountedforbythefactthat，theyneverexperiencedtoitsfullextentthedemoralising，influenceofserfage。Alargeproportionofthemweresettledon，StatedomainsandweregovernedbyaspecialbranchoftheImperial，administration，whilstotherslivedontheestatesofrichabsentee，landlords，whowereinthehabitofleavingthemanagementoftheir，propertiestoastewardactingunderacodeofinstructions。In，eithercase，thoughserfsintheeyeofthelaw，theyenjoyed，practicallyaverylargeamountofliberty。Bypayingasmallsum，forapassporttheycouldleavetheirvillagesforanindefinite，period，andaslongastheysenthomeregularlythemoneyrequired，fortaxesanddues，theywereinlittledangerofbeingmolested。

Manyofthem，thoughofficiallyinscribedasdomiciledintheir，nativecommunes，livedpermanentlyinthetowns，andnotafew，succeededinamassinglargefortunes。Theeffectofthis，comparativefreedomisapparentevenatthepresentday。These，peasantsofthenortharemoreenergetic，moreintelligent，more，independent，andconsequentlylessdocileandpliablethanthoseof，thefertilecentralprovinces。Theyhave，too，moreeducation。A

largeproportionofthemcanreadandwrite，andoccasionallyone，meetsamongthemmenwhohaveakeendesireforknowledge。Several，timesIencounteredpeasantsinthisregionwhohadasmall，collectionofbooks，andtwiceIfoundinsuchcollections，muchto，myastonishment，aRussiantranslationofBuckle’s“Historyof，Civilisation。”

How，itmaybeasked，didaworkofthissortfinditswaytosuch，aplace？，Ifthereaderwillpardonashortdigression，Ishall，explainthefact。

ImmediatelyaftertheCrimeanWartherewasacuriousintellectual，movement——ofwhichIshallhavemoretosayhereafter——amongthe，Russianeducatedclasses。Themovementassumedvariousforms，of，whichtwoofthemostprominentwereadesireforencyclopaedic，knowledge，andanattempttoreduceallknowledgetoascientific，form。FormeninthisstateofmindBuckle’sgreatworkhad，naturallyapowerfulfascination。Itseemedatfirstsightto，reducethemultifariousconflictingfactsofhumanhistorytoafew，simpleprinciples，andtoevolveorderoutofchaos。Itssuccess，therefore，wasgreat。Inthecourseofafewyearsnolessthan，fourindependenttranslationswerepublishedandsold。Everyone，read，oratleastprofessedtohaveread，thewonderfulbook，and，manybelievedthatitsauthorwasthegreatestgeniusofhistime。

DuringthefirstyearofmyresidenceinRussia(1870)，Irarely，hadaseriousconversationwithouthearingBuckle’snamementioned;

andmyfriendsalmostalwaysassumedthathehadsucceededin，creatingagenuinescienceofhistoryontheinductivemethod。In，vainIpointedoutthatBucklehadmerelythrownoutsomehintsin，hisintroductorychapterastohowsuchascienceoughttobe，constructed，andthathehadhimselfmadenoseriousattempttouse，themethodwhichhecommended。Myobjectionshadlittleorno，effect：thebeliefwastoodeep-rootedtobesoeasilyeradicated。

Inbooks，periodicals，newspapers，andprofessionallecturesthe，nameofBucklewasconstantlycited——oftenviolentlydraggedin，withouttheslightestreason——andthecheaptranslationsofhis，workweresoldinenormousquantities。Itisnot，then，sovery，wonderfulafterallthatthebookshouldhavefounditswaytotwo，villagesintheprovinceofYaroslavl。

Theenterprising，self-reliant，independentspiritwhichisoften，tobefoundamongthosepeasantsmanifestsitselfoccasionallyin，amusingformsamongtheyounggeneration。Ofteninthispartof，thecountryIhaveencounteredboyswhorecalledyoungAmerica，ratherthanyoungRussia。OneoftheseyounghopefulsIremember，well。Iwaswaitingatapost-stationforthehorsestobe，changed，whenheappearedbeforemeinasheep-skin，furcap，and，giganticdouble-soledboots——allofwhicharticleshadbeenmadeon，ascaleadaptedtofutureratherthanactualrequirements。Hemust，havestoodinhisbootsaboutthreefeeteightinches，andhecould，nothavebeenmorethantwelveyearsofage;buthehadalready，learnedtolookuponlifeasaseriousbusiness，woreacommanding，air，andknittedhisinnocentlittlebrowsasifthecaresofan，empireweighedonhisdiminutiveshoulders。Thoughhewastoact，asyamstchikhehadtoleavetheputtinginofthehorsestolarger，specimensofthehumanspecies，buthetookcarethatallwasdone，properly。Puttingoneofhisbigbootsalittleinadvance，and，drawinghimselfuptohisfullshortness，hewatchedtheoperation，attentively，asifthesmallnessofhisstaturehadnothingtodo，withhisinactivity。Whenallwasready，heclimbeduptohis，seat，andatasignalfromthestation-keeper，whowatchedwith，paternalprideallthemovementsofthelittleprodigy，wedashed，offatapacerarelyattainedbypost-horses。Hehadthefaculty，ofemittingapeculiarsound——somethingbetweenawhirranda，whistle——thatappearedtohaveamagicaleffectontheteamand，everyfewminutesheemployedthisincentive。Theroadwasrough，andateveryjolthewasshotupwardsintotheair，buthealways，fellbackintohisproperposition，andneverlostforamomenthis，self-possessionorhisbalance。AttheendofthejourneyIfound，wehadmadenearlyfourteenmileswithinthehour。

Unfortunatelythisenergetic，enterprisingspiritsometimestakes，anillegitimatedirection。Notonlywholevillages，butevenwhole，districts，haveinthiswayacquiredabadreputationforrobbery，themanufactureofpaper-money，andsimilaroffencesagainstthe，criminallaw。Inpopularparlance，theselocalitiesaresaidto，contain“peoplewhoplaypranks“(narodshalit)。Imust，however，remarkthat，ifImayjudgebymyownexperience，theseso-called，“playful“tendenciesaregreatlyexaggerated。ThoughIhave，travelledhundredsofmilesatnightonlonelyroads，Iwasnever，robbedorinanywaymolested。Once，indeed，whentravellingat，nightinatarantass，Idiscoveredonawakingthatmydriverwas，bendingoverme，andhadintroducedhishandintooneofmy，pockets;buttheincidentendedwithoutseriousconsequences。When，Icaughtthedelinquenthand，anddemandedanexplanationfromthe，owner，hereplied，inanapologetic，caressingtone，thatthenight，wascold，andhewishedtowarmhisfingers;andwhenIadvisedhim，touseforthatpurposehisownpocketsratherthanmine，he，promisedtoactinfutureaccordingtomyadvice。Morethanonce，itistrue，IbelievedthatIwasindangerofbeingattacked，but，oneveryoccasionmyfearsturnedouttobeunfounded，and，sometimesthecatastrophewasludicrousratherthantragical。Let，thefollowingserveasanillustration。

Ihadoccasiontotraverse，incompanywithaRussianfriend，the，countrylyingtotheeastoftheriverVetluga——alandofforest，andmorass，withhereandthereapatchofcultivation。The，majorityofthepopulationareTcheremiss，aFinnishtribe;but，nearthebanksoftherivertherearevillagesofRussianpeasants，andtheselatterhavethereputationof“playingpranks。”，Whenwe，wereonthepointofstartingfromKozmodemianskatownonthebank，oftheVolga，wereceivedavisitfromanofficerofruralpolice，whopaintedinverysombrecoloursthehabitsandmoralcharacter——

or，moreproperly，immoralcharacter——ofthepeoplewhose，acquaintancewewereabouttomake。Herelatedwithmelodramatic，gesticulationhisencounterswithmalefactorsbelongingtothe，villagesthroughwhichwehadtopass，andendedtheinterviewwith，astrongrecommendationtousnottotravelatnight，andtokeep，atalltimesoureyesopenandourrevolverready。Theeffectof，hisnarrativewasconsiderablydiminishedbytheprominenceofthe，moral，whichwastotheeffectthatthereneverhadbeenapolice-

officerwhohadshownsomuchzeal，energy，andcourageinthe，dischargeofhisdutyastheworthymanbeforeus。Weconsidered，it，however，advisabletorememberhishintaboutkeepingoureyes，open。

Inspiteofourintentionofbeingverycautious，itwasalready，darkwhenwearrivedatthevillagewhichwastobeourhalting-

placeforthenight，anditseemedatfirstasifweshouldbe，obligedtospendthenightintheopenair。Theinhabitantshad，alreadyretiredtorest，andrefusedtoopentheirdoorstounknown，travellers。Atlengthanoldwoman，morehospitablethanher，neighbours，ormoreanxioustoearnanhonestpenny，consentedto，letuspassthenightinanouterapartment(seni)，andthis，permissionwegladlyaccepted。Mindfulofthewarningsofthe，policeofficer，webarricadedthetwodoorsandthewindow，andthe，precautionwasevidentlynotsuperfluous，foralmostassoonasthe，lightwasextinguishedwecouldhearthatanattemptwasbeingmade，stealthilytoeffectanentrance。Notwithstandingmyeffortsto，remainawake，andonthewatch，Iatlastfellasleep，andwas，suddenlyarousedbysomeonegraspingmetightlybythearm。

InstantlyIsprangtomyfeetandendeavouredtoclosewithmy，invisibleassailant。Invain！，Hedexterouslyeludedmygrasp，and，Istumbledovermyportmanteau，whichwaslyingonthefloor;but，mypromptactionrevealedwhotheintruderwas，byproducingawild，flutterandafranticcackling！，Beforemycompanioncouldstrikea，lightthemysteriousattackwasfullyexplained。Thesupposed，midnightrobberandpossibleassassinwassimplyapeaceablehen，thathadgonetoroostonmyarm，and，onfindingherposition，unsteady，haddugherclawsintowhatshemistookforaroosting-

pole！

WhenspeakingofthepeasantryofthenorthIhavehithertohadin，viewtheinhabitantsoftheprovincesofOld-Novgorod，Tver，Yaroslavl，Nizhni-Novgorod，Kostroma，Kazan，andViatka，andIhave，foundedmyremarkschieflyoninformationcollectedonthespot。

BeyondthislieswhatmaybecalledtheFarNorth。ThoughIcannot，professtohavethesamepersonalacquaintancewiththepeasantry，ofthatregion，Imayperhapsbeallowedtoinsertheresome，informationregardingthemwhichIcollectedfromvarious，trustworthysources。

Ifwedrawawavylineeastwardfromapointalittletothenorth，ofSt。Petersburg，asisshowninthemapfacingpage1ofthis，volume，weshallhavebetweenthatlineandthePolarOceanwhat，mayberegardedasadistinct，peculiarregion，differinginmany，respectsfromtherestofRussia。Throughoutthewholeofitthe，climateisverysevere。Forabouthalfoftheyearthegroundis，coveredbydeepsnow，andtheriversarefrozen。Byfarthe，greaterpartofthelandisoccupiedbyforestsofpine，fir，larch，andbirch，orbyvast，unfathomablemorasses。Thearable，landandpasturagetakentogetherformonlyaboutoneandahalf，percent，ofthearea。Thepopulationisscarce——littlemorethan，onetotheEnglishsquaremile——andsettledchieflyalongthebanks，oftherivers。Thepeasantrysupportthemselvesbyfishing，hunting，fellingandfloatingtimber，preparingtarandcharcoal，cattle-breeding，and，intheextremenorth，breedingreindeer。

Thesearetheirchiefoccupations，butthepeopledonotentirely，neglectagriculture。Theymakethemostoftheirshortsummerby，meansofapeculiarandingeniousmodeoffarming，welladaptedto，thepeculiarlocalconditions。Thepeasantknowsofcoursenothing，aboutagronomicalchemistry，buthe，aswellashisforefathers，haveobservedthatifwoodbeburntonafield，andtheashesbe，mixedwiththesoil，agoodharvestmaybeconfidentlyexpected。

Onthissimpleprinciplehissystemoffarmingisbased。When，springcomesroundandtheleavesbegintoappearonthetrees，a，bandofpeasants，armedwiththeirhatchets，proceedtosomespot，inthewoodspreviouslyfixedupon。Heretheybegintomakea，clearing。Thisisnoeasymatter，fortree-fellingishardand，tediouswork;buttheprocessdoesnottakesomuchtimeasmight，beexpected，fortheworkmenhavebeenbroughtuptothetrade，and，wieldtheiraxeswithmarvellousdexterity。Whentheyhavefelled，allthetrees，greatandsmall，theyreturntotheirhomes，and，thinknomoreabouttheirclearingtilltheautumn，whenthey，return，inordertostripthefallentreesofthebranches，topick，outwhattheyrequireforbuildingpurposesorfirewood，andto，pileuptheremainderinheaps。Thelogsforbuildingorfirewood，aredraggedawaybyhorsesassoonasthefirstfallofsnowhas，madeagoodslipperyroad，butthepilesareallowedtoremaintill，thefollowingspring，whentheyarestirredupwithlongpolesand，ignited。Theflamesrapidlyspreadinalldirectionstillthey，jointogetherandformagiganticbonfire，suchasisneverseenin，moredensely-populatedcountries。Ifthefiredoesitswork，properly，thewholeofthespaceiscoveredwithalayerofashes;

andwhenthesehavebeenslightlymixedwithsoilbymeansofa，lightplough，theseedissown。

Onthefieldpreparedinthisoriginalfashionissownbarley，rye，orflax，andtheharvests，nearlyalwaysgood，sometimesborderon，themiraculous。Barleyorryemaybeexpectedtoproduceabout，sixfoldinordinaryyears，andtheymayproduceasmuchasthirty-

foldunderpeculiarlyfavourablecircumstances。Thefertilityis，however，short-lived。Ifthesoilispoorandstony，notmorethan，twocropscanberaised;ifitisofabetterquality，itmaygive，tolerableharvestsforsixorsevensuccessiveyears。Inmost，countriesthiswouldbeanabsurdlyexpensivewayofmanuring，for，woodismuchtoovaluableacommoditytobeusedforsucha，purpose;butinthisnorthernregiontheforestsareboundless，and，inthedistrictswherethereisnoriverorstreambywhichtimber，maybefloated，thetreesnotusedinthiswayrotfromoldage。

Underthesecircumstancesthesystemisreasonable，butitmustbe，admittedthatitdoesnotgiveaverylargereturnfortheamount，oflabourexpended，andinbadseasonsitgivesalmostnoreturnat，all。

Theothersourcesofrevenuearescarcelylessprecarious。With，hisgunandalittleparcelofprovisionsthepeasantwandersabout，inthetracklessforests，andtoooftenreturnsaftermanydays，withaverylightbag;orhestartsinautumnforsomedistant，lake，andcomesbackafterfiveorsixweekswithnothingbetter，thanperchandpike。Sometimeshetrieshisluckatdeep-sea，fishing。InthiscasehestartsinFebruary——probablyonfoot——for，Kem，ontheshoreoftheWhiteSea，orperhapsforthemoredistant，Kola，situatedonasmallriverwhichfallsintotheArcticOcean。

There，incompanywiththreeorfourcomrades，hestartsona，fishingcruisealongtheMurmancoast，or，itmaybe，offthecoast，ofSpitzbergen。Hisgainswilldependontheamountcaught，forit，isajoint-venture;butinnocasecantheybeverygreat，for，three-fourthsofthefishbroughtintoportbelongstotheownerof，thecraftandtackle。Ofthesumrealised，hebringshomeperhaps，onlyasmallpart，forhehasastrongtemptationtobuyrum，tea，andotherluxuries，whichareverydearinthosenorthern，latitudes。Ifthefishingisgoodandheresiststemptation，he，maysaveasmuchas100roubles——about10pounds——andtherebylive，comfortablyallwinter;butifthefishingseasonisbad，hemay，findhimselfattheendofitnotonlywithemptypockets，butin，debttotheowneroftheboat。Thisdebthemaypayoff，ifhehas，ahorse，bytransportingthedriedfishtoKargopol，St。

Petersburg，orsomeothermarket。

ItishereintheFarNorththattheancientfolk-lore——popular，songs，stories，andfragmentsofepicpoetry——hasbeenbest，preserved;butthisisafieldonwhichIneednotenter，forthe，readercaneasilyfindallthathemaydesiretoknowonthe，subjectinthebrilliantwritingsofM。Rambaudandthevery，interesting，conscientiousworksofthelateMr。Ralston，*which，enjoyahighreputationinRussia。

*Rambaud，“LaRussieEpique，“Paris，1876;Ralston，“TheSongsof，theRussianPeople，“London，1872;and“RussianFolk-tales，“

London，1873。

CHAPTERVIII

THEMIR，ORVILLAGECOMMUNITY

SocialandPoliticalImportanceoftheMir——TheMirandtheFamily，Compared——TheoryoftheCommunalSystem——PracticalDeviationsfrom，theTheory——TheMiraGoodSpecimenofConstitutionalGovernmentof，theExtremeDemocraticType——TheVillageAssembly——FemaleMembers——

TheElections——DistributionoftheCommunalLand。

WhenIhadgainedaclearnotionofthefamily-lifeandoccupations，ofthepeasantry，Iturnedmyattentiontotheconstitutionofthe，village。Thiswasasubjectwhichspeciallyinterestedme，because，IwasawarethattheMiristhemostpeculiarofRussian，institutions。LongbeforevisitingRussiaIhadlookedinto，Haxthausen’scelebratedwork，bywhichthepeculiaritiesofthe，RussianvillagesystemwerefirstmadeknowntoWesternEurope，and，duringmystayinSt。PetersburgIhadoftenbeeninformedby，intelligent，educatedRussiansthattheruralCommunepresenteda，practicalsolutionofmanydifficultsocialproblemswithwhichthe，philosophersandstatesmenoftheWesthadlongbeenvainly，struggling。”ThenationsoftheWest“——suchwasthesubstanceof，innumerablediscourseswhichIhadheard——“areatpresentonthe，high-roadtopoliticalandsocialanarchy，andEnglandhasthe，unenviabledistinctionofbeingforemostintherace。Thenatural，increaseofpopulation，togetherwiththeexpropriationofthe，smalllandholdersbythegreatlandedproprietors，hascreateda，dangerousandever-increasingProletariat——agreatdisorganised，massofhumanbeings，withouthomes，withoutpermanentdomicile，withoutpropertyofanykind，withoutanystakeintheexisting，institutions。Partofthesegainamiserablepittanceas，agriculturallabourers，andliveinaconditioninfinitelyworse，thanserfage。Theothershavebeenforeveruprootedfromthesoil，andhavecollectedinthelargetowns，wheretheyearnaprecarious，livinginthefactoriesandworkshops，orswelltheranksofthe，criminalclasses。InEnglandyouhavenolongerapeasantryinthe，propersenseoftheterm，andunlesssomeradicalmeasuresbevery，soonadopted，youwillneverbeabletocreatesuchaclass，for，menwhohavebeenlongexposedtotheunwholesomeinfluencesof，townlifearephysicallyandmorallyincapableofbecoming，agriculturists。

“Hitherto，“thedisquisitionproceeded，“Englandhasenjoyed，in，consequenceofhergeographicalposition，herpoliticalfreedom，andhervastnaturaldepositsofcoalandiron，awholly，exceptionalpositionintheindustrialworld。Fearingno，competition，shehasproclaimedtheprinciplesofFreeTrade，and，hasinundatedtheworldwithhermanufactures——usingunscrupulously，herpowerfulnavyandalltheotherforcesathercommandfor，breakingdowneverybarriertendingtocheckthefloodsentforth，fromManchesterandBirmingham。InthatwayherhungryProletariat，hasbeenfed。ButtheindustrialsupremacyofEnglandisdrawing，toaclose。Thenationshavediscoveredtheperfidiousfallacyof，Free-Tradeprinciples，andarenowlearningtomanufacturefor，theirownwants，insteadofpayingEnglandenormoussumsto，manufactureforthem。VerysoonEnglishgoodswillnolongerfind，foreignmarkets，andhowwillthehungryProletariatthenbefed？

AlreadythegrainproductionofEnglandisfarfromsufficientfor，thewantsofthepopulation，sothat，evenwhentheharvestis，exceptionallyabundant，enormousquantitiesofwheatareimported，fromallquartersoftheglobe。Hithertothisgrainhasbeenpaid，forbythemanufacturedgoodsannuallyexported，buthowwillitbe，procuredwhenthesegoodsarenolongerwantedbyforeign，consumers？，AndwhatthenwillthehungryProletariatdo？”*

*Thispassagewaswritten，preciselyasitstands，longbeforethe，fiscalquestionwasraisedbyMr。Chamberlain。Itwillbefoundin，thefirsteditionofthiswork，publishedin1877。(Vol。I。pp。

179-81。)

ThissombrepictureofEngland’sfuturehadoftenbeenpresentedto，me，andonnearlyeveryoccasionIhadbeenassuredthatRussiahad，beensavedfromtheseterribleevilsbytheruralCommune——an，institutionwhich，inspiteofitssimplicityandincalculable，utility，WestEuropeansseemedutterlyincapableofunderstanding，andappreciating。

ThereaderwillnoweasilyconceivewithwhatinterestItookto，studyingthiswonderfulinstitution，andwithwhatenergyI

prosecutedmyresearches。Aninstitutionwhichprofessestosolve，satisfactorilythemostdifficultsocialproblemsofthefutureis，nottobemetwitheveryday，eveninRussia，whichisspecially，richinmaterialforthestudentofsocialscience。

OnmyarrivalatIvanofkamyknowledgeoftheinstitutionwasof，thatvague，superficialkindwhichiscommonlyderivedfrommenwho，arefonderofsweepinggeneralisationsandrhetoricaldeclamation，thanofserious，patientstudyofphenomena。Iknewthatthechief，personageinaRussianvillageistheSelskiStarosta，orVillage，Elder，andthatallimportantCommunalaffairsareregulatedbythe，SelskiSkhod，orVillageAssembly。Further，Iwasawarethatthe，landinthevicinityofthevillagebelongstotheCommune，andis，distributedperiodicallyamongthemembersinsuchawaythatevery，able-bodiedpeasantpossessesasharesufficient，ornearly，sufficient，forhismaintenance。Beyondthiselementary，informationIknewlittleornothing。

Myfirstattemptatextendingmyknowledgewasnotverysuccessful。

HopingthatmyfriendIvanmightbeabletoassistme，andknowing，thatthepopularnamefortheCommuneisMir，whichmeansalso“the，world，“Iputtohimthedirect，simplequestion，“Whatisthe，Mir？”

Ivanwasnoteasilydisconcerted，butforoncehelookedpuzzled，andstaredatmevacantly。WhenIendeavouredtoexplaintohimmy，question，hesimplyknittedhisbrowsandscratchedthebackofhis，head。ThislattermovementistheRussianpeasant’smethodof，acceleratingcerebralaction;butinthepresentinstanceithadno，practicalresult。Inspiteofhisefforts，Ivancouldnotgetmuch，furtherthanthe“Kakvamskazat’？”thatistosay，“HowamIto，tellyou？”

ItwasnotdifficulttoperceivethatIhadadoptedanutterly，falsemethodofinvestigation，andamoment’sreflectionsufficed，toshowmetheabsurdityofmyquestion。Ihadaskedfroman，uneducatedmanaphilosophicaldefinition，insteadofextracting，fromhimmaterialintheformofconcretefacts，andconstructing，therefromadefinitionformyself。TheseconcretefactsIvanwas，bothableandwillingtosupply;andassoonasIadopteda，rationalmodeofquestioning，IobtainedfromhimallIwanted。

Theinformationhegaveme，togetherwiththeresultsofmuch，subsequentconversationandreading，Inowproposetopresentto，thereaderinmyownwords。

Thepeasantfamilyoftheoldtypeis，aswehavejustseen，akind，ofprimitiveassociationinwhichthemembershavenearlyall，thingsincommon。Thevillagemayberoughlydescribedasa，primitiveassociationonalargerscale。

Betweenthesetwosocialunitstherearemanypointsofanalogy。

Inboththerearecommoninterestsandcommonresponsibilities。In，boththereisaprincipalpersonage，whoisinacertainsense，rulerwithinandrepresentativeasregardstheoutsideworld：in，theonecasecalledKhozain，orHeadoftheHousehold，andinthe，otherStarosta，orVillageElder。Inboththeauthorityofthe，rulerislimited：intheonecasebytheadultmembersofthe，family，andintheotherbytheHeadsofHouseholds。Inboththere，isacertainamountofcommonproperty：intheonecasethehouse，andnearlyallthatitcontains，andintheotherthearableland，andpossiblyalittlepasturage。Inbothcasesthereisacertain，amountofcommonresponsibility：intheonecaseforallthedebts，andintheotherforallthetaxesandCommunalobligations。And，bothareprotectedtoacertainextentagainsttheordinarylegal，consequencesofinsolvency，forthefamilycannotbedeprivedof，itshouseornecessaryagriculturalimplements，andtheCommune，cannotbedeprivedofitsland，byimportunatecreditors。

Ontheotherhand，therearemanyimportantpointsofcontrast。The，Communeis，ofcourse，muchlargerthanthefamily，andthemutual，relationsofitsmembersarebynomeanssocloselyinterwoven。

Themembersofafamilyallfarmtogether，andthoseofthemwho，earnmoneyfromothersourcesareexpectedtoputtheirsavings，intothecommonpurse;whilstthehouseholdscomposingaCommune，farmindependently，andpayintothecommontreasuryonlyacertain，fixedsum。

Fromthesebriefremarksthereaderwillatonceperceivethata，Russianvillageissomethingverydifferentfromavillageinour，senseoftheterm，andthatthevillagersareboundtogetherby，tiesquiteunknowntotheEnglishruralpopulation。Afamily，livinginanEnglishvillagehaslittlereasontotakeaninterest，intheaffairsofitsneighbours。Theisolationoftheindividual，familiesisneverquiteperfect，forman，beingasocialanimal，takesnecessarilyacertaininterestintheaffairsofthosearound，him，andthissocialdutyissometimesfulfilledbytheweakersex，withmorezealthanisabsolutelyindispensableforthepublic，welfare;butfamiliesmayliveformanyyearsinthesamevillage，withouteverbecomingconsciousofcommoninterests。Solongas，theJonesfamilydonotcommitanyculpablebreachofpublicorder，suchasputtingobstructionsonthehighwayorhabituallysetting，theirhouseonfire，theirneighbourBrowntakesprobablyno，interestintheiraffairs，andhasnogroundforinterferingwith，theirperfectlibertyofaction。Amongstthefamiliescomposinga，Russianvillage，suchastateofisolationisimpossible。The，HeadsofHouseholdsmustoftenmeettogetherandconsultinthe，VillageAssembly，andtheirdailyoccupationmustbeinfluencedby，theCommunaldecrees。Theycannotbegintomowthehayorplough，thefallowfielduntiltheVillageAssemblyhaspassedaresolution，onthesubject。Ifapeasantbecomesadrunkard，ortakessome，equallyefficientmeanstobecomeinsolvent，everyfamilyinthe，villagehasarighttocomplain，notmerelyintheinterestsof，publicmorality，butfromselfishmotives，becauseallthefamilies，arecollectivelyresponsibleforhistaxes。*，Forthesamereason，nopeasantcanpermanentlyleavethevillagewithouttheconsentof，theCommune，andthisconsentwillnotbegranteduntilthe，applicantgivessatisfactorysecurityforthefulfilmentofhis，actualandfutureliabilities。Ifapeasantwishestogoawayfor，ashorttime，inordertoworkelsewhere，hemustobtainawritten，permission，whichserveshimasapassportduringhisabsence;and，hemayberecalledatanymomentbyaCommunaldecree。Inreality，heisrarelyrecalledsolongashesendshomeregularlythefull，amountofhistaxes——includingthedueswhichhehastopayforthe，temporarypassport——butsometimestheCommuneusesthepowerof，recallforpurposesofextortion。Ifitbecomesknown，for，instance，thatanabsentmemberisreceivingagoodsalaryor，otherwisemakingmoney，hemayonedayreceiveaformalorderto，returnatoncetohisnativevillage，butheisprobablyinformed，atthesametime，unofficially，thathispresencewillbedispensed，withifhewillsendtotheCommuneacertainspecifiedsum。The，moneythussentisgenerallyusedbytheCommuneforconvivial，purposes。**

*Thiscommonresponsibilityforthetaxeswasabolishedin1903by，theEmperor，ontheadviceofM。Witte，andtheotherCommunal，fettersarebeinggraduallyrelaxed。Apeasantmaynow，ifhe，wishes，ceasetobeamemberoftheCommunealtogether，assoonas，hehasdefrayedallhisoutstandingobligations。

**WiththerecentrelaxingoftheCommunalfetters，referredtoin，theforegoingnote，thisabuseshoulddisappear。

Inallcountriesthetheoryofgovernmentandadministration，differsconsiderablyfromtheactualpractice。Nowhereisthis，differencegreaterthaninRussia，andinnoRussianinstitutionis，itgreaterthanintheVillageCommune。Itisnecessary，therefore，toknowboththeoryandpractice;anditiswellto，beginwiththeformer，becauseitisthesimplerofthetwo。When，wehaveoncethoroughlymasteredthetheory，itiseasyto，understandthedeviationsthataremadetosuitpeculiarlocal，conditions。

According，then，totheory，allmalepeasantsineverypartofthe，Empireareinscribedincensus-lists，whichformthebasisofthe，directtaxation。Theselistsarerevisedatirregularintervals，andallmalesaliveatthetimeofthe“revision，“fromthenewborn，babetothecentenarian，aredulyinscribed。EachCommunehasa，listofthiskind，andpaystotheGovernmentanannualsum，proportionatetothenumberofnameswhichthelistcontains，or，inpopularlanguage，accordingtothenumberof“revisionsouls。”

Duringtheintervalsbetweentherevisionsthefinancial，authoritiestakenonoticeofthebirthsanddeaths。ACommune，whichhasahundredmalemembersatthetimeoftherevisionmay，haveinafewyearsconsiderablymoreorconsiderablylessthan，thatnumber，butithastopaytaxesforahundredmembersallthe，sameuntilanewrevisionismadeforthewholeEmpire。

NowinRussia，sofaratleastastheruralpopulationis，concerned，thepaymentoftaxesisinseparablyconnectedwiththe，possessionofland。Everypeasantwhopaystaxesissupposedto，haveashareofthelandbelongingtotheCommune。IftheCommunal，revisionlistscontainahundrednames，theCommunallandoughtto，bedividedintoahundredshares，andeach“revisionsoul“should，enjoyhisshareinreturnforthetaxeswhichhepays。

Thereaderwhohasfollowedmyexplanationsuptothispointmay，naturallyconcludethatthetaxespaidbythepeasantsarein，realityaspeciesofrentforthelandwhichtheyenjoy。Sucha，conclusionwouldnotbealtogetherjustified。Whenamanrentsa，bitoflandheactsaccordingtohisownjudgment，andmakesa，voluntarycontractwiththeproprietor;buttheRussianpeasantis，obligedtopayhistaxeswhetherhedesirestoenjoylandornot。

Thetheory，therefore，thatthetaxesaresimplytherentofthe，landwillnotbearevensuperficialexamination。Equallyuntenable，isthetheorythattheyareaspeciesofland-tax。Inany，reasonablesystemofland-duestheyearlysumimposedbearssome，kindofproportiontothequantityandqualityofthelandenjoyed;

butinRussiaitmaybethatthemembersofoneCommunepossesssix，acresofbadland，andthemembersoftheneighbouringCommune，sevenacresofgoodland，andyetthetaxesinbothcasesarethe，same。Thetruthisthatthetaxesarepersonal，andarecalculated，accordingtothenumberofmale“souls，“andtheGovernmentdoes，nottakethetroubletoinquirehowtheCommunallandis，distributed。TheCommunehastopayintotheImperialTreasurya，fixedyearlysum，accordingtothenumberofits“revisionsouls，“

anddistributesthelandamongitsmembersasitthinksfit。

How，then，doestheCommunedistributetheland？，Tothisquestion，itisimpossibletoreplyinbrief，generalterms，becauseeach，Communeactsasitpleases！*，Someactstrictlyaccordingtothe，theory。Thesedividetheirlandatthetimeoftherevisionintoa，numberofportionsorsharescorrespondingtothenumberof，revisionsouls，andgivetoeachfamilyanumberofshares，correspondingtothenumberofrevisionsoulswhichitcontains。

Thisisfromtheadministrativepointofviewbyfarthesimplest，system。Thecensus-listdetermineshowmuchlandeachfamilywill，enjoy，andtheexistingtenuresaredisturbedonlybytherevisions，whichtakeplaceatirregularintervals。**，But，ontheotherhand，thissystemhasseriousdefects。Therevision-listrepresents，merelythenumericalstrengthofthefamilies，andthenumerical，strengthisoftennotatallinproportiontotheworkingpower。

Letussuppose，forexample，twofamilies，eachcontainingatthe，timeoftherevisionfivemalemembers。Accordingtothecensus-

listthesetwofamiliesareequal，andoughttoreceiveequal，sharesoftheland;butinrealityitmayhappenthattheone，containsafatherintheprimeoflifeandfourable-bodiessons，whilsttheothercontainsawidowandfivelittleboys。Thewants，andworkingpowerofthesetwofamiliesareofcoursevery，different;andiftheabovesystemofdistributionbeapplied，the，manwithfoursonsandagoodlysupplyofgrandchildrenwill，probablyfindthathehastoolittleland，whilstthewidowwith，herfivelittleboyswillfinditdifficulttocultivatethefive，sharesallotedtoher，andutterlyimpossibletopaythe，correspondingamountoftaxation——forinallcases，itmustbe，remembered，theCommunalburdensaredistributedinthesame，proportionastheland。

*Alonglistofthevarioussystemsofallotmenttobefoundin，individualCommunesindifferentpartsofthecountryisgivenin，theopeningchapterofavaluableworkbyKarelin，entitled，“ObshtchinnoyeVladyenievRossii“(St。Petersburg，1893)。Asmy，objectistoconveytothereadermerelyageneralideaofthe，institution，Irefrainfromconfusinghimbyanenumerationofthe，endlessdivergenciesfromtheoriginaltype。

**Since1719elevenrevisionshavebeenmade，thelastin1897。