第19章

Whenithadthusbecomeevidentthatpropagandaandagitationwere，alikeuseless，andwhennumerousarrestswerebeingmadedaily，it，becamenecessaryfortherevolutioniststoreconsidertheir，position，andsomeofthemoremoderateproposedtorallytothe，Liberals，asatemporarymeasure。Hithertotherehadbeenvery，littlesympathyandagooddealofopenlyavowedhostilitybetween，Liberalsandrevolutionists。Thelatter，convincedthattheycould，overthrowtheAutocraticPowerbytheirownunaidedefforts，had，lookedaskanceatLiberalismbecausetheybelievedthat，parliamentarydiscussionsandpartystruggleswouldimpederather，thanfacilitatetheadventoftheSocialistMillennium，and，strengthenthedominationofthebourgeoisiewithoutreally，improvingtheconditionofthemasses。Now，however，whentheneed，ofallieswasfelt，itseemedthatconstitutionalgovernmentmight，beusedasastepping-stoneforreachingtheSocialistideal，becauseitmustgrantacertainlibertyofthePressandof，association，anditwouldnecessarilyabolishtheexisting，autocraticsystemofarresting，imprisoningandexiling，onmere，suspicion，withoutanyregularformoflegalprocedure。Asusual，anappealwasmadetohistory，andargumentswereeasilyfoundin，favourofthiscourseofaction。Thepastofothernationshad，shownthatinthemarchofprogresstherearenosuddenleapsand，bounds，anditwasthereforeabsurdtoimagine，asthe，revolutionistshadhithertodone，thatRussianAutocracycouldbe，swallowedbySocialismatagulp。Theremustalwaysbeperiodsof，transition，anditseemedthatsuchatransitionperiodmightnow，beinitiated。Liberalismmightbeallowedtodestroy，oratleast，weaken，Autocracy，andthenitmightbedestroyedinitsturnby，Socialismofthemostadvancedtype。

Havingadoptedthistheoryofgradualhistoricdevelopment，someof，themorepracticalrevolutionistsapproachedthemoreadvanced，Liberalsandurgedthemtomoreenergeticaction;butbefore，anythingcouldbearrangedthemoreimpatientrevolutionists——

notablythegroupcalledtheNarodovoltsi(National-will-ists)——

intervened，denouncedwhattheyconsideredanunholyalliance，and，proposedapolicyofterrorismbywhichtheGovernmentwouldbe，frightenedintoamoreconciliatoryattitude。Theirideawasthat，theofficialswhodisplayedmostzealagainsttherevolutionary，movementshouldbeassassinated，andthateveryactofseverityon，thepartoftheAdministrationshouldbeansweredbyanactof，“revolutionaryjustice。”

Asitwasevidentthatthechoicebetweenthesetwocoursesof，actionmustdetermineingreatmeasurethefuturecharacterand，ultimatefateofthemovement，therewasmuchdiscussionbetween，thetwogroups;butthequestiondidnotlongremaininsuspense。

Soontheextremepartygainedtheupperhand，andtheTerrorist，policywasadopted。Ishalllettherevolutioniststhemselves，explainthismomentousdecision。Inalongproclamationpublished，someyearslateritisexplainedthus：

“TherevolutionarymovementinRussiabeganwiththeso-called，’goinginamongthepeople。’，ThefirstRussianrevolutionists，thoughtthatthefreedomofthepeoplecouldbeobtainedonlyby，thepeopleitself，andtheyimaginedthattheonlythingnecessary，wasthatthepeopleshouldabsorbSocialisticideas。Tothisit，wassupposedthatthepeasantrywerenaturallyinclined，because，theyalreadypossess，intheruralCommune，institutionswhich，containtheseedsofSocialism，andwhichmightserveasabasis，forthereconstructionofsocietyaccordingtoSocialist，principles。Thepropagandistshoped，therefore，thatinthe，teachingsofWestEuropeanSocialismthepeoplewouldrecogniseits，owninstinctivecreationsinriperandmoreclearlydefinedforms，andthatitwouldjoyfullyacceptthenewteaching。

“Butthepeopledidnotunderstanditsfriends，andshoweditself，hostiletothem。Itturnedoutthatinstitutionsborninslavery，couldnotserveasafoundationforthenewconstruction，andthat，themanwhowasyesterdayaserf，thoughcapableoftakingpartin，disturbances，isnotfittedforconsciousrevolutionarywork。With，painintheirhearttherevolutionistshadtoconfessthatthey，weredeceivedintheirhopesofthepeople。Aroundthemwereno，socialrevolutionaryforcesonwhichtheycouldleanforsupport，andyettheycouldnotreconcilethemselveswiththeexistingstate，ofviolenceandslavery。Thereuponawakenedalasthope——thehope，ofadrowningmanwhoclutchesatastraw：alittlegroupofheroic，andself-sacrificingindividualsmightaccomplishwiththeirown，strengththedifficulttaskoffreeingRussiafromtheyokeof，autocracy。Theyhadtodoitthemselves，becausetherewasno，othermeans。Butwouldtheybeabletoaccomplishit？，Forthem，thatquestiondidnotexist。Thestruggleofthatlittlegroup，againstautocracywasliketheheroicmeansonwhichadoctor，decideswhenthereisnolongeranyhopeofthepatient’srecovery。

Terrorismwastheonlymeansthatremained，andithadthe，advantageofgivinganaturalventtopent-upfeelings，andof，seemingareactionagainstthecruelpersecutionsofthe，Government。ThepartycalledtheNarodnayaVolya(NationalWill)

wasaccordinglyformed，andduringseveralyearstheworld，witnessedaspectaclethathadneverbeenseenbeforeinhistory。

TheNarodnayaVolya，insignificantinnumbersbutstronginspirit，engagedinsinglecombatwiththepowerfulRussianGovernment。

Neitherexecutions，norimprisonmentwithhardlabour，norordinary，imprisonmentandexile，destroyedtheenergyoftherevolutionists。

Undertheirshotsfell，oneaftertheother，themostzealousand，typicalrepresentativesofarbitraryactionandviolence……”

Itwasatthistime，in1877，whenpropagandaandagitationamong，themasseswerebeingabandonedforthesystemofterrorism，but，beforeanyassassinationshadtakenplace，thatIaccidentallycame，intopersonalrelationswithsomeprominentadherentsofthe，revolutionarymovement。Onedayayoungmanofsympathetic，appearance，whomIdidnotknowandwhobroughtnocredentials，calledonmeinSt。PetersburgandsuggestedtomethatImight，makepublicthroughtheEnglishPresswhathedescribedasa，revoltingactoftyrannyandcrueltycommittedbyGeneralTrepof，thePrefectofthecity。Thatofficial，hesaid，invisiting，recentlyoneoftheprisons，hadnoticedthatayoungpolitical，prisonercalledBogolubofdidnotsalutehimashepassed，andhe，hadorderedhimtobefloggedinconsequence。TothisIreplied，thatIhadnoreasontodisbelievethestory，butthatIhad，equallynoreasontoacceptitasaccurate，asitrestedsolelyon，theevidenceofapersonwithwhomIwastotallyunacquainted。My，informanttooktheobjectioningoodpart，andofferedmethenames，andaddressesofanumberofpersonswhocouldsupplymewithany，proofsthatImightdesire。

AthisnextvisitItoldhimIhadseenseveralofthepersonshe，hadnamed，andthatIcouldnothelpperceivingthattheywere，closelyconnectedwiththerevolutionarymovement。Ithenwenton，tosuggestthatasthesympathiserswiththatmovementconstantly，complainedthattheyweresystematicallymisrepresented，calumniatedandcaricatured，theleadersoughttogivetheworldan，accurateaccountoftheirrealdoctrines，andinthisrespectI

shouldbegladtoassistthem。AlreadyIknewsomethingofthe，subject，becauseIhadmanyfriendsandacquaintancesamongthe，sympathisers，andhadoftenhadwiththeminterminablediscussions。

Withtheirideas，sofarasIknewthem，Ifeltboundtoconfess，thatIhadnomannerofsympathy，butIflatteredmyself，andhe，himselfhadadmitted，thatIwascapableofdescribingaccurately，andcriticisingimpartiallydoctrineswithwhichIdidnotagree。

Mynewacquaintance，whomImaycallDimitryIvan’itch，waspleased，withtheproposal，andafterhehadconsultedwithsomeofhis，friends，wecametoanagreementbywhichIshouldreceiveallthe，materialsnecessaryforwritinganaccurateaccountofthe，doctrinalsideofthemovement。Withregardtoanyconspiracies，thatmightbeinprogress，Iwarnedhimthathemustbestrictly，reticent，becauseifIcameaccidentallytoknowofanyterrorist，designs，Ishouldconsideritmydutytowarntheauthorities。For，thisreasonIdeclinedtoattendanysecretconclaves，anditwas，agreedthatIshouldbeinstructedwithoutbeinginitiated。

Thefirststepinmyinstructionwasnotverysatisfactoryor，encouraging。OnedayDimitriIvan’itchbroughtmealarge，manuscript，whichcontained，hesaid，therealdoctrinesofthe，revolutionistsandtheexplanationoftheirmethods。Iwas，surprisedtofindthatitwaswritteninEnglish，andIperceived，ataglancethatitwasnotatallwhatIwanted。AssoonasIhad，readthefirstsentenceIturnedtomyfriendandsaid：

“Iamverysorrytofind，DimitriIvan’itch，thatyouhavenotkept，yourpartofthebargain。Weagreed，youmayremember，thatwe，weretoacttowardseachotherinabsolutelygoodfaith，andhereI

findaflagrantbitofbadfaithintheveryfirstsentenceofthe，manuscriptwhichyouhavebroughtme。Thedocumentopenswiththe，statementthatalargenumberofstudentshavebeenarrestedand，imprisonedfordistributingbooksamongthepeople。Thatstatement，maybetrueaccordingtotheletter，butitisevidentlyintended，tomislead。Theseyouthshavebeenarrested，asyoumustknow，not，fordistributingordinarybooks，asthememorandumsuggests，but，fordistributingbooksofacertainkind。Ihavereadsomeof，them，andIcannotfeelatallsurprisedthattheGovernmentshould，objecttotheirbeingputintothehandsoftheignorantmasses。

Take，forexample，theoneentitledKhitrayaMekhanika，andothers，ofthesametype。Thepracticalteachingtheycontainisthatthe，peasantsshouldbereadytoriseandcutthethroatsofthelanded，proprietorsandofficials。Now，awholesalemassacreofthekind，mayormaynotbedesirableintheinterestsofSociety，and，justifiableaccordingtosomenewcodeofhighermorality。Thatis，aquestionintowhichIdonotenter。AllImaintainisthatthe，writerofthismemorandum，inspeakingof’books，’meanttomislead，me。”

DimitriIvan’itchlookedpuzzledandashamed。”Forgiveme，“he，said;“Iamtoblame——notforhavingattemptedtodeceiveyou，but，fornothavingtakenprecautions。Ihavenotreadthemanuscript，andIcouldnotifIwished，foritiswritteninEnglish，andI

knownolanguagebutmymothertongue。Myfriendsoughtnotto，havedonethis。Givemebackthepaper，andIshalltakecarethat，nothingofthesortoccursinfuture。”

Thispromisewasfaithfullykept，andIhadnofurtherreasonto，complain。DimitriIvan’itchgavemeaconsiderableamountof，information，andlentmeavaluablecollectionofrevolutionary，pamphlets。Unfortunatelythecourseoftuitionwassuddenly，interruptedbyunforeseencircumstances，whichImaymentionas，characteristicoflifeinSt。Petersburgatthetime。Myservant，anexcellentyoungRussian，morehonestthanintelligent，cameto，meonemorningwithamysteriousair，andwarnedmetobeonmy，guard，becausetherewere“badpeople“goingabout。Onbeing，pressedalittle，heexplainedtomewhathemeant。Twostrangers，hadcometohimand，afterofferinghimafewroubles，hadasked，himanumberofquestionsaboutmyhabits——atwhathourIwentout，andcamehome，whatpersonscalledonme，andmuchmoreofthesame，sort。”Theyeventried，sir，togetintoyoursitting-room;butof，courseIdidnotallowthem。Ibelievetheywanttorobyou！”

Itwasnotdifficulttoguesswhothese“badpeople“werewhotook，suchakeeninterestinmydoings，andwhowantedtoexaminemy，apartmentinmyabsence。AnydoubtsIhadonthesubjectweresoon，removed。OnthemorrowandfollowingdaysInoticedthatwhenever，Iwentout，andwhereverImightwalkordrive，Iwasclosely，followedbytwounsympathetic-lookingindividuals——socloselythat，whenIturnedroundsharptheyranintome。Thefirstandsecond，timesthislittleaccidentoccurredtheyreceivedastrongvolley，ofunceremoniousvernacular;butwhenwebecamebetteracquainted，wesimplysmiledateachotherknowingly，astheoldRomanAugurs，aresupposedtohavedonewhentheymetinpublicunobserved。

Therewasnolongeranyattemptatconcealmentormystification。I

knewIwasbeingshadowed，andtheshadowerscouldnothelp，perceivingthatIknewit。Yet，strangetosay，theywerenever，changed！

Thereaderprobablyassumesthatthesecretpolicehadsomehowgot，windofmyrelationswiththerevolutionists。Suchanassumption，presupposesonthepartofthepoliceanamountofintelligenceand，perspicacitywhichtheydonotusuallypossess。Onthisoccasion，theywereonanentirelywrongscent，andtheverydaywhenIfirst，noticedmyshadowers，ahighofficial，whoseemedtoregardthe，wholethingasagoodjoke，toldmeconfidentiallywhatthewrong，scentwas。Attheinstigationofanex-ambassador，fromwhomIhad，themisfortunetodifferinmattersofforeignpolicy，theMoscow，Gazettehaddenouncedmepubliclybynameasapersonwhowasin，thehabitofvisitingdailytheMinistryofForeignAffairs——

doubtlesswiththenefariouspurposeofobtainingbyillegalmeans，secretpoliticalinformation——andthepolicehadconcludedthatI

wasafitandproperpersontobecloselywatched。Inreality，my，relationswiththeRussianForeignOffice，thoughinconvenientto，theex-ambassador，wereperfectlyregularandabove-board——

sanctioned，infact，byPrinceGortchakoff——buttheindelicate，attentionsofthesecretpolicewerenonethelessextremely，unwelcome，becausesomeintelligentpolice-agentmightgetontothe，realscent，andcausemeseriousinconvenience。Idetermined，therefore，tobreakoffallrelationswithDimitriIvan’itchand，hisfriends，andpostponemystudiestoamoreconvenientseason;

butthatdecisiondidnotentirelyextricatemefrommy，difficulties。Thecollectionofrevolutionarypamphletswasstill，inmypossession，andIhadpromisedtoreturnit。Forsomelittle，timeIdidnotseehowIcouldkeepmypromisewithoutcompromising，myselforothers，butatlast——afterhavinghadmyshadowers，carefullyshadowedinordertolearnaccuratelytheirhabits，and，havingtakencertainelaborateprecautions，withwhichIneednot，troublethereader，asheisnotlikelyevertorequirethem——I

paidavisitsecretlytoDimitriIvan’itchinhissmallroom，almostdestituteoffurniture，handedhimthebigparcelof，pamphlets，warnedhimnottovisitmeagain，andbadehimfarewell。

ThereuponwewentourseparatewaysandIsawhimnomore。Whether，hesubsequentlyplayedaleadingpartinthemovementInevercould，ascertain，becauseIdidnotknowhisrealname;butifthe，conceptionwhichIformedofhischaracterwasatallaccurate，he，probablyendedhiscareerinSiberia，forhewasnotamantolook，backafterhavingputhishandtotheplough。Thatisapeculiar，traitoftheRussianrevolutionistsoftheperiodinquestion。

Theirpassionforrealisinganimpossibleidealwasincurable。

Manyofthemwereagainandagainarrested;andassoonasthey，escapedorwereliberatedtheyalmostinvariablywentbacktotheir，revolutionaryactivityandworkedenergeticallyuntiltheyagain，fellintotheclutchesofthepolice。

FromthisdigressionintothesphereofpersonalreminiscencesI

returnnowandtakeupagainthethreadofthenarrative。

Wehaveseenhowthepropagandaandtheagitationhadfailed，partlybecausethemassesshowedthemselvesindifferentorhostile，andpartlybecausetheGovernmentadoptedvigorousrepressive，measures。Wehaveseen，too，howtheleadersfoundthemselvesin，faceofaformidabledilemma;eithertheymustabandontheir，schemesortheymustattacktheirpersecutors。Themoreenergetic，amongthem，asIhavealreadystated，chosethelatteralternative，andtheyproceededatoncetocarryouttheirpolicy。Inthe，courseofasingleyear(February，1878，toFebruary，1879)awhole，seriesofterroristcrimeswascommitted;inKiefanattemptwas，madeonthelifeofthePublicProsecutor，andanofficerof，gendarmeriewasstabbed;inSt。PetersburgtheChiefofthe，PoliticalPoliceoftheEmpire(GeneralMezentsef)wasassassinated，inbroaddaylightinoneofthecentralstreets，andasimilar，attemptwasmadeonhissuccessor(GeneralDrenteln);atKharkof，theGovernor(PrinceKrapotkin)wasshotdeadwhenenteringhis，residence。Duringthesameperiodtwomembersoftherevolutionary，organisation，accusedoftreachery，were“executed“byorderof，localCommittees。Inmostcasestheperpetratorsofthecrimes，contrivedtoescape。OneofthembecamewellknowninWestern，EuropeasanauthorunderthepseudonymofStepniak。

Terrorismhadnotthedesiredeffect。Onthecontrary，it，stimulatedthezealandactivityoftheauthorities，andinthe，courseofthewinterof1878-79hundredsofarrests——somesayas，manyas2，000——weremadeinSt。Petersburgalone。Drivento，desperation，therevolutionistsstillatlargedecidedthatitwas，uselesstoassassinatemereofficials;thefonsetorigomalimust，bereached;ablowmustbestruckattheTsarhimself！，Thefirst，attemptwasmadebyayoungmancalledSolovyoff，whofiredseveral，shotsatAlexanderII。ashewaswalkingneartheWinterPalace，butnoneofthemtookeffect。

Thispolicyofaggressiveterrorismdidnotmeetwithuniversal，approvalamongtherevolutionists，anditwasdeterminedtodiscuss，thematterataCongressofdelegatesfromvariouslocalcircles。

ThemeetingswereheldinJune，1879，twomonthsafterSolovyoff’s，unsuccessfulattempt，attwoprovincialtowns，Lipetskand，Voronezh。Itwasthereagreedinprincipletoconfirmthedecision，oftheTerroristNarodovoltsi。AstheLiberalswerenotina，positiontocreateliberalinstitutionsortogiveguaranteesfor，politicalrights，whicharetheessentialconditionsofany，Socialistagitation，thereremainedfortherevolutionarypartyno，othercoursethantodestroythedespoticautocracy。Thereupona，programmeofactionwasprepared，andanExecutiveCommittee，elected。Fromthatmoment，thoughtherewerestillmanywho，preferredmildermethods，theTerroristshadtheupperhand，and，theyatonceproceededtocentralisetheorganisationandto，introducestricterdiscipline，withgreaterprecautionstoensure，secrecy。

TheExecutiveCommitteeimaginedthatbyassassinatingtheTsar，autocracymightbedestroyed，andseveralcarefullyplanned，attemptsweremade。Thefirstplanwastowreckthetrainwhenthe，ImperialfamilywerereturningtoSt。PetersburgfromtheCrimea。

Mineswereaccordinglylaidatthreeseparatepoints，buttheyall，failed。Atthelastofthethreepoints(nearMoscow)atrainwas，blownup，butitwasnottheoneinwhichtheImperialfamilywas，travelling。

Notatalldiscouragedbythisfailure，norbythediscoveryofits，secretprinting-pressbythepolice，theExecutiveCommitteenext，triedtoattainitsobjectbyanexplosionofdynamiteinthe，WinterPalacewhentheImperialfamilywereassembledatdinner。

TheexecutionwasentrustedtoacertainHalturin，oneofthefew，revolutionistsofpeasantorigin。Asanexceptionallyclever，carpenterandpolisher，heeasilyfoundregularemploymentinthe，palace，andhecontrivedtomakearoughplanofthebuilding。

Thisplan，onwhichthedining-hallwasmarkedwithanominousred，cross，fellintothehandsofthepolice，andtheymadewhatthey，consideredacarefulinvestigation;buttheyfailedtounravelthe，plotanddidnotdiscoverthedynamiteconcealedinthecarpenters’

sleepingquarters。Halturinshowedwonderfulcoolnesswhilethe，searchwasgoingon，andcontinuedtosleepeverynightonthe，explosive，thoughitcausedhimexcruciatingheadaches。Whenhe，wasassuredbythechemistoftheExecutiveCommitteethatthe，quantitycollectedwassufficient，heexplodedthemineatthe，usualdinnerhour，andcontrivedtoescapeuninjured。*，Inthe，guardroomimmediatelyabovethespotwherethedynamitewas，explodedtensoldierswerekilledand53wounded，andinthe，dining-hallthefloorwaswrecked，buttheImperialfamilyescaped，inconsequenceofnotsittingdowntodinnerattheusualhour。

*AfterlivingsometimeinRoumaniahereturnedtoRussiaunder，thenameofStepanof，andin1882hewastriedandexecutedfor，complicityintheassassinationofGeneralStrebnekof。

ForthisbarbarousacttheExecutiveCommitteepubliclyaccepted，fullresponsibility。Inaproclamationplacardedinthestreetsof，St。Petersburgitdeclaredthat，whileregrettingthedeathofthe，soldiers，itwasresolvedtocarryonthestrugglewiththe，AutocraticPoweruntilthesocialreformsshouldbeentrustedtoa，ConstituentAssembly，composedofmembersfreelyelectedand，furnishedwithinstructionsfromtheirconstituents。

Findingpolice-repressionsoineffectual，AlexanderII。determined，totrytheeffectofconciliation，andforthispurposeheplaced，LorisMelikofattheheadoftheGovernment，withsemi-dictatorial，powers(February，1880)。Theexperimentdidnotsucceed。Bythe，Terroristsitwasregardedas“ahypocriticalLiberalismoutwardly，andaveiledbrutalitywithin，“whileintheofficialworlditwas，condemnedasanactofculpableweaknessonthepartofthe，autocracy。OneconsequenceofitwasthattheExecutiveCommittee，wasencouragedtocontinueitsefforts，and，asthepolicebecame，muchlessactive，itwasenabledtoimprovetherevolutionary，organisation。Inacircularsenttotheaffiliatedprovincial，associationsitexplainedthattheonlysourceoflegislationmust，bethenationalwill，*andastheGovernmentwouldneveraccept，suchaprinciple，itshandmustbeforcedbyagreatpopular，insurrection，forwhichallavailableforcesshouldbeorganised。

Thepeasantry，asexperiencehadshown，couldnotyetbereliedon，buteffortsshouldbemadetoenroltheworkmenofthetowns。

Greatimportancewasattachedtopropagandainthearmy;butasfew，conversionshadbeenmadeamongtherankandfile，attentionwasto，bedirectedchieflytotheofficers，whowouldbeabletocarry，theirsubordinateswiththematthecriticalmoment。

*HencethedesignationNarodovoltsi(which，aswehaveseen，means，literallyNational-will-ists)adoptedbythissection。

Whilethusrecommendingtheschemeofdestroyingautocracybymeans，ofapopularinsurrectioninthedistantfuture，theCommitteehad，notabandonedmoreexpeditiousmethods，anditwasatthatmoment，hatchingaplotfortheassassinationoftheTsar。Duringthe，wintermonthshisMajestywasinthehabitofholdingonSundaysa，smallparadeintheriding-schoolneartheMichaelSquareinSt。

Petersburg。OnSunday，March3d，1881，thestreetsbywhichhe，usuallyreturnedtothePalacehadbeenunderminedattwoplaces，andonanalternativerouteseveralconspiratorswerepostedwith，hand-grenadesconcealedundertheirgreatcoats。TheEmperorchose，thealternativeroute。Here，atasignalgivenbySophiaPerovski，thefirstgrenadewasthrownbyastudentcalledRyssakoff，butit，merelywoundedsomemembersoftheescort。TheEmperorstoppedand，gotoutofhissledge，andashewasmakinginquiriesaboutthe，woundedsoldiersasecondgrenadewasthrownbyayouthcalled，Grinevitski，withfataleffect。AlexanderII。wasconveyed，hurriedlytotheWinterPalace，anddiedalmostimmediately。

BythisactthemembersoftheExecutiveCommitteeprovedtheir，energyandtheirtalentasconspirators，buttheyatthesametime，showedtheirshortsightednessandtheirpoliticalincapacity;for，theyhadmadenopreparationsforimmediatelyseizingthepower，whichtheysoardentlycoveted——withtheintentionofusingit，of，course，entirelyforthepublicgood。Ifthefactswerenotso，wellauthenticated，wemightdismissthewholestoryasincredible。

Agroupofyoungpeople，certainlynotmorethanthirtyorfortyin，number，withoutanyorganisedmaterialforcebehindthem，without，anyinfluentialaccomplicesinthearmyortheofficialworld，withoutanyprospectofsupportfromthemasses，andwithnoplan，forimmediateactionaftertheassassination，deliberatelyprovoked，thecrisisforwhichtheyweresohopelesslyunprepared。Ithas，beensuggestedthattheyexpectedtheLiberalstoseizetheSupreme，Power，butthisexplanationisevidentlyanafterthought，because，theyknewthattheLiberalswereasunpreparedasthemselvesand，theyregardedthematthattimeasdangerousrivals。Besidesthis，theexplanationisquiteirreconcilablewiththeproclamation，issuedbytheExecutiveCommitteeimmediatelyafterwards。Themost，charitablewayofexplainingtheconductoftheconspiratorsisto，supposethattheywereactuatedmorebyblindhatredofthe，autocracyanditsagentsthanbypoliticalcalculationsofa，practicalkind——thattheyactedsimplylikeawoundedbullinthe，arena，whichshutsitseyesandrecklesslychargesitstormentors。

ThemurderoftheEmperorhadnotatalltheeffectwhichthe，Narodovoltsianticipated。Onthecontrary，itdestroyedtheir，hopesofsuccess。Manypeopleofliberalconvictionswho，sympathisedvaguelywiththerevolutionarymovementwithouttaking，partinit，andwhodidnotcondemnveryseverelytheattackson，policeofficials，werehorrifiedwhentheyfoundthatthewould-be，reformersdidnotspareeventhesacredpersonoftheTsar。Atthe，sametime，thepoliceofficials，whohadbecomelaxandinefficient，undertheconciliatoryregimeofLorisMelikof，recoveredtheirold，zeal，anddisplayedsuchinordinateactivitythattherevolutionary，organisationwasparalysedandingreatmeasuredestroyed。Sixof，theregicideswerecondemnedtodeath，andfiveofthempublicly，executed，amongstthelatterSophiaPerovski，oneofthemost，activeandpersonallysympatheticpersonagesamongthe，revolutionists。Scoresofthosewhohadtakenanactivepartin，themovementwereinprisonorinexile。Forashorttimethe，propagandawascontinuedamongmilitaryandnavalofficers，and，variousattemptsatreorganisation，especiallyinthesouthern，provinces，weremade，buttheyallfailed。AcertainDegaief，who，hadtakenpartintheformationofmilitarycircles，turned，informer，andaidedthepolice。Byhistreacherynotonlya，considerablenumberofofficers，butalsoVeraFilipof，ayoung，ladyofremarkableabilityandcourage，whowastheleadingspirit，intheattemptsatreorganisation，werearrested。Therewerestill，anumberofleaderslivingabroad，andfromtimetotimetheysent，emissariestorevivethepropaganda，buttheseeffortswereall，fruitless。Oneoftheactivemembersoftherevolutionaryparty，LeoDeutsch，whohassincepublishedhisMemoirs，relateshowthe，tideofrevolutionebbedrapidlyatthistime。”BothinRussiaand，abroad，“hesays，“Ihadseenhowtheearlierenthusiasmhadgiven，waytoscepticism;menhadlostfaith，thoughmanyofthemwould，notallowthatitwasso。Itwascleartomethatareactionhad，setinformanyyears。”，Oftheattemptstoresuscitatethe，movementhesays：“Theuntriedandunskilfullymanagedsocieties，wereruntodeathbeforetheycouldundertakeanythingdefinite，andtheunityandinterdependencewhichcharacterisedtheoriginal，bandofmembershaddisappeared。”，Withregardtothewantof，unity，anotherprominentrevolutionist(Maslof)wrotetoafriend，(Dragomanof)atGenevain1882intermsofbittercomplaint。He，accusedtheExecutiveCommitteeoftryingtoplaythepartofchief，ofthewholerevolutionaryparty，anddeclaredthatits，centralisingtendenciesweremoredespoticthanthoseofthe，Government。Distributingordersamongitsadherentswithout，initiatingthemintoitsplans，itinsistedonunquestioning，obedience。TheSocialistyouth，ardentadherentsofFederalism，wereindignantatthistreatment，andbegantounderstandthatthe，Committeeusedthemsimplyaschairacanon。Thewriterdescribed，invividcoloursthemutualhostilitywhichreignedamongvarious，fractionsoftheparty，andwhichmanifesteditselfinaccusations，andevenindenunciations;andhepredictedthattheNarodnaya，Volya，whichhadorganisedthevariousactsofterrorism，culminatingintheassassinationoftheEmperor，wouldnever，developintoapowerfulrevolutionaryparty。Ithadsunkintothe，sloughofuntruth，anditcouldonlycontinuetodeceivethe，Governmentandthepublic。

Inthemutualrecriminationsseveralinterestingadmissionswere，made。Itwasrecognisedthatneithertheeducatedclassesnorthe，commonpeoplewerecapableofbringingaboutarevolution：the，formerwerenotnumerousenough，andthelatterweredevotedtothe，Tsaranddidnotsympathisewiththerevolutionarymovement，though，theymightperhapsbeinducedtoriseatamomentofcrisis。It，wasconsidereddoubtfulwhethersucharisingwasdesirable，becausethemasses，beinginsufficientlyprepared，mightturn，againsttheeducatedminority。Innocasecouldapopular，insurrectionattaintheobjectwhichtheSocialistshadinview，becausethepowerwouldeitherremaininthehandsoftheTsar——

thankstothedevotionofthecommonpeople——oritwouldfallinto，thehandsoftheLiberals，whowouldoppressthemassesworsethan，theautocraticGovernmenthaddone。Further，itwasrecognised，thatactsofterrorismwereworsethanuseless，becausetheywere，misunderstoodbytheignorant，andtendedtoinflamethemasses，againsttheleaders。Itseemednecessary，therefore，toreturnto，apacificpropaganda。Tikhomirof，whowasnominallydirectingthe，movementfromabroad，becameutterlydiscouraged，andwrotein1884

tooneofhisemissariesinRussia(Lopatin)：“YounowseeRussia，andcanconvinceyourselfthatitdoesnotpossessthematerialfor，avastworkofreorganisation……Iadviseyouseriouslynotto，makesuperhumaneffortsandnottomakeascandalinattemptingthe，impossible……Ifyoudonotwanttosatisfyyourselfwith，trifles，comeawayandawaitbettertimes。”

Inexaminingthematerialrelatingtothisperiodoneseesclearly，thattherevolutionarymovementhadgotintoaviciouscircle。As，pacificpropagandahadbecomeimpossible，inconsequenceofthe，oppositionoftheauthoritiesandthevigilanceofthepolice，the，Governmentcouldbeoverturnedonlybyageneralinsurrection;but，thegeneralinsurrectioncouldnotbepreparedwithoutpacific，propaganda。Asforterrorism，ithadbecomediscredited。

Tikhomirofhimselfcametotheconclusionthattheterroristidea，wasaltogetheramistake，notonlymorally，butalsofromthepoint，ofviewofpoliticalexpediency。Aparty，heexplained，haseither，theforcetooverthrowtheGovernment，orithasnot;intheformer，caseithasnoneedofpoliticalassassination，andinthelatter，theassassinationshavenoeffect，becauseGovernmentsarenotso，stupidastoletthemselvesbefrightenedbythosewhocannot，overthrowthem。Plainlytherewasnothingtobedonebuttowait，forbettertimes，ashehadsuggested，andthebettertimesdidnot，seemtobewithinmeasurabledistance。Hehimself，after，publishingabrochureentitled“WhyICeasedtoBea，Revolutionist，“madehispeacewiththeGovernment，andothers，followedhisexample。*，Inoneprisonninemadeformal，recantations，amongthemEmilianof，whoheldareservebombready，whenAlexanderII。wasassassinated。Occasionalactsofterrorism，showedthattherewasstillfireunderthesmoulderingembers，but，theywerefewandfarbetween。Thelastseriousincidentofthe，kindduringthisperiodwastheregicideconspiracyofSheviryoff，inMarch，1887。Theconspirators，carryingthebombs，were，arrestedintheprincipalstreetofSt。Petersburg，andfiveof，themwerehanged。TherailwayaccidentofBorki，whichhappenedin，thefollowingyear，andinwhichtheImperialfamilyhadavery，narrowescape，oughtperhapstobeaddedtothelist，becausethere，isreasontobelievethatitwastheworkofrevolutionists。

*TikhomirofsubsequentlyworkedagainsttheSocialDemocratsin，MoscowintheinterestsoftheGovernment。

Bythistimeallthecoolerheadsamongtherevolutionists，especiallythosewhowerelivingabroadinpersonalsafety，had，cometounderstandthattheSocialistidealcouldnotbeattained，bypopularinsurrection，terrorism，orconspiracies，and，consequentlythatfurtheractivityontheoldlineswasabsurd。

Thoseofthemwhodidnotabandontheenterpriseindespair，revertedtotheideathatAutocraticPower，impregnableagainst，frontalattacks，mightbedestroyedbyprolongedsiegeoperations。

Thischangeoftacticsisreflectedintherevolutionary，literature。In1889，forexample，theeditoroftheSvobodnaya，Rossiadeclaredthattheaimofthemovementnowwaspolitical，freedom——notonlyasastepping-stonetosocialreorganisation，but，asagoodinitself。Thisis，heexplains，theonlypossible，revolutionatpresentinRussia。”Forthemomenttherecanbeno，otherimmediatepracticalaim。Ulterioraimsarenotabandoned，buttheyarenotatpresentwithinreach……Therevolutionists，oftheseventiesandtheeightiesdidnotsucceedincreatingamong，thepeasantryorthetownworkmenanythingwhichhadeventhe，appearanceofaforcecapableofstrugglingwiththeGovernment;

andtherevolutionistsofthefuturewillhavenogreatersuccess，untiltheyhaveobtainedsuchpoliticalrightsaspersonal，inviolability。Ourimmediateaim，therefore，isaNational，Assemblycontrolledbylocalself-government，andthiscanbe，broughtaboutonlybyaunionofalltherevolutionaryforces。”

Therewerestillindications，itistrue，thattheoldspiritof，terrorismwasnotyetquiteextinct：CaptainZolotykhin，for，example，anofficeroftheMoscowsecretpolice，wasassassinated，byafemalerevolutionistin1890。Butsuchincidentsweremerely，thelastfitfulsputteringsofalampthatwasgoingoutforwant，ofoil。In1892Stepniakdeclareditevidenttoallthatthe，professionalrevolutionistscouldnotaloneoverthrowautocracy，howevergreattheirenergyandheroism;andhearrivedatthesame，conclusionasthewriterjustquoted。Ofcourse，immediatesuccess，wasnottobeexpected。”Itisonlyfromtheevolutionist’spoint，ofviewthatthestrugglewithautocracyhasameaning。Fromany，otherstandpointitmustseemasanguinaryfarce——amereexercise，intheartofself-sacrifice！”Sucharetheconclusionsarrivedat，in1892byamanwhohadbeenin1878oneoftheleading，terrorists，andwhohadwithhisownhandassassinatedGeneral，Mezentsef，ChiefofthePoliticalPolice。

Thustherevolutionarymovement，afterpassingthroughfourstages，whichImaycalltheacademic，thepropagandist，the，insurrectionary，andtheterrorist，hadfailedtoaccomplishits，object。Oneofthosewhohadtakenanactivepartinit，andwho，afterspendingtwoyearsinSiberiaasapoliticalexile，escaped，andsettledinWesternEurope，couldwritethus：“Ourrevolutionary，movementisdead，andwewhoarestillalivestandbythegraveof，ourbeautifuldepartedanddiscusswhatiswantingtoher。Oneof，usthinksthathernoseshouldbeimproved;anothersuggestsa，changeinherchinorherhair。Wedonotnoticetheessential，thatwhatourbeautifuldepartedwantsislife;thatitisnota，matterofhairoreyebrows，butofalivingsoul，whichformerly，concealedalldefects，andmadeherbeautiful，andwhichnowhas，flownaway。Howeverwemayinventchangesandimprovements，all，thesethingsareutterlyinsignificantincomparisonwithwhatis，reallywanting，andwhatwecannotgive;forwhocanbreathea，livingsoulintoacorpse？”

Intruth，themovementwhichIhaveendeavouredtodescribewasat，anend;butanothermovement，havingthesameultimateobject，was，comingintoexistence，anditconstitutesoneoftheessential，factorsofthepresentsituation。Someoftheexilesin，SwitzerlandandParishadbecomeacquaintedwiththesocial-

democraticandlabourmovementsinWesternEurope，andthey，believedthatthestrategyandtacticsemployedinthesemovements，mightbeadoptedinRussia。Howfartheyhavesucceededin，carryingoutthispolicyIshallrelatepresently;butbefore，enteringonthissubject，Imustexplainhowtheapplicationof，suchapolicyhadbeenrenderedpossiblebychangesintheeconomic，conditions。Russiahadbeguntocreaterapidlyagreat，manufacturingindustryandanindustrialproletariat。Thiswill，formthesubjectofthenextchapter。

CHAPTERXXXVI

INDUSTRIALPROGRESSANDTHEPROLETARIAT

RussiatillLatelyaPeasantEmpire——EarlyEffortstoIntroduce，ArtsandCrafts——PetertheGreatandHisSuccessors——Manufacturing，IndustryLongRemainsanExotic——TheCottonIndustry——TheReforms，ofAlexanderII——ProtectionistsandFreeTrade——Progressunder，HighTariffs——M。Witte’sPolicy——HowCapitalWasObtained——Increase，ofExports——ForeignFirmsCrosstheCustomsFrontier——Rapid，DevelopmentofIronIndustry——ACommercialCrisis——M。Witte’s，PositionUnderminedbyAgrariansandDoctrinaires——M。Plehvea，FormidableOpponent——HisApprehensionsofRevolution——FallofM。

Witte——TheIndustrialProletariat。

FiftyyearsagoRussiawasstillessentiallyapeasantempire，livingbyagricultureofaprimitivetype，andsupplyingherother，wantschieflybyhomeindustries，aswasthecustominWestern，EuropeduringtheMiddleAges。

Formanygenerationsherrulershadbeentryingtotransplantinto，theirwidedominionstheartandcraftsoftheWest，buttheyhad，formidabledifficultiestocontendwith，andtheirsuccesswasnot，nearlyasgreatastheydesired。Weknowthatasfarbackasthe，fourteenthcenturytherewerecloth-workersinMoscow，forweread，inthechroniclesthattheworkshopsoftheseartisansweresacked，whenthetownwasstormedbytheTartars。Workersinmetalhad，alsoappearedinsomeofthelargertownsbythattime，buttheydo，notseemtohaverisenmuchabovethelevelofordinary，blacksmiths。Theyweredestined，however，tomakemorerapid，progressthanotherclassesofartisans，becausetheoldTsarsof，Muscovy，likeothersemi-barbarouspotentates，admiredandenvied，theindustriesofmorecivilisedcountriesmainlyfromthemilitary，pointofview。Whattheywantedmostwasaplentifulsupplyof，goodarmswherewithtodefendthemselvesandattacktheir，neighbours，anditwastothisobjectthattheirmoststrenuous，effortsweredirected。

Asearlyas1475IvanIII。thegrandfatherofIvantheTerrible，sentadelegatetoVenicetoseekoutforhimanarchitectwho，in，additiontohisowncraft，knewhowtomakeguns;andinduecourse，appearedintheKremlinacertainMuroli，calledAristotlebyhis，contemporariesonaccountofhisprofoundlearning。Heundertook，“tobuildchurchesandpalaces，tocastbigbellsandcannons，to，fireoffthesaidcannons，andtomakeeverysortofcastingsvery，cunningly“;andfortheexerciseofthesevariousartsitwas，solemnlystipulatedinaformaldocumentthatheshouldreceivethe，modestsalaryoftenroublesmonthly。Withregardtothemilitary，products，atleast，theVenetianfaithfullyfulfilledhiscontract，andinashorttimetheTsarhadthesatisfactionofpossessinga，“cannon-house，“subsequentlydignifiedwiththenameof“arsenal。”

Someofthenativeslearnedtheforeignart，andexactlyacentury，later(1856)aRussian，oratleastaSlav，calledTchekhof，producedafamous“Tsar-cannon，“weighingasmuchas96，000lbs。

Theconnectionthusestablishedwiththemechanicalartsofthe，Westwasalwaysafterwardsmaintained，andwefindfrequentnotices，ofthefactincontemporarywriters。Inthereignofthe，grandfatherofPetertheGreat，forexample，twopaper-workswere，establishedbyanItalian;andvelvetfortheTsarandhisBoyars，goldbrocadesforecclesiasticalvestments，andrudekindsofglass，forordinarypurposesweremanufacturedundertheaugustpatronage，oftheenlightenedruler。HissonAlexiswentagoodmanysteps，further，andscandalisedhisGod-fearingorthodoxsubjectsbyhis，loveofforeignhereticalinventions。ItwasinhisGermansuburb，ofMoscowthatyoungPeter，whowastobecrowned“theGreat，“made，hisfirstacquaintancewiththeusefulartsoftheWest。

WhenthegreatreformercametothethronehefoundinhisTsardom，besidesmanyworkshops，sometenfoundries，allofwhichwereunder，orders“tocastcannons，bombs，andbullets，andtomakearmsfor，theserviceoftheState。”，Thisseemedtohimonlyabeginning，especiallyfortheminingandironindustry，inwhichhewas，particularlyinterested。Byimportingforeignartificersand，placingattheirdisposalbigestates，withnumerousserfs，inthe，districtswheremineralswereplentiful，andbycarefully，stipulatingthattheseforeignersshouldteachhissubjectswell，andconcealfromthemnoneofthesecretsofthecraft，hecreated，intheUralagreatironindustry，whichstillexistsatthe，presentday。FindingbyexperiencethatStateminesandState，ironworkswereaheavydrainonhisinsufficientlyreplenished，treasury，hetransferredsomeofthemtoprivatepersons，andthis，policywasfollowedoccasionallybyhissuccessors。Hencethe，giganticfortunesoftheDemidofsandotherfamilies。The，Shuvalovs，forexample，in1760possessed，forthepurposeof，workingtheirminesandironworks，nolessthan33，000serfsanda，correspondingamountofland。Unfortunatelytheconcessionswere，generallygivennottoenterprisingbusiness-men，butto，influentialcourt-dignitaries，whoconfinedtheirattentionto，squanderingtherevenues，andnotafewoftheminesandworks，revertedtotheGovernment。

Thearmyrequirednotonlyarmsandammunition，butalsouniforms，andblankets。Greatattention，therefore，waspaidtothewoollen，industryfromthereignofPeterdownwards。Inthetimeof，Catherinetherewerealready120clothfactories，buttheywereon，averysmallscale，accordingtomodernconceptions。Tenfactories，inMoscow，forexample，hadamongstthemonly104looms，130

workers，andayearlyoutputfor200，000roubles。

Whilethuslargelyinfluencedinitseconomicpolicybymilitary，considerations，theGovernmentdidnotentirelyneglectother，branchesofmanufacturingindustry。EversinceRussiahad，pretensionstobeingacivilisedpoweritsrulershavealwaysbeen，inclinedtopaymoreattentiontotheornamentalthantheuseful——

tothevarnishratherthantheframeworkofcivilisation——andwe，neednotthereforebesurprisedtofindthatlongbeforethenative，industrycouldsupplythematerialsrequiredfortheordinarywants，ofhumblelife，attemptsweremadetoproducesuchthingsas，Gobelintapestries。Imentionthismerelyasanillustrationofa，characteristictraitofthenationalcharacter，theinfluenceof，whichmaybefoundinmanyotherspheresofofficialactivity。

IfRussiadidnotattaintheindustriallevelofWesternEurope，it，wasnotfromwantofambitionandeffortonthepartoftherulers。

Theyworkedhard，ifnotalwayswisely，forthisend。

Manufacturerswereexemptedfromratesandtaxes，andevenfrom，militaryservice，andsomeofthem，asIhavesaid，receivedlarge，estatesfromtheCrownontheunderstandingthattheserfsshould，beemployedasworkmen。Atthesametimetheywereprotectedfrom，foreigncompetitionbyprohibitivetariffs。Inaword，the，manufacturingindustrywasnursedandfosteredinawaytosatisfy，themostthorough-goingprotectionist，especiallythosebranches，whichworkedupnativerawmaterialsuchasores，flax，hemp，wool，andtallow。Occasionallytheofficialinterferenceandanxietyto，protectpublicinterestswentfurtherthanthemanufacturers，desired。Onmorethanoneoccasiontheauthoritiesfixedtheprice，ofcertainkindsofmanufacturedgoods，andin1754theSenate，beinganxioustoprotectthepopulationfromfires，orderedall，glassandironworkswithinaradiusof200verstsaroundMoscowto，bedestroyed！，Inspiteofsuchobstacles，themanufacturing，industryasawholemadeconsiderableprogress。Between1729and，1762thenumberofestablishmentsofficiallyrecognisedas，factoriesrosefrom26to335。

TheseresultsdidnotsatisfyCatherineII。whoascendedthe，thronein1762。Undertheinfluenceofherfriends，theFrench，Encyclopedistes，sheimaginedforatimethattheofficialcontrol，mightberelaxed，andthatthesystemofemployingserfsinthe，factoriesandfoundriesmightbereplacedbyfreelabour，asin，WesternEurope;monopoliesmightbeabolished，andallliege，subjects，includingthepeasants，mightbeallowedtoembarkin，industrialundertakingsastheypleased，“forthebenefitofthe，Stateandthenation。”，Allthislookedverywellonpaper，but，Catherineneverallowedhersentimentalliberalismtoinjure，seriouslytheinterestsofherEmpire，andsheaccordingly，refrainedfromputtingthelaissez-faireprinciplelargelyinto，practice。Thoughagooddealhasbeenwrittenabouthereconomic，policy，itishardlydistinguishablefromthatofherpredecessors。

Likethem，shemaintainedhightariffs，accordedlargesubsidies，andevenpreventedtheexportofrawmaterial，inthehopethatit，mightbeworkedupathome;andwhenthepricesinthewoollen，marketroseveryhigh，shecompelledthemanufacturerstosupply，thearmywithclothatapricefixedbytheauthorities。Inshort，theoldsystemremainedpracticallyunimpaired，andnotwithstanding，thesteadyprogressmadeduringthereignofNicholasI。(1825-55)，whenthenumberoffactoryhandsrosefrom210，000to380，000，the，manufacturingindustryasawholecontinuedtobe，untiltheserfs，wereemancipatedin1861，ahothouseplantwhichcouldflourish，onlyinanofficiallyheatedatmosphere。

Therewasonebranchofit，however，towhichthisremarkdoesnot，apply。Theartofcotton-spinningandcotton-weavingstruckdeep，rootinRussiansoil。Afterremainingforgenerationsinthe，conditionofacottageindustry——theyarnbeingdistributedamong，thepeasantsandworkedupbythemintheirownhomes——itbegan，about1825，tobemodernised。Thoughitstillrequiredtobe，protectedagainstforeigncompetition，itrapidlyoutgrewthe，necessityfordirectofficialsupport。Bigfactoriesdrivenby，steam-powerwereconstructed，thenumberofhandsemployedroseto，110，000，andthefoundationsofgreatfortuneswerelaid。Strange，tosay，manyofthefuturemillionaireswereuneducatedserfs。

SavaMorozof，forexample，whowastobecomeoneoftheindustrial，magnatesofMoscow，wasaserfbelongingtoaproprietorcalled，Ryumin;mostoftheotherswereserfsofCountSheremetyef——the，ownerofalargeestateonwhichtheindustrialtownofIvanovohad，sprungup——whowasproudofhavingmillionairesamonghisserfs，andwhoneverabusedhisauthorityoverthem。Thegreatmovement，however，wasnoteffectedwithouttheassistanceofforeigners。

Foreignforemenwerelargelyemployed，andintheworkof，organisationaleadingpartwasplayedbyaGermancalledLudwig，Knoop。BeginninglifeasacommercialtravellerforanEnglish，firm，hesoonbecamealargecottonimporter，andwhenin1840a，feverishactivitywasproducedintheRussianmanufacturingworld，bytheGovernment’spermissiontoimportEnglishmachines，hisfirm，suppliedthesemachinestothefactoriesonconditionofobtaining，ashareinthebusiness。Ithasbeencalculatedthatitobtained，inthiswayashareinnolessthan122factories，andhencearose，amongthepeasantryapopularsaying：

“Wherethereisachurch，thereyoufindapope，Andwherethereisafactory，thereyoufindaKnoop。”*

ThebiggestcreationofthefirmwasafactorybuiltatNarvain，1856，withnearlyhalfamillionspindlesdrivenbywater-power。

*Gdyetserkov——tampop;

Agdyefabrika——tamKnop。

Inthesecondhalfoflastcenturyarevolutionwasbroughtabout，inthemanufacturingindustrygenerallybytheemancipationofthe，serfs，therapidextensionofrailways，thefacilitiesforcreating，limitedliabilitycompanies，andbycertaininnovationsinthe，financialpolicyoftheGovernment。Theemancipationputonthe，marketanunlimitedsupplyofcheaplabour;theconstructionof，railwaysinalldirectionsincreasedahundredfoldthemeansof，communication;andthenewbanksandothercreditinstitutions，aidedbyanoverwhelminginfluxofforeigncapital，encouragedthe，foundationandextensionofindustrialandcommercialenterpriseof，everydescription。Foratimetherewasgreatexcitement。Itwas，commonlysupposedthatinallmattersrelatingtotradeand，industryRussiahadsuddenlyjumpeduptothelevelofWestern，Europe，andmanypeopleinSt。Petersburg，carriedawaybythe，prevailingenthusiasmforliberalismingeneralandthedoctrines，ofFreeTradeinparticular，wereinfavourofabolishing，protectionismasanantiquatedrestrictiononlibertyandan，obstacletoeconomicprogress。

AtonemomenttheGovernmentwasdisposedtoyieldtothecurrent，butitwasrestrainedbyaninfluentialgroupofconservative，PoliticalEconomists，whoappealedtopatrioticsentiment，andby，theMoscowmanufacturers，whodeclaredthatFreeTradewouldruin，thecountry。Afteralittlehesitationitproceededtoraise，insteadoflowering，theprotectionisttariff。In1869-76thead，valoremdutieswere，onanaverage，underthirteenpercent。but，fromthattimeonwardstheyrosesteadily，untilthelastfive，yearsofthecentury，whentheyaveragedthirty-threepercent。，andwereforsomearticlesverymuchhigher。Inthiswaythe，Moscowindustrialmagnateswereprotectedagainsttheinfluxof，cheapforeigngoods，buttheywerenotsavedfromforeign，competition，formanyforeignmanufacturers，inordertoenjoythe，benefitofthehighduties，foundedfactoriesinRussia。Eventhe，firmlyestablishedcottonindustrysufferedfromtheseintruders。

Industrialsuburbscontainingnotafewcottonfactoriessprangup，aroundSt。Petersburg;andasmallPolishvillagecalledLodz，near，theGermanfrontier，grewrapidlyintoaprosperoustownof300，000

inhabitants，andbecameaseriousrivaltotheancientMuscovite，capital。Soseverelywasthecompetitionofthisyoungupstart，felt，thattheMoscowmerchantspetitionedtheEmperortoprotect，thembydrawingacustomsfrontierroundthePolishprovinces，but，theirpetitionwasnotgranted。

Undertheshelterofthehightariffsthemanufacturingindustryas，awholehasmaderapidprogress，andthecottontradehaskeptwell，tothefront。Inthatbranch，between1861and1897，thenumberof，handsemployedrosefrom120，000to325，000，andtheestimated，valueoftheproductsfrom72to478millionsofroubles。In1899

thenumberofspindleswasconsiderablyoversixmillions，andthe，numberofautomaticweavingmachines145，000。

Theironindustryhaslikewiseprogressedrapidly，thoughithas，notyetoutgrownthenecessityforGovernmentsupport，anditis，notyetabletoprovideforallhomewants。Aboutfortyyearsago，itreceivedapowerfulimpulsefromthediscoverythatinthe，provincestothenorthoftheCrimeaandtheSeaofAzoftherewere，enormousquantitiesofironoreandbedsofgoodcoalinclose，proximitytoeachother。Thankstothisdiscoveryandtoother，factsofwhichIshallhaveoccasiontospeakpresently，this，district，whichhadpreviouslybeenagriculturalandpastoral，has，outstrippedthefamousUralregion，andhasbecometheBlack，CountryofRussia。Thevastlonelysteppe，whereformerlyonesaw，merelythepeasant-farmer，theshepherd，andtheTchumak，*driving，alongsomnolentlywithhisbig，long-horned，whitebullocks，isnow，dottedoverwithbusyindustrialsettlementsofmushroomgrowth，andgreatironworks——someofthemunfinished;whileatnightthe，landscapeislitupwiththeluridflamesofgiganticblast-

furnaces。Inthiswonderfultransformation，asinthehistoryof，Russianindustrialprogressgenerally，agreatpartwasplayedby，foreigners。Thepioneerwhodidmostinthisdistrictwasan，Englishman，JohnHughes，whobeganlifeasthesonandpupilofa，Welshblacksmith，andwhosesonsarenowdirectorsofthebiggest，oftheSouthRussianironworks。

*TheTchumak，afamiliarfigureinthesongsandlegendsofLittle，Russia，wasthecarrierwhobeforetheconstructionofrailways，transportedthegraintothegreatmarkets，andbroughtback，merchandisetotheinterior。Heisgraduallydisappearing。

MuchastheSouthhasprogressedindustriallyinrecentyears，it，stillremainsfarbehindthoseindustrialportionsofthecountry，whichwerethicklysettledatanearlierdate。Fromthispointof，viewthemostimportantregionisthegroupofprovincesclustering，roundMoscow;nextcomestheSt。Petersburgregion，including，Livonia;andthirdlyPoland。Asforthevariouskindsofindustry，themostimportantcategoryisthatoftextilefabrics，thesecond，thatofarticlesofnutrition，andthethirdthatoforesand，metals。Thetotalproduction，ifwemaybelievecertain，statisticalauthorities，placesRussianowamongtheindustrial，nationsoftheworldinthefifthplace，immediatelyafterthe，UnitedStates，England，Germany，andFrance，andalittlebefore，Austria。

Themanwhohasinrecenttimescarriedoutmostenergeticallythe，policyofprotectingandfosteringnativeindustriesisM。Witte，a，namenowfamiliartoWesternEurope。Anavoweddiscipleofthe，greatGermaneconomist，FriedrichList，aboutwhoseworkshe，publishedabrochurein1888，heheldfirmly，fromhisyouth，upwards，thedoctrinethat“eachnationshouldaboveallthings，developharmoniouslyitsnaturalresourcestothehighestpossible，degreeofindependence，protectingitsownindustriesand，preferringthenationalaimtothepecuniaryadvantageof，individuals。”，Asacorollarytothisprinciplehedeclaredthat，purelyagriculturalcountriesareeconomicallybackwardand，intellectuallystagnant，beingcondemnedtopaytributetothe，nationswhohavelearnedtoworkuptheirrawproductsintomore，valuablecommodities。ThegoodoldEnglishdoctrinethatcertain，countrieswereintendedbyProvidencetobeeternallyagricultural，andthattheirfunctionintheeconomyoftheuniverseistosupply，rawmaterialfortheindustrialnations，wasalwaysinhiseyesan，abomination——aningenious，nefariousinventionoftheManchester，school，astutelyinventedforthepurposeofkeepingtheyounger，nationspermanentlyinastateofeconomicbondageforthebenefit，ofEnglishmanufacturers。ToemancipateRussiafromthisthraldom，byenablinghertocreateagreatnativeindustry，sufficientto，supplyallherownwants，wastheaimofhispolicyandthe，constantobjectofhisuntiringefforts。Thosewhohavehadthe，goodfortunetoknowhimpersonallymusthaveoftenheardhim，discourseeloquentlyonthistheme，supportinghisviewsby，quotationsfromtheeconomistsofhisownschool，andby，illustrationsdrawnfromthehistoryofhisownandother，countries。

Anecessaryconditionofrealisingthisaimwasthatthereshould，behightariffs。Thesealreadyexisted，andtheymightberaised，stillhigher，butinthemselvestheywerenotenough。Forthe，rapiddevelopmentofthenativeindustryanenormouscapitalwas，required，andthefirstproblemtobesolvedwashowthiscapital，couldbeobtained。Atonemomenttheenergeticministerconceived，theprojectofcreatingafictitiouscapitalbyinflatingthepaper，currency;butthisideaprovedunpopular。Whenbroachedinthe，CouncilofStateitencountereddeterminedopposition。Someofthe，membersofthatbody，especiallyM。Bunge，whohadbeenhimself，MinisterofFinance，andwhorememberedtheevileffectsofthe，inordinateinflationofthecurrencyonforeignexchangesduring，theTurkishWar，advocatedstronglythedirectlyoppositecourse——a，returntogoldmonometallism，forwhichM。Vishnegradski，M。

Witte’simmediatepredecessor，hadmadeconsiderablepreparations。

Beingapracticalmanwithoutinveterateprejudices，M。Wittegave，uptheschemewhichhecouldnotcarrythrough，andadoptedthe，viewsofhisopponents。Hewouldintroducethegoldcurrencyas，recommended;buthowwastherequisitecapitaltobeobtained？，It，mustbeprocuredfromabroad，somehow，andthesimplestwayseemed，tobetostimulatetheexportofnativeproducts。Forthispurpose，therailwayswereextended，*thetrafficratesmanipulated，andthe，meansoftransportimprovedgenerally。

*In1892，whenM。Witteundertookthefinancialadministration，therewere30，620verstsofrailway，andattheendof1900there，were51，288versts。

Acertaininfluxofgoldwasthussecured，butnotnearlyenough，fortheobjectinview。*，Somemorepotentmeans，therefore，hadto，beemployed，andtheinventiveministerevolvedanewscheme。If，hecouldonlyinduceforeigncapitaliststoundertakemanufacturing，industriesinRussia，theywould，atoneandthesametime，bring，intothecountrythecapitalrequired，andtheywouldcooperate，powerfullyinthatdevelopmentofthenationalindustrywhichheso，ardentlywished。Nosoonerhadheroughlysketchedouthisplan——

forhewasnotamantoletthegrassgrowunderhisfeet——thanhe，sethimselftoputitintoexecutionbylettingitbeknowninthe，financialworldthattheGovernmentwasreadytoopenagreatfield，forlucrativeinvestments，intheformofprofitableenterprises，underthecontrolofthosewhosubscribedthecapital。

*In1891thetotalvalueoftheexportswasroughly70，000，000

pounds。Itthenfell，inconsequenceofbadharvests，to45

millions，anddidnotrecoverthepreviousmaximumuntil1897，when，itstoodat73millions。Thereaftertherewasasteadyrisetill，1901，whenthetotalwasestimatedat76millions。

Foreigncapitalistsrespondedwarmlytothecall。Crowdsof，concession-hunters，projectors，companypromoters，ethocgenus，omne，collectedinSt。Petersburg，offeringtheirservicesonthe，mosttemptingterms;andallofthemwhocouldmakeoutaplausible，casewerewellreceivedattheMinistryofFinance。Itwasthere，explainedtothemthatinmanybranchesofindustry，suchasthe，manufactureoftextilefabrics，therewaslittleornoroomfor，newcomers，butthatinotherstheprospectsweremostbrilliant。

Take，forexample，theironindustriesofSouthernRussia。The，boundlessmineralwealthofthatregionwasstillalmostintact，andthefewworkswhichhadbeenthereestablishedwerepayingvery，largedividends。TheworksfoundedbyJohnHughes，forexample，hadrepeatedlydividedconsiderablyovertwentypercent。and，therewaslittlefearforthefuture，becausetheGovernmenthad，embarkedonagreatschemeofrailwayextension，requiringan，unlimitedamountofrailsandrolling-stock。Whatbetteropening，couldbedesired？，Certainlytheopeningseemedmostattractive，andintoitrushedthecrowdofcompanypromoters，followedby，stock-jobbersandbrokers，playinglivelypiecesofwhatthe，GermanscallZukunftsmusik。Anunwaryandconfidingpublic，especiallyinBelgiumandFrance，listenedtotheenchanting，strainsofthefinancialsyrens，andinvestedlargely。Quicklythe，numberofcompletedironworksinthatregionrosefromnineto，seventeen，andintheshortspaceofthreeyearstheoutputofpig-

ironwasnearlydoubled。In1900therewere44blastfurnacesin，workingorder，andtenmorewereincourseofconstruction。And，allthistimetheImperialrevenueincreasedbyleapsandbounds，sothattheintroductionofthegoldcurrencywaseffectedwithout，difficulty。M。Wittewasdeclaredtobethegreatestministerof，histime——aRussianColbertorTurgot，orperhapsthetworolled，intoone。

Thencameachange。Competitionandover-productionlednaturally，toafallinprices，andatthesametimethedemanddecreased，becausetherailway-buildingactivityoftheGovernmentslackened。

Alarmedatthisstateofthings，thebankswhichhadhelpedto，startandfosterthehugeandcostlyenterprisescontractedtheir，credits。Bytheendof1899thedisenchantmentwasgeneraland，widespread。Someofthecompaniesweresoweightedbythe，preliminaryfinancialobligations，andhadconductedtheiraffairs，insuchcareless，recklessfashion，thattheyhadsoontoshutdown，theirminesandclosetheirworks。Evensolidundertakings，suffered。ThesharesoftheBrianskworks，forexample，whichhad，givendividendsashighas30percent。fellfrom500to230。The，Mamontofcompanies——supposedtobeoneofthestrongestfinancial，groupsinthecountry——hadtosuspendpayment，andnumerousother，failuresoccurred。Nearlyallthecommercialbanks，having，directlyparticipatedintheindustrialconcerns，wererudely，shaken。M。Witte，whohadbeenforatimetheidolofacertain，sectionofthefinancialworld，becameveryunpopular，andwas，accusedofmisleadingtheinvestingpublic。Amongtheaccusations，broughtagainsthimsomeatleastcouldeasilyberefuted。Hemay，havemademistakesinhispolicy，andmayhavebeenhimselfover-

sanguine，butsurely，ashesubsequentlyrepliedtohisaccusers，itwasnopartofhisdutytowarncompanypromotersanddirectors，thattheyshouldrefrainfromover-production，andthattheir，enterprisesmightnotbeasremunerativeastheyexpected。Asto，whetherthereisanytruthintheassertionthatheheldout，prospectsoflargerGovernmentordersthanheactuallygave，I

cannotsay。Thathecutdownprices，andshowedhimselfahardman，todealwith，thereseemsnodoubt。

Thereadermaynaturallybeinclinedtojumptotheconclusionthat，thecommercialcrisisjustreferredtowasthecauseofM。Witte’s，fall。Suchaconclusionwouldbeentirelyerroneous。Thecrisis，happenedinthewinterof1899-1900，andM。WitteremainedFinance，Ministeruntiltheautumnof1903。Hisfallwastheresultof，causesofatotallydifferentkind，andtheseIproposenowto，explain，becausetheexplanationwillthrowlightoncertainvery，curiousandcharacteristicconceptionsatpresentcurrentinthe，Russianeducatedclasses。

Ofcoursetherewerecertaincausesofapurelypersonalkind，but，Ishalldismisstheminaveryfewwords。Irememberonceaskinga，well-informedfriendofM。Witte’swhathethoughtofhimasan，administratorandastatesman。Thefriendreplied：“Imaginea，negrooftheGoldCoastletlooseinmodernEuropeancivilisation！”

Thisreply，likemostepigrammaticremarks，isapieceofgross，exaggeration，butithasamodicumoftruthinit。Intheeyesof，well-trainedRussianofficialsM。Wittewasatitanic，reckless，character，capableatanymomentofplayingthepartofthebullin，thechina-shop。Asamasterfulperson，brusqueinmannerand，incapableofbrookingcontradiction，hehadmadeforhimselfmany，enemies;andhisrestless，irrepressibleenergyhadledhimto，encroachontheprovincesofallhiscolleagues。Possessingashe，didthecontrolofthepurse，hisinterferencecouldnoteasilybe，resisted。TheMinistersofInterior，War，Agriculture，Public，Works，PublicInstruction，andForeignAffairshadalloccasionto，complainofhisincursionsintotheirdepartments。Incontrastto，hiscolleagues，hewasnotonlyextremelyenergetic，buthewas，everreadytoassumeanastoundingamountofresponsibility;andas，hewassomethingofanopportunist，hewasperhapsnotalways，quixoticallyscrupulousinthechoiceofexpedientsforattaining，hisends。

AltogetherM。Wittewasaninconvenientpersonageinan，administrationinwhichstrongpersonalityisregardedasentirely，outofplace，andinwhichpersonalinitiativeissupposedto，resideexclusivelyintheTsar。Inadditiontoallthishewasa，manwhofeltkeenly，andwhenhewasirritatedhedidnotalways，keeptheunrulymemberunderstrictcontrol。IfIamcorrectly，informed，itwassomeimprudentandnotveryrespectfulremarks，repeatedbyasubordinateandtransmittedbyaGrandDuketothe，Tsar，whichweretheimmediatecauseofhistransferfromthe，influentialpostofMinisterofFinancetotheornamentalposition，ofPresidentoftheCouncilofMinisters;butthatwasmerelythe，proverbiallaststrawthatbrokethecamel’sback。Hisposition，wasalreadyundermined，anditistheunderminingprocesswhichI

wishtodescribe。

ThefirsttoworkforhisoverthrowweretheAgrarian，Conservatives。Theycouldnotdenythat，fromthepurelyfiscal，pointofview，hisadministrationwasamarvelloussuccess;forhe，wasrapidlydoublingtherevenue，andhehadsucceededinreplacing，thefluctuatingdepreciatedpapercurrencybyagoldcoinage;but，theymaintainedthathewaskillingthegoosethatlaidthegolden，eggs。Evidentlythetax-payingpoweroftheruralclasseswas，beingoverstrained，fortheywerefallingmoreandmoreinto，arrearsinthepaymentoftheirtaxes，andtheirimpoverishmentwas，yearlyincreasing。Alltheirreserveshadbeenexhausted，aswas，shownbythefaminesof1891-92，whentheGovernmenthadtospend，hundredsofmillionstofeedthem。Whilstthelandwaslosingits，fertility，thosewhohadtolivebyitwereincreasinginnumbers，atanalarmingrate。Alreadyinsomedistrictsone-fifthofthe，peasanthouseholdshadnolongeranylandoftheirown，andof，thosewhostillpossessedlandalargeproportionhadnolongerthe，cattleandhorsesnecessarytotillandmanuretheirallotments。

NodoubtM。Wittewasbeginningtoperceivehismistake，andhad，donesomethingtopalliatetheevilsbyimprovingthesystemof，collectingthetaxesandabolishingthedutyonpassports，butsuch，merelypalliativeremediescouldhavelittleeffect。Whileafew，capitalistswereamassinggiganticfortunes，themasseswereslowly，andsurelyadvancingtothebrinkofstarvation。Thewelfareof，theagriculturists，whoconstitutenine-tenthsofthewhole，population，wasbeingruthlesslysacrificed，andforwhat？，Forthe，creationofamanufacturingindustrywhichrestedonanartificial，precariousbasis，andwhichhadalreadybeguntodecline。

SofartheAgrarians，whochampiontheinterestsofthe，agriculturalclasses。Theirviewswereconfirmedandtheir，argumentsstrengthenedbyaninfluentialgroupofmenwhomImay，call，forwantofabettername，thephilosophersordoctrinaire，interpretersofhistory，whohave，strangetosay，moreinfluence，inRussiathaninanyothercountry。

TheRussianeducatedclassesdesirethatthenationshouldbe，wealthyandself-supporting，andtheyrecognisethatforthis，purposealargemanufacturingindustryisrequired;buttheyare，reluctanttomakethesacrificesnecessarytoattaintheobjectin，view，andtheyimaginethat，somehoworother，thesesacrificesmay，beavoided。Sympathisingwiththisframeofmind，thedoctrinaires，explainthattherichandprosperouscountriesofEuropeand，Americaobtainedtheirwealthandprosperitybyso-called，“Capitalism“——thatistosay，byapeculiarsocialorganisationin，whichthetwomainfactorsareasmallbodyofrichcapitalistsand，manufacturersandanenormouspauperproletariatlivingfromhand，tomouth，atthemercyoftheheartlessemployersoflabour。

Russiahaslatelyfollowedinthefootstepsofthosewealthy，countries，andifshecontinuestodososhewillinevitablybe，saddledwiththesamedisastrousresults——plutocracy，pauperism，unrestrainedcompetitioninallspheresofactivity，andagreatly，intensifiedstruggleforlife，inwhichtheweakerwillnecessarily，gotothewall。*

*Freecompetitioninallspheresofactivity，leadingtosocial，inequality，plutocracy，andpauperism，isthefavouritebugbearof，Russiantheorists;andwhoisnotatheoristinRussia？，Thefact，indicatestheprevalenceofSocialistideasintheeducated，classes。

Happilythereis，accordingtothesetheorists，amoreexcellent，way，andRussiacanadoptitifsheonlyremainstruetocertain，mysteriousprinciplesofherpasthistoricdevelopment。Without，attemptingtoexpoundthosemysteriousprinciples，towhichIhave，repeatedlyreferredinpreviouschapters，Imaymentionbriefly，thatthetraditionalpatriarchalinstitutionsonwhichthe，theoristsfoundtheirhopesofahappysocialfuturefortheir，countryaretheruralCommune，thenativehome-industries，andthe，peculiarco-operativeinstitutionscalledArtels。Howthese，remnantsofasemi-patriarchalstateofsocietyaretobe，practicallydevelopedinsuchawayastowithstandthecompetition，ofmanufacturingindustryorganisedonmodern“capitalist“lines，noonehashithertobeenabletoexplainsatisfactorily，butmany，peopleindulgeiningeniousspeculationsonthesubject，like，childrenplanningthemeansofdivertingwiththeirlittletoy，spadesaformidableinundation。Inmyhumbleopinion，thewhole，theoryisadelusion;butitisheldfirmly——Imightalmostsay，fanatically——bythosewho，inoppositiontotheindiscriminate，admirersofWest-EuropeanandAmericancivilisation，consider，themselvesgenuineRussiansandexceptionallygoodpatriots。M。

Wittehasneverbelongedtothatclass。Hebelievesthatthereis，onlyoneroadtonationalprosperity——theroadbywhichWestern，Europehastravelled——andalongthisroadhetriedtodrivehis，countryasrapidlyaspossible。Hethrewhimself，therefore，heart，andsoulintowhathisopponentscall“Capitalism，“byraising，Stateloans，organisingbanksandothercreditinstitutions，encouragingthecreationandextensionofbigfactories，whichmust，inevitablydestroythehomeindustry，andeven——horribiledictu！——

underminingtheruralCommune，andtherebyaddingtotheranksof，thelandlessproletariat，inordertoincreasetheamountofcheap，labourforthebenefitofthecapitalists。

WiththeargumentsthussuppliedbyAgrariansanddoctrinaires，quitehonestandwell-meaning，accordingtotheirlights，itwas，easytosapM。Witte’sposition。Amonghisopponents，themost，formidablewasthelateM。Plehve，MinisterofInterior——amanofa，totallydifferentstamp。AfewmonthsbeforehistragicendIhad，alongandinterestingconversationwithhim，andIcameaway，deeplyimpressed。Havingrepeatedlyhadconversationsofasimilar，kindwithM。Witte，Icouldcompare，orrathercontrast，thetwo，men。Bothofthemevidentlypossessedanexceptionalamountof，mentalpowerandenergy，butintheoneitwasvolcanic，andinthe，otheritwasconcentratedandthoroughlyundercontrol。In，discussion，theoneremindedmeoftheself-taught，slashing，swordsman;theotherofthedexterousfencer，carefullytrainedin，theuseofthefoils，whoneverlaunchesoutbeyondthepointat，whichhecanquicklyrecoverhimself。AstowhetherM。Plehvewas，anythingmorethanabold，energetic，cleverofficialtheremaybe，differencesofopinion，buthecertainlycouldassumetheairsofa，profoundandpolishedstatesman，capableoflookingatthingsfrom，amuchhigherpointofviewthantheordinarytchinovnik，andhe，hadthetalentoftacitlysuggestingthatagreatdealofgenuine，enlightenedstatesmanshiplayhiddenunderthesmoothsurfaceof，hiscautiousreserve。OnceortwiceIcouldperceivethatwhen，criticisingthepresentstateofthingshehadhisvolcanic，colleagueinhismind’seye;butthecovertallusionsweresovague，andsocarefullywordedthatthesaidcolleague，ifhehadbeen，present，wouldhardlyhavebeenjustifiedinenteringapersonal，protest。Astatesmanofthehighertype，Iwasmadetofeel，shoulddealnotwithpersonalities，butwiththings，anditwould，bealtogetherunbecomingtocomplainofacolleagueinpresenceof，anoutsider。Thushisattitudetowardshisopponentwasmost，correct，butitwasnotdifficulttoinferthathehadlittle，sympathywiththepolicyoftheMinistryofFinance。

FromothersourcesIlearnedthecauseofthiswantofsympathy。

BeingMinisterofInterior，andhavingservedlonginthePolice，Department，M。Plehveconsideredthathisfirstdutywasthe，maintenanceofpublicorderandtheprotectionofthepersonand，autocracyofhisaugustmaster。Hewasthereforethedetermined，enemyofrevolutionarytendencies，inwhatevergarbordisguise，theymightappear;andasastatesmanhehadtodirecthis，attentiontoeverythinglikelytoincreasethosetendenciesinthe，future。Nowitseemedthatinthefinancialpolicywhichhadbeen，followedforsomeyearsthereweregermsoffuturerevolutionary，fermentation。Thepeasantrywerebecomingimpoverished，andwere，thereforemorelikelytolistentotheinsidioussuggestionsof，Socialistagitators;andalreadyagrariandisturbanceshadoccurred，intheprovincesofKharkofandPoltava。Theindustrial，proletariatwhichwasbeingrapidlycreatedwasbeingsecretly，organisedbytherevolutionarySocialDemocrats，andalreadythere，hadbeenseriouslabourtroublesinsomeofthelargetowns。For，anyfuturerevolutionarymovementtheproletariatwouldnaturally，supplyrecruits。Then，attheotherendofthesocialscale，a，classofrichcapitalistswasbeingcreated，andeverybodywhohas，readalittlehistoryknowsthatarichandpowerfultiersetat，cannotbepermanentlyconciliatedwithautocracy。Thoughhimself，neitheranagrariannoraSlavophildoctrinaire，M。Plehvecould，notbuthaveacertainsympathywiththosewhowereforging，thunderboltsfortheofficialannihilationofM。Witte。Hewastoo，practicalamantoimaginethatthehandsonthedialofeconomic，progresscouldbesetbackandareturnmadetomoribund，patriarchalinstitutions;buthethoughtthatatleastthepace，mightbemoderated。TheMinisterofFinanceneednotbeinsucha，desperate，recklesshurry，anditwasdesirabletocreate，conservativeforceswhichmightcounteracttherevolutionaryforces，whichhisimpulsivecolleaguewasinadvertentlycallinginto，existence。

Someoftheforgersofthunderboltswentagreatdealfurther，and，assertedorinsinuatedthatM。Wittewashimselfconsciouslya，revolutionist，withsecret，malevolentintentions。Insupportof，theirinsinuationstheycitedcertaincasesinwhichwell-known，Socialistshadbeenappointedprofessorsinacademiesunderthe，controloftheMinistryofFinance，andtheypointedtothePeasant，Bank，whichenjoyedM。Witte’sspecialprotection。Atfirstithad，beensupposedthatthebankwouldhaveananti-revolutionary，influencebypreventingtheformationofalandlessproletariatand，increasingthenumberofsmallland-owners，whoarealwaysand，everywhereconservativesofarastherightsofprivateproperty，areconcerned。

Unfortunatelyitssuccessrousedthefearsofthemoreconservative，sectionofthelandedproprietors。Thesegentlemen，asIhave，alreadymentioned，pointedoutthattheestatesofthenobleswere，rapidlypassingintothehandsofthepeasantry，andthatifthis，processwereallowedtocontinuethehereditaryNoblesse，whichhad，alwaysbeenthecivilisingelementintheruralpopulation，andthe，surestsupportofthethrone，woulddriftintothetownsandthere，sinkintopovertyoramalgamatewiththecommercialplutocracy，and，helptoformatiersetatwhichwouldbehostiletotheAutocratic，Power。

InthesecircumstancesitwasevidentthattheheadstrongMinister，ofFinancecouldmaintainhispositiononlysolongasheenjoyed，theenergeticsupportoftheEmperor，andthissupport，forreasons，whichIhaveindicatedabove，failedhimatthecriticalmoment。

Whenhisworkwasstillunfinishedhewassuddenlycompelled，by，theEmperor’scommand，torelinquishhispostandacceptaposition，inwhich，itwassupposed，hewouldceasetohaveanyinfluencein，theadministration。

ThusfelltheRussianColbert-Turgot，orwhateverelsehemaybe，called。Whetherfinancialdifficultiesinthefuturewillleadto，hisreinstatementasMinisterofFinanceremainstobeseen;butin，anycasehisworkcannotbeundone。Hehasincreasedmanufacturing，industrytoanunprecedentedextent，and，asM。Plehveperceived，theindustrialproletariatwhichmanufacturingindustryon，capitalistlinesalwayscreateshasprovidedanewfieldof，activityfortherevolutionists。Ireturn，therefore，tothe，evolutionoftherevolutionarymovementinordertodescribeits，presentphase，thefirst-fruitsofwhichhavebeenrevealedinthe，labourdisturbancesinSt。Petersburgandotherindustrialcentres。

CHAPTERXXXVII

THEREVOLUTIONARYMOVEMENTINITSLATESTPHASE

InfluenceofCapitalismandProletariatontheRevolutionary，Movement——WhatistobeDone？——ReplyofPlekhanof——ANewDeparture——

KarlMarx’sTheoriesAppliedtoRussia——BeginningsofaSocial，DemocraticMovement——TheLabourTroublesof1894-96inSt。

Petersburg——TheSocialDemocrats’PlanofCampaign——Schisminthe，Party——Trade-unionismandPoliticalAgitation——TheLabourTroubles，of1902——HowtheRevolutionaryGroupsareDifferentiatedfromEach，Other——SocialDemocracyandConstitutionalism——Terrorism——The，SocialistRevolutionaries——TheMilitantOrganisation——Attitudeof，theGovernment——FactoryLegislation——Government’sSchemefor，UnderminingSocialDemocracy——FatherGaponandHisLabour，Association——TheGreatStrikeinSt。Petersburg——FatherGapongoes，overtotheRevolutionaries。

Thedevelopmentofmanufacturingindustryoncapitalistlines，and，theconsequentformationofalargeindustrialproletariat，producedgreatdisappointmentinallthetheorisingsectionsofthe，educatedclasses。Thethousandsofmenandwomenwhohad，since，theaccessionoftheTsar-Emancipatorin1855，takenakeen，enthusiasticinterestintheprogressoftheirnativecountry，all，hadbelievedfirmlythatinsomewayorotherRussiawouldescape，“thefesteringsoresofWesterncivilisation。”，Nowexperiencehad，provedthatthebeliefwasanillusion，andthosewhohadtriedto，checkthenaturalcourseofindustrialprogresswereconstrainedto，confessthattheireffortshadbeenfutile。Bigfactorieswere，increasinginsizeandnumbers，whilecottageindustrieswere，disappearingorfallingunderthepowerofmiddlemen，andthe，Artelshadnotadvancedastepintheirexpecteddevelopment。The，factoryworkers，thoughallofpeasantorigin，werelosingtheir，connectionwiththeirnativevillagesandabandoningtheir，allotmentsoftheCommunalland。Theywerebecoming，inshort，a，hereditarycasteinthetownpopulation，andthepleasantSlavophil，dreamofeveryfactoryworkerhavingahouseinthecountrywas，beingrudelydispelled。Norwasthereanyprospectofachangefor，thebetterinthefuture。Withtheincreaseofcompetitionamong，themanufacturers，theuprootingofthemuzhikfromthesoilmust，goonmoreandmorerapidly，becauseemployersmustinsistmoreand，moreonhavingthoroughlytrainedoperativesreadytoworksteadily，alltheyearround。

Thisstateofthingshadacuriouseffectonthecourseofthe，revolutionarymovement。

Letmerecallverybrieflythesuccessivestagesthroughwhichthe，movementhadalreadypassed。Ithadbeeninaugurated，aswehave，seen，bytheNihilists，theardentyoungrepresentativesofa，“storm-and-stress“period，inwhichthevenerabletraditionsand，respectedprinciplesofthepastwererejectedandridiculed，and，thenewestideasofWesternEuropewereeagerlyadoptedand，distorted。Likethemajorityoftheireducatedcountrymen，they，believedthatintheraceofprogressRussiawasabouttoovertake，andsurpassthenationsoftheWest，andthatthisdesirableresult，wastobeattainedbymakingatabularasaofexisting，institutions，andreconstructingsocietyaccordingtotheplansof，Proudhon，Fourier，andtheotherwritersoftheearlySocialist，school。

WhentheNihilistshadexpendedtheirenergiesandexhaustedthe，patienceofthepublicintheorising，talking，andwriting，aparty，ofactioncameuponthescene。LiketheNihilists，theydesired，political，social，andeconomicreformsofthemostthorough-going，kind，buttheybelievedthatsuchthingscouldnotbeeffectedby，theeducatedclassesalone，andtheydeterminedtocallintheco-

operationofthepeople。Forthispurposetheytriedtoconvert，themassestothegospelofSocialism。Hundredsofthembecame，missionariesand“wentinamongthepeople。”，Butthegospelof，Socialismprovedunintelligibletotheuneducated，andthemore，ardent，incautiousmissionariesfellintothehandsofthepolice。

Thoseofthemwhoescaped，perceivingtheerroroftheirways，but，stillclingingtothehopeofbringingaboutapolitical，social，andeconomicrevolution，determinedtochangetheirtactics。The，emancipatedserfhadshownhimselfincapableof“prolonged，revolutionaryactivity，“buttherewasreasontobelievethathe，was，likehisforefathersinthetimeofStenkaRazinand，Pugatcheff，capableofrisingandmurderinghisoppressors。He，mustbeused，therefore，forthedestructionoftheAutocratic，Powerandthebureaucracy，andthenitwouldbeeasytoreorganise，societyonabasisofuniversalequality，andtotakepermanent，precautionsagainstcapitalismandthecreationofaproletariat。

Thehopesoftheagitatorsprovedasdelusiveasthoseofthe，propagandists。Themuzhikturnedadeafeartotheirinstigations，andthepolicesoonpreventedtheirfurtheractivity。Thusthe，would-beroot-and-branchreformsfoundthemselvesinadilemma。

Eithertheymustabandontheirschemesforthemomentortheymust，strikeimmediatelyattheirpersecutors。Theychose，aswehave，seen，thelatteralternative，andaftervainattemptstofrighten，theGovernmentbyactsofterrorismagainstzealousofficials，they，assassinatedtheTsarhimself;butbeforetheyhadtimetothinkof，theconstructivepartoftheirtask，theirorganisationwas，destroyedbytheAutocraticPowerandthebureaucracy，andthoseof，themwhoescapedarresthadtoseeksafetyinemigrationto，SwitzerlandandParis。

Thenarose，allalongthelineofthedefeated，decimated，revolutionists，thecry，“Whatistobedone？”Somerepliedthat，theshatteredorganisationshouldbereconstructed，andanumberof，secretagentsweresentsuccessivelyfromSwitzerlandforthis，purpose。Buttheirefforts，astheythemselvesconfessed，were，fruitless，anddespondencyseemedtobesettlingdownpermanently，onall，exceptafewfanatics，whenavoicewasheardcallingon，thefugitivestorallyroundanewbannerandcarryonthestruggle，byentirelynewmethods。Thevoicecamefromarevolutionologist，(ifImayusesuchaterm)ofremarkabletalent，calledM。

Plekhanof，whohadsettledinGenevawithalittlecircleof，friends，callingthemselvesthe“LabourEmancipationGroup。”，His，viewswereexpoundedinaseriesofinterestingpublications，the，firstofwhichwasabrochureentitled“SocialismandthePolitical，Struggle，“publishedin1883。

AccordingtoM。Plekhanofandhisgrouptherevolutionarymovement，hadbeenconducteduptothatmomentonaltogetherwronglines。

Allpreviousrevolutionarygroupshadactedontheassumptionthat，thepoliticalrevolutionandtheeconomicreorganisationofsociety，mustbeeffectedsimultaneously，andconsequentlytheyhadrejected，contemptuouslyallproposalsforreforms，howeverradical，ofa，merelypoliticalkind。Thesehadbeenconsidered，asIhave，mentionedinapreviouschapter，notonlyasworthless，butas，positivelyprejudicialtotheinterestsoftheworkingclasses，becauseso-calledpoliticallibertiesandparliamentarygovernment，wouldbesuretoconsolidatethedominationofthebourgeoisie。

Thatsuchhasgenerallybeentheimmediateeffectofparliamentary，institutionsisundeniable，butitdidnotfollowthatthecreation，ofsuchinstitutionsshouldbeopposed。Onthecontrary，they，oughttobewelcomed，notmerelybecause，assomerevolutionists，hadalreadypointedout，propagandaandagitationcouldbemore，easilycarriedonunderaconstitutionalregime，butbecause，constitutionalismiscertainlythemostconvenient，andperhapsthe，only，roadbywhichthesocialisticidealcanultimatelybe，attained。Thisisadarksaying，butitwillbecomeclearerwhenI

haveexplained，accordingtothenewapostles，aseconderrorinto，whichtheirpredecessorshadfallen。

Thatseconderrorwastheassumptionthatalltruefriendsofthe，people，whetherConservatives，Liberals，orrevolutionaries，ought，toopposetotheutmostthedevelopmentofcapitalism。Inthe，lightofKarlMarx’sdiscoveriesineconomicscienceeveryonemust，recognisethistobeanegregiousmistake。Thatgreatauthority，itwassaid，hadprovedthatthedevelopmentofcapitalismwas，irresistible，andhisconclusionshadbeenconfirmedbytherecent，historyofRussia，foralltheeconomicprogressmadeduringthe，lasthalfcenturyhadbeenoncapitalistlines。

Evenifitwerepossibletoarrestthecapitalistmovement，itis，notdesirablefromtherevolutionarypointofview。Insupportof，thisthesisKarlMarxisagaincited。Hehasshownthat，capitalism，thoughanevilinitself，isanecessarystageof，economicandsocialprogress。Atfirstitisprejudicialtothe，interestsoftheworkingclasses，butinthelongrunitbenefits，them，becausetheever-growingproletariatmust，whetheritdesires，itornot，becomeapoliticalparty，andasapoliticalpartyit，mustonedaybreakthedominationofthebourgeoisie。Assoonas，ithasobtainedthepredominantpoliticalpower，itwill，confiscate，forthepublicgood，theinstrumentsofproduction——

factories，foundries，machines，etc——byexpropriatingthe，capitalist。Inthiswayalltheprofitswhichaccruefrom，productiononalargescale，andwhichatpresentgointothe，pocketsofthecapitalists，willbedistributedequallyamongthe，workmen。

Thusbegananewphaseoftherevolutionarymovement，and，likeall，previousphases，itremainedforsomeyearsintheacademicstage，duringwhichtherewereendlessdiscussionsontheoreticaland，practicalquestions。Lavroff，theprophetoftheoldpropaganda，treatedthenewideas“withgrandfatherlyseverity，“and，Tikhomirof，theleadingrepresentativeofthemoribundNarodnaya，Volya，whichhadpreparedtheactsofterrorism，maintainedstoutly，thattheWestEuropeanmethodsrecommendedbyPlekhanofwere，inapplicabletoRussia。ThePlekhanofgrouprepliedinalong，seriesofpublications，partlyoriginalandpartlytranslations，fromMarxandEngels，explainingthedoctrinesandaimsofthe，SocialDemocrats。

Sevenyearswerespentinthisacademicliteraryactivity——aperiod，ofcomparativereposefortheRussiansecretpolice——andabout1890

thepropagandistsofthenewschoolbegantoworkcautiouslyinSt。