第17章

Thiswarningproducedmerelyamomentaryeffect。Asthefunctions，oftheImperialAdministrationandoftheZemstvohadneverbeen，clearlydefined，andaseachwasinclinedtoextendthesphereof，itsactivity，frictionbecamefrequent。TheZemstvohadtheright，forexample，toco-operateinthedevelopmentofeducation，butas，soonasitorganisedprimaryschoolsandseminariesitcameinto，contactwiththeMinistryofPublicInstruction。Inother，departmentssimilarconflictsoccurred，andthetchinovnikscameto，suspectthattheZemstvohadtheambitiontoplaythepartofa，parliamentaryOpposition。Thissuspicionfoundformalexpression，inatleastonesecretofficialdocument，inwhichthewriter，declaresthat“theOppositionhasbuiltitselffirmlyanestinthe，Zemstvo。”，Now，ifwemeantobejusttobothpartiesinthis，littlefamilyquarrel，wemustadmitthattheZemstvo，asIshall，explaininafuturechapter，hadambitionsofthatkind，andit，wouldhavebeenbetterperhapsforthecountryatthepresent，momentifithadbeenabletorealisethem。ButthisisaWest-

Europeanidea。InRussiathereis，andcanbe，nosuchthingas，“HisMajesty’sOpposition。”，TotheRussianofficialmindthethree，wordsseemtocontainalogicalcontradiction。Oppositionto，officials，evenwithinthelimitsofthelaw，isequivalentto，oppositiontotheAutocraticPower，ofwhichtheyaretheincarnate，emanations;andoppositiontowhattheyconsidertheinterestsof，autocracycomeswithinmeasurabledistanceofhightreason。Itwas，considerednecessary，therefore，tocurbandsuppresstheambitious，tendenciesofthewaywardchild，andaccordinglyitwasplacedmore，andmoreunderthetutelageoftheprovincialGovernors。Toshow，howthechangewaseffected，letmegiveanillustration。Inthe，olderarrangementstheGovernorcouldsuspendtheactionofthe，Zemstvoonlyonthegroundofitsbeingillegalorultravires，and，whentherewasanirreconcilabledifferenceofopinionbetweenthe，twopartiesthequestionwasdecidedjudiciallybytheSenate;

underthemorerecentarrangementshisExcellencycaninterposehis，vetowheneverheconsidersthatadecision，thoughitmaybe，perfectlylegal，isnotconducivetothepublicgood，and，differencesofopinionarereferred，nottotheSenate，buttothe，MinisteroftheInterior，whoisalwaysnaturallydisposedto，supporttheviewsofhissubordinate。

Inordertoputanendtoallthisinsubordination，CountTolstoy，thereactionaryMinisteroftheInterior，preparedaschemeof，reorganisationinaccordancewithhisanti-liberalviews，buthe，diedbeforehecouldcarryitout，andamuchmilderreorganisation，wasadoptedinthelawof12th(24th)June，1890。Theprincipal，changesintroducedbythatlawwerethatthenumberofdelegatesin，theAssemblieswasreducedbyaboutafourth，andtherelative，strengthofthedifferentsocialclasseswasaltered。Underthe，oldlawtheNoblessehadabout42percent。andthepeasantry，about38percent，oftheseats;bythenewelectoralarrangements，theformerhave57percent，andthelatterabout30。Itdoesnot，necessarilyfollow，however，thattheAssembliesaremore，conservativeormoresubservientonthataccount。Liberalismand，insubordinationaremuchmorelikelytobefoundamongthenobles，thanamongthepeasants。

Inadditiontoallthis，astherewasanapprehensioninthehigher，officialspheresofSt。Petersburgthattheoppositionspiritof，theZemstvomightfindpublicexpressioninaprintedform，the，provincialGovernorsreceivedextensiverightsofpreventive，censurewithregardtothepublicationoftheminutesofZemstvo，Assembliesandsimilardocuments。

Whatthebureaucracy，initszealtodefendtheintegrityofthe，AutocraticPower，fearedmostofallwascombinationforacommon，purposeonthepartoftheZemstvosofdifferentprovinces。It，vetoed，therefore，allsuchcombinations，evenforstatistical，purposes;andwhenitdiscovered，afewyearsago，thatleading，membersoftheZemstvofromallpartsofthecountrywereholding，privatemeetingsinMoscowfortheostensiblepurposeofdiscussing，economicquestions，itorderedthemtoreturntotheirhomes。

Evenwithinitspropersphere，asdefinedbylaw，theZemstvohas，notaccomplishedwhatwasexpectedofit。Thecountryhasnotbeen，coveredwithanetworkofmacadamisedroads，andthebridgesareby，nomeansassafeascouldbedesired。Villageschoolsand，infirmariesarestillfarbelowtherequirementsofthepopulation。

Littleornothinghasbeendoneforthedevelopmentoftradeor，manufactures;andthevillagesremainverymuchwhattheywere，undertheoldAdministration。Meanwhilethelocalrateshavebeen，risingwithalarmingrapidity;andmanypeopledrawfromallthis，theconclusionthattheZemstvoisaworthlessinstitutionwhich，hasincreasedthetaxationwithoutconferringanycorresponding，benefitonthecountry。

Ifwetakeasourcriterioninjudgingtheinstitutionthe，exaggeratedexpectationsatfirstentertained，wemayfeelinclined，toagreewiththisconclusion，butthisismerelytantamountto，sayingthattheZemstvohasperformednomiracles。Russiaismuch，poorerandmuchlessdenselypopulatedthanthemoreadvanced，nationswhichshetakesashermodel。Tosupposethatshecouldat，oncecreateforherselfbymeansofanadministrativereformall，theconvenienceswhichthosemoreadvancednationsenjoy，wasas，absurdasitwouldbetoimaginethatapoormancanatonce，constructamagnificentpalacebecausehehasreceivedfroma，wealthyneighbourthenecessaryarchitecturalplans。Notonly，yearsbutgenerationsmustpassbeforeRussiacanassumethe，appearanceofGermany，France，orEngland。Themetamorphosismay，beacceleratedorretardedbygoodgovernment，butitcouldnotbe，effectedatonce，evenifthecombinedwisdomofallthe，philosophersandstatesmeninEuropewereemployedinlegislating，forthepurpose。

TheZemstvohas，however，donemuchmorethanthemajorityofits，criticsadmit。Itfulfilstolerablywell，withoutscandalous，peculationandjobbery，itscommonplace，every-dayduties，andit，hascreatedanewandmoreequitablesystemofrating，bywhich，landedproprietorsandhouse-ownersaremadetobeartheirshareof，thepublicburdens。Ithasdoneaverygreatdealtoprovide，medicalaidandprimaryeducationforthecommonpeople，andithas，improvedwonderfullytheconditionofthehospitals，lunatic，asylums，andotherbenevolentinstitutionscommittedtoitscharge。

Initseffortstoaidthepeasantryithashelpedtoimprovethe，nativebreedsofhorsesandcattle，andithascreatedasystemof，obligatoryfire-insurance，togetherwithmeansforpreventingand，extinguishingfiresinthevillages——amostimportantmatterina，countrywherethepeasantsliveinwoodenhousesandbigfiresare，fearfullyfrequent。Afterneglectingforagoodmanyyearsthe，essentialquestionastohowthepeasants’meansofsubsistencecan，beincreased，ithaslatterly，asIhavementionedinaforegoing，chapter，helpedthemtoobtainimprovedagriculturalimplementsand，betterseed，encouragedtheformationofsmallcreditassociations，andsavingsbanks，andappointedagriculturalinspectorstoteach，themhowtheymayintroducemodestimprovementswithintheir，limitedmeans。*，Atthesametime，inmanydistrictsithas，endeavouredtoassistthehomeindustrieswhicharethreatenedwith，annihilationbythebigfactories，andwhenevermeasureshavebeen，proposedforthebenefitoftheruralpopulation，suchasthe，loweringoftheland-redemptionpaymentsandthecreationofthe，PeasantLandBank，ithasinvariablygiventhemitscordial，support。

*Theamountexpendedfortheseobjectsin1897，thelatestyear，forwhichIhavestatisticaldata，wasaboutamillionandahalf，ofroubles，or，roughlyspeaking，150，000pounds，distributedunder，thefollowingheads：——

1。Agriculturaltuition，41，100pounds。

2。Experimentalstations，museums，etc，19，800

3。Scientificagriculturists，17，400

4。Agriculturalindustries，26，700

5。Improvingbreedsofhorsesandcattle，45，300——

150，300pounds。

IfyouaskazealousmemberoftheZemstvowhyithasnotdonemore，hewillprobablytellyouthatitisbecauseitsactivityhasbeen，constantlyrestrictedandcounteractedbytheGovernment。The，AssemblieswereobligedtoacceptaspresidentstheMarshalsof，Noblesse，manyofwhomweremenofantiquatedideasandretrograde，principles。Ateveryturnthemoreenlightened，moreactive，membersfoundthemselvesopposed，thwarted，andfinallycheckmated，bytheImperialofficials。Whenalaudableattemptwasmadetotax，tradeandindustrymoreequitablytheschemewasvetoed，and，consequentlythemercantileclass，sureofbeingalwaystaxedata，ridiculouslylowmaximum，havelostallinterestinthe，proceedings。Evenwithregardtotheratingoflandedandhouse，propertyalowlimitisimposedbytheGovernment，becauseitis，afraidthatiftherateswereraisedmuchitwouldnotbeableto，collecttheheavyImperialtaxation。Theuncontrolledpublicity，whichwasatfirstenjoyedbytheAssemblieswasafterwards，curtailedbythebureaucracy。Undersuchrestrictionsallfree，vigorousactionbecameimpossible，andtheinstitutionsfailedto，effectwhatwasreasonablyanticipated。

Allthisistrueinacertainsense，butitisnotthewholetruth。

Ifweexaminesomeofthedefinitechargesbroughtagainstthe，institutionweshallunderstandbetteritsrealcharacter。

Themostcommoncomplaintmadeagainstitisthatithasenormously，increasedtherates。Onthatpointthereisnopossibilityof，dispute。Atfirstitsexpenditureinthethirty-fourprovincesin，whichitexistedwasundersixmillionsofroubles;intwoyears，(1868)ithadjumpeduptofifteenmillions;in1875itwasnearly，twenty-eightmillions，in1885overforty-threemillions，andat，theendofthecenturyithadattainedtherespectablefigureof，95，800，000roubles。Aseachprovincehadtherightoftaxing，itself，theincreasevariedgreatlyindifferentprovinces。In，Smolensk，forexample，itwasonlyaboutthirtypercent。whilst，inSamaraitwas436，andinViatka，wherethepeasantelement，predominates，nolessthan1，262percent。！，Inordertomeetthis，increase，theratesonlandrosefromundertenmillionsin1868to，overforty-sevenmillionsin1900。Nowonderthatthelandowners，whofinditdifficulttoworktheirestatesataprofitshould，complain！

Thoughthisincreaseisdisagreeabletotherate-payers，itdoes，notfollowthatitisexcessive。Inallcountriesratesandlocal，taxationareontheincrease，anditisinthebackwardcountries，thattheyincreasemostrapidly。InFrance，forexample，the，averageyearlyincreasehasbeen2。7percent。whileinAustriait，hasbeen5。59。InRussiaitoughttohavebeenmorethanin，Austria，whereasithasbeen，intheprovinceswithZemstvo，institutions，onlyabout4percent。Incomparisonwiththe，Imperialtaxationthelocaldoesnotseemexcessivewhencompared，withothercountries。InEnglandandPrussia，forinstance，the，Statetaxationascomparedwiththelocalisasahundredtofifty-

fourandfifty-one，whilstinRussiaitisasahundredto，sixteen。*，Areductioninthetaxationasawholewouldcertainly，contributetothematerialwelfareoftheruralpopulation，butit，isdesirablethatitshouldbemadeintheImperialtaxesrather，thanintherates，becausethelattermayberegardedassomething，akintoproductiveinvestments，whilsttheproceedsoftheformer，areexpendedlargelyonobjectswhichhavelittleornothingtodo，withthewantsofthecommonpeople。InspeakingthusIam，assumingthatthelocalexpenditureismadejudiciously，andthis，isamatteronwhich，Iamboundtoconfess，thereisbynomeans，unanimityofopinion。

*Thesefiguresaretakenfromthebestavailableauthorities，chieflySchwanebachandScalon，butIamnotpreparedtoguarantee，theiraccuracy。

Hostilecriticscanpointtofactswhichare，tosaytheleast，strangeandanomalous。OutofthetotalofitsrevenuetheZemstvo，spendsabouttwenty-eightpercent。undertheheadingofpublic，healthandbenevolentinstitutions;andaboutfifteenpercent。for，populareducation，whilstitdevotesonlyaboutsixpercent。to，roadsandbridges，anduntillatelyitneglected，asIhavesaid，above，themeansforimprovingagricultureanddirectlyincreasing，theincomeofthepeasantry。

Beforepassingsentencewithregardtothesechargeswemust，rememberthecircumstancesinwhichtheZemstvowasfoundedandhas，grownup。Intheearlytimesitsmemberswerewell-meaningmenwho，hadhadverylittleexperienceinadministrationorinpractical，lifeofanysortexcepttheoldroutineinwhichtheyhad，previouslyvegetated。Mostofthemhadlivedenoughinthecountry，toknowhowmuchthepeasantswereinneedofmedicalassistanceof，themostelementarykind，andtothismattertheyatonceturned，theirattention。Theytriedtoorganiseasystemofdoctors，hospitalassistants，anddispensariesbywhichthepeasantwould，nothavetogomorethanfifteenortwentymilestogetawound，dressedortohaveaconsultationortoobtainasimpleremedyfor，ordinaryailments。Theyfeltthenecessity，too，ofthoroughly，reorganisingthehospitalsandthelunaticasylums，whichwereina，veryunsatisfactorycondition。Plainlyenough，therewasheregood，worktobedone。Thentherewerethehigheraims。Intheabsence，ofpracticalexperiencetherewereenthusiasmsandtheories。

Amongstthesewastheenthusiasmforeducation，andthetheorythat，thewantofitwasthechiefreasonwhyRussiahadremainedsofar，behindthenationsofWesternEurope。Giveuseducation，itwas，said，andallothergoodthingswillbeaddedthereto。Liberate，theRussianpeoplefromthebondsofignoranceasyouhave，liberateditfromthebondsofserfage，anditswonderfulnatural，capacitieswillthenbeabletocreateeverythingthatisrequired，foritsmaterial，intellectual，andmoralwelfare。

Iftherewasanyoneamongtheleaderswhotookamoresober，prosaicviewofthingshewasdenouncedasanignoramusanda，reactionary。Willinglyorunwillingly，everybodyhadtoswimwith，thecurrent。Roadsandbridgeswerenotentirelyneglected，but，theeffortsinthatdirectionwereconfinedtotheabsolutely，indispensable。Forsuchprosaicconcernstherewasnoenthusiasm，anditwasuniversallyrecognisedthatinRussiatheconstruction，ofgoodroads，asthetermisunderstoodinWesternEurope，wasfar，beyondtheresourcesofanyAdministration。Ofthenecessityfor，suchroadsfewwereconscious。Allthatwasrequiredwastomake，itpossibletogetfromoneplacetoanotherinordinaryweather，andordinarycircumstances。Ifastreamwastoodeeptobeforded，abridgehadtobebuiltoraferryhadtobeestablished;andif，theapproachtoabridgewassomarshyormuddythatvehiclesoften，sankquiteuptotheaxlesandhadtobedraggedoutbyropes，with，theassistanceoftheneighbouringvillagers，repairshadtobe，made。BeyondthistheeffortsoftheZemstvorarelywent。Its，road-buildingambitionremainedwithinverymodestbounds。

Asfortheimpoverishmentofthepeasantryandthenecessityof，improvingtheirsystemofagriculture，thatquestionhadhardly，appearedabovethehorizon。Itmighthavetobedealtwithinthe，future，buttherewasnoneedforhurry。Oncetheruralpopulation，wereeducated，thequestionwouldsolveitself。Itwasnottill，abouttheyear1885thatitwasrecognisedtobemoreurgentthan，hadbeensupposed，andsomeZemstvosperceivedthatthepeople，mightstarvebeforeitspreparatoryeducationwascompleted。

Repeatedfaminespushedthelessonhome，andthelandedproprietors，foundtheirrevenuesdiminishedbythefallinthepriceofgrain，ontheEuropeanmarkets。Thuswasraisedthecry：“Agriculturein，Russiaisonthedecline！，Thecountryhasenteredonanacute，economiccrisis！，Ifenergeticmeasuresbenottakenpromptlythe，peoplewillsoonfindthemselvesconfrontedbystarvation！”

TothiscryofalarmtheZemstvowasneitherdeafnorindifferent。

Recognisingthatthedangercouldbeavertedonlybyinducingthe，peasantrytoadoptamoreintensivesystemofagriculture，it，directedmoreandmoreofitsattentiontoagricultural，improvements，andtriedtogetthemadopted。*，Itdid，inshort，allitcould，accordingtoitslightsandwithinthelimitsofits，moderateresources。Itsavailableresourcesweresmall，unfortunately，foritwasforbiddenbytheGovernmenttoincrease，therates，anditcouldnotwelldismissdoctorsandclose，dispensariesandschoolswhenthepeoplewereclamouringformore。

SoatleastthedefendersoftheZemstvomaintain，andtheygoso，farastocontendthatitdidwellnottograpplewiththe，impoverishmentofthepeasantryatanearlierperiod，whenthereal，conditionsoftheproblemandthemeansofsolvingitwereonly，veryimperfectlyknown：ifithadbegunatthattimeitwouldhave，madegreatblundersandspentmuchmoneytolittlepurpose。

*Videsupra，p。489。

Howeverthismaybe，itwouldcertainlybeunfairtocondemnthe，Zemstvofornotbeinggreatlyinadvanceofpublicopinion。Ifit，endeavoursstrenuouslytosupplyallclearlyrecognisedwants，that，isallthatcanreasonablybeexpectedofit。Whatitmaybemore，justlyreproachedwithis，inmyopinion，thatitis，toacertain，extent，imbuedwiththatunpractical，pedanticspiritwhichis，commonlysupposedtoresideexclusivelyintheImperial，Administration。Buthereagainitsimplyreflectspublicopinion，andcertainintellectualpeculiaritiesoftheeducatedclasses。

WhenaRussianbeginstowriteonasimpleeverydaysubject，he，likestoconnectitwithgeneralprinciples，philosophy，or，history，andbegins，perhaps，byexpoundinghisviewsonthe，intellectualandsocialdevelopmentsofhumanityingeneralandof，Russiainparticular。Ifhehassufficientspaceathisdisposal，hemayeventellyousomethingabouttheearlyperiodofRussian，historyprevioustotheMongolinvasionbeforehegetstothe，simplematterinhand。InapreviouschapterIhavedescribedthe，processof“sheddingonasubjectthelightofscience“inImperial，legislation。*，InZemstvoactivityweoftenmeetwithpedantryofa，similarkind。

*Videsupra，p。343。

IfthispedantrywereconfinedtothewritingofReportsitmight，notdomuchharm。Unfortunately，itoftenappearsinthesphereof，action。ToillustratethisItakearecentinstancefromthe，provinceofNizhni-Novgorod。TheZemstvoofthatprovincereceived，fromtheCentralGovernmentin1895acertainamountofcapitalfor，road-improvement，withinstructionsfromtheMinistryofInterior，thatitshouldclassifytheroadsaccordingtotheirrelative，importanceandimprovethemaccordingly。Anyintelligentperson，wellacquaintedwiththeregionmighthavemade，inthecourseofa，weekortwo，therequiredclassificationaccuratelyenoughforall，practicalpurposes。Insteadofadoptingthissimpleprocedure，whatdoestheZemstvodo？，Itchoosesoneoftheelevendistricts，ofwhichtheprovinceiscomposedandinstructsitsstatistical，departmenttodescribeallthevillageswithaviewofdetermining，theamountoftrafficwhicheachwillprobablycontributetothe，generalmovement，andthenitverifiesitsaprioriconclusionsby，meansofadetachmentofspeciallyselected“registrars，“postedat，allthecrosswaysduringsixdaysofeachmonth。Theseregistrars，doubtlessinscribedeverypeasantcartasitpassedandmadea，roughestimateoftheweightofitsload。Whenthiscomplicated，andexpensiveprocedurewascompletedforonedistrictitwas，appliedtoanother;butattheendofthreeyears，beforeallthe，villagesofthisseconddistricthadbeendescribedandthetraffic，estimated，theenergyofthestatisticaldepartmentseemstohave，flagged，and，likeayoungauthorimpatienttoseehimselfin，print，itpublishedavolumeatthepublicexpensewhichnoone，willeverread。

Thecostentailedbythisprocedureisnotknown，butwemayform，someideaoftheamountoftimerequiredforthewholeoperation。

Itisasimplerule-of-threesum。Ifittookthreeyearsforthe，preparatoryinvestigationofadistrictandahalf，howmanyyears，willberequiredforelevendistricts？，Morethantwentyyears！

Duringthatperioditwouldseemthattheroadsaretoremainas，theyare，andwhenthemomentcomesforimprovingthemitwillbe，foundthat，unlesstheprovinceiscondemnedtoeconomic，stagnation，the“valuablestatisticalmaterial“collectedatsuch，anexpenditureoftimeandmoneyisingreatpartantiquatedand，useless。Thestatisticaldepartmentwillbecompelled，therefore，likeanotherunfortunateSisyphus，tobegintheworkanew，andit，isdifficulttoseehowtheZemstvo，unlessitbecomesalittle，morepractical，isevertogetoutoftheviciouscircle。

Inthiscasetheevilresultofpedantrywassimplyunnecessary，delay，andinthemeantimethecapitalwasaccumulating，unlessthe，interestwasentirelyswallowedupbythestatisticalresearches;

buttherearecasesinwhichtheconsequencesaremoreserious。

Letmetakeanillustrationfromtheenlightenedprovinceof，Moscow。Itwasobservedthatcertainvillageswereparticularly，unhealthy，anditwaspointedoutbyalocaldoctorthatthe，inhabitantswereinthehabitofusingfordomesticpurposesthe，waterofpondswhichwereinafilthycondition。Whatwas，evidentlywantedwasgoodwells，andapracticalmanwouldatonce，havetakenmeasurestohavethemdug。NotsotheDistrictZemstvo。

Itatoncetransformedthesimplefactintoa“question“requiring，scientificinvestigation。Acommissionwasappointedtostudythe，problem，andaftermuchdeliberationitwasdecidedtomakea，geologicalsurveyinordertoascertainthedepthofgoodwater，throughoutthedistrictasapreparatorysteptowardspreparinga，projectwhichwillsomedaybediscussedintheDistrictAssembly，andperhapsintheAssemblyoftheprovince。Whilstallthisis，beingdoneaccordingtothestrictprinciplesofbureaucratic，procedure，theunfortunatepeasantsforwhosebenefitthe，investigationwasundertakencontinuetodrinkthemuddywaterof，thedirtyponds。

Incidentsofthatkind，whichImightmultiplyalmosttoany，extent，remindoneoftheproverbialformalismoftheChinese;but，betweenChineseandRussianpedantrythereisanessential，difference。IntheMiddleKingdomthesacrificeofpractical，considerationsproceedsfromanexaggeratedvenerationofthe，wisdomofancestors;intheEmpireoftheTsarsitisduetoan，exaggeratedadorationofthegoddessNauka(Science)andahabitof，appealingtoabstractprinciplesandscientificmethodswhenonlya，littleplaincommon-senseisrequired。

Ononeoccasion，Iremember，inaDistrictAssemblyoftheprovince，ofRiazan，whenthesubjectofprimaryschoolswasbeingdiscussed，aninfluentialmemberstartedup，andproposedthatanobligatory，systemofeducationshouldatoncebeintroducedthroughoutthe，wholedistrict。Strangetosay，themotionwasverynearly，carried，thoughallthememberspresentknew——oratleastmight，haveknowniftheyhadtakenthetroubletoinquire——thatthe，actualnumberofschoolswouldhavetobemultipliedtwenty-fold，andallwereagreedthatthelocalratesmustnotbeincreased。To，preservehisreputationforliberalism，thehonourablemember，furtherproposedthat，thoughthesystemshouldbeobligatory，no，fines，punishments，orothermeansofcompulsionshouldbe，employed。Howasystemcouldbeobligatorywithoutusingsome，meansofcompulsion，hedidnotcondescendtoexplain。Togetout，ofthedifficultyoneofhissupporterssuggestedthatthepeasants，whodidnotsendtheirchildrentoschoolshouldbeexcludedfrom，servingasoffice-bearersintheCommunes;butthisproposition，merelycreatedalaugh，formanydeputiesknewthatthepeasants，wouldregardthissupposedpunishmentasavaluableprivilege。And，whilstthisdiscussionaboutthenecessityofintroducinganideal，systemofobligatoryeducationwasbeingcarriedon，thestreet，beforethewindowsoftheroomwascoveredwithastratumofmud，nearlytwofeetindepth！，Theotherstreetswereinasimilar，condition;andalargenumberofthemembersalwaysarrivedlate，becauseitwasalmostimpossibletocomeonfoot，andtherewas，onlyonepublicconveyanceinthetown。Manymembershad，fortunately，theirprivateconveyances，buteveninthese，locomotionwasbynomeanseasy。Oneday，intheprincipal，thoroughfare，amemberhadhistarantassoverturned，andhehimself，wasthrownintothemud！

ItishardlyfairtocomparetheZemstvowiththeolder，institutionsofasimilarkindinWesternEurope，andespecially，withourownlocalself-government。Ourinstitutionshaveall，grownoutofreal，practicalwantskeenlyfeltbyalargesection，ofthepopulation。Cautiousandconservativeinallthatconcerns，thepublicwelfare，weregardchangeasanecessaryevil，andput，offtheevildayaslongaspossible，evenwhenconvincedthatit，mustinevitablycome。Thusouradministrativewantsarealwaysin，advanceofourmeansofsatisfyingthem，andweusevigorously，thosemeansassoonastheyaresupplied。Ourmethodofsupplying，themeans，too，ispeculiar。Insteadofmakingatabularasa，and，beginningfromthefoundations，weutilisetotheutmostwhatwe，happentopossess，andaddmerelywhatisabsolutelyindispensable。

Metaphoricallyspeaking，werepairandextendourpoliticaledifice，accordingtothechangingnecessitiesofourmodeoflife，without，payingmuchattentiontoabstractprinciplesorthecontingencies，ofthedistantfuture。Thebuildingmaybeanaesthetic，monstrosity，belongingtonorecognisedstyleofarchitecture，and，builtindefianceoftheprincipleslaiddownbyphilosophicalart，critics，butitiswelladaptedtoourrequirements，andeveryhole，andcornerofitissuretobeutilised。

VerydifferenthasbeenthepoliticalhistoryofRussiaduringthe，lasttwocenturies。Itmaybebrieflydescribedasaseriesof，revolutionseffectedpeaceablybytheAutocraticPower。Eachyoung，energeticsovereignhasattemptedtoinaugurateanewepochby，thoroughlyremodellingtheAdministrationaccordingtothemost，approvedforeignpoliticalphilosophyofthetime。Institutions，havenotbeenallowedtogrowspontaneouslyoutofpopularwants，buthavebeeninventedbybureaucratictheoriststosatisfywants，ofwhichthepeoplewerestillunconscious。Theadministrative，machinehasthereforederivedlittleornomotiveforcefromthe，people，andhasalwaysbeenkeptinmotionbytheunaidedenergyof，theCentralGovernment。Underthesecircumstancesitisnot，surprisingthattherepeatedattemptsoftheGovernmenttolighten，theburdensofcentralisedadministrationbycreatingorgansof，localself-governmentshouldnothavebeenverysuccessful。

TheZemstvo，itistrue，offeredbetterchancesofsuccessthanany，ofitspredecessors。Alargeportionofthenobleshadbecome，alivetothenecessityofimprovingtheadministration，andthe，popularinterestinpublicaffairswasmuchgreaterthanatany，formerperiod。Hencetherewasatfirstaperiodofenthusiasm，duringwhichgreatpreparationsweremadeforfutureactivity，and，notalittlewasactuallyeffected。Theinstitutionhadallthe，charmofnovelty，andthemembersfeltthattheeyesofthepublic，wereuponthem。Foratimeallwentwell，andtheZemstvowasso，wellpleasedwithitsownactivitythatthesatiricaljournals，comparedittoNarcissusadmiringhisimagereflectedinthepool。

Butwhenthecharmofnoveltyhadpassedandthepublicturnedits，attentiontoothermatters，thespasmodicenergyevaporated，and，manyofthemostactivememberslookedaboutformorelucrative，employment。Suchemploymentwaseasilyfound，foratthattime，therewasanunusualdemandforable，energetic，educatedmen。

Severalbranchesofthecivilservicewerebeingreorganised，and，railways，banks，andjoint-stockcompanieswerebeingrapidly，multiplied。WiththesetheZemstvohadgreatdifficultyin，competing。Itcouldnot，liketheImperialservice，offer，pensions，decorations，andprospectsofpromotion，norcoulditpay，suchlargesalariesasthecommercialandindustrialenterprises。

Inconsequenceofallthis，thequalityoftheexecutivebureaux，deterioratedatthesametimeasthepublicinterestinthe，institutiondiminished。

TobejusttotheZemstvo，Imustaddthat，withallitsdefects，anderrors，itisinfinitelybetterthantheinstitutionswhichit，replaced。Ifwecompareitwithpreviousattemptstocreatelocal，self-government，wemustadmitthattheRussianshavemadegreat，progressintheirpoliticaleducation。WhatitsfuturemaybeIdo，notventuretopredict。Fromitsinfancyithashad，aswehave，seen，theambitiontoplayagreatpoliticalpart，andatthe，beginningoftherecentstirringtimesinSt。Petersburgits，leadingrepresentativesinconclaveassembledtookuponthemselves，toexpresswhattheyconsideredthenationaldemandforliberal，representativeinstitutions。Thedesire，whichhadpreviouslyfrom，timetotimebeenexpressedtimidlyandvaguelyinloyaladdresses，totheTsar，thatacentralZemstvoAssembly，bearingtheancient，titleofZemskiSobor，shouldbeconvokedinthecapitaland，endowedwithpoliticalfunctions，wasnowputforwardbythe，representativesinplainunvarnishedform。Whetherthisdesireis，destinedtoberealisedtimewillshow。

CHAPTERXXXIII

THENEWLAWCOURTS

JudicialProcedureintheOldenTimes——DefectsandAbuses——Radical，Reform——TheNewSystem——JusticesofthePeaceandMonthlySessions——

TheRegularTribunals——CourtofRevision——Modificationofthe，OriginalPlan——HowDoestheSystemWork？——RapidAcclimatisation——

TheBench——TheJury——AcquittalofCriminalsWhoConfessTheir，Crimes——Peasants，Merchants，andNoblesasJurymen——Independence，andPoliticalSignificanceoftheNewCourts。

Afterserf-emancipationandlocalself-government，thesubject，whichdemandedmosturgentlytheattentionofreformerswasthe，judicialorganisation，whichhadsunktoadepthofinefficiency，andcorruptiondifficulttodescribe。

InearlytimesthedispensationofjusticeinRussia，asinother，Statesofaprimitivetype，hadathoroughlypopularcharacter。

TheStatewasstillinitsinfancy，andthedutyofdefendingthe，person，theproperty，andtherightsofindividualslay，of，necessity，chieflyontheindividualsthemselves。Self-helpformed，thebasisofthejudicialprocedure，andtheStatemerelyassisted，theindividualtoprotecthisrightsandtoavengehimselfonthose，whovoluntarilyinfringedthem。

BytherapiddevelopmentoftheAutocraticPowerallthiswas，changed。Autocracyendeavouredtodriveandregulatethesocial，machinebyitsownunaidedforce，andregardedwithsuspicionand，jealousyallspontaneousactioninthepeople。Thedispensationof，justicewasaccordinglyappropriatedbythecentralauthority，absorbedintotheAdministration，andwithdrawnfrompublic，control。Themisretiredfromthemarket-place，shutherselfupin，adarkroomfromwhichthecontendingpartiesandthepublicgaze，wererigorouslyexcluded，surroundedherselfwithsecretariesand，scribeswhoputtherightsandclaimsofthelitigantsinto，whateverformtheythoughtproper，weighedaccordingtoherown，judgmenttheargumentspresentedtoherbyherownservants，and，cameforthfromherseclusionmerelytopresentaready-made，decisionortopunishtheaccusedwhomsheconsideredguilty。

Thischange，thoughperhapstosomeextentnecessary，wasattended，withverybadconsequences。Freedfromthecontrolofthe，contendingpartiesandofthepublic，thecourtsactedas，uncontrolledhumannaturegenerallydoes。Injustice，extortion，bribery，andcorruptionassumedgiganticproportions，andagainst，theseevilstheGovernmentfoundnobetterremedythanasystemof，complicatedformalitiesandingeniouschecks。Thejudicial，functionarieswerehedgedinbyamultitudeofregulations，so，numerousandcomplicatedthatitseemedimpossibleforeventhe，mostunjustjudgetoswervefromthepathofuprightness。

Explicit，minuteruleswerelaiddownforinvestigatingfactsand，weighingevidence;everyscrapofevidenceandeverylegalground，onwhichthedecisionwasbasedwerecommittedtowriting;every，actinthecomplicatedprocessofcomingtoadecisionwasmadethe，subjectofaformaldocument，anddulyenteredinvarious，registers;everydocumentandregisterhadtobesignedand，countersignedbyvariousofficialswhoweresupposedtocontrol，eachother;everydecisionmightbecarriedtoahighercourtand，madetopassasecondtimethroughthebureaucraticmachine。Ina，word，thelegislatureintroducedasystemofformalwritten，procedureofthemostcomplicatedkind，inthebeliefthatbythis，meansmistakesanddishonestywouldberenderedimpossible。

Itmaybereasonablydoubtedwhetherthissystemofjudicial，administrationcananywheregivesatisfactoryresults。Itis，everywherefoundbyexperiencethatintribunalsfromwhichthe，healthyatmosphereofpublicityisexcludedjusticelanguishes，and，agreatmanyuglyplantsshootupwithwonderfulvitality。Languid，indifference，anindiscriminatingspiritofroutine，andunblushing，dishonestyinvariablycreepinthroughthelittlechinksand，crevicesofthebarrierraisedagainstthem，andnomethodof，hermeticallysealingthesechinksandcreviceshasyetbeen，invented。Theattempttoclosethemupbyincreasingthe，formalitiesandmultiplyingthecourtsofappealandrevision，merelyaddstothetediousnessoftheprocedure，andwithdrawsthe，wholeprocessstillmorecompletelyfrompubliccontrol。Atthe，sametimetheabsenceoffreediscussionbetweenthecontending，partiesrendersthetaskofthejudgeenormouslydifficult。Ifthe，systemistosucceedatall，itmustprovideabodyofable，intelligent，thoroughly-trainedjurists，andmustplacethembeyond，thereachofbriberyandotherformsofcorruption。

InRussianeitheroftheseconditionswasfulfilled。Insteadof，endeavouringtocreateabodyofwell-trainedjurists，the，Governmentwentfurtherandfurtherinthedirectionoflettingthe，judgesbechosenforashortperiodbypopularelectionfromamong，menwhohadneverreceivedajuridicaleducation，orafair，educationofanykind;whilsttheplaceofjudgewassopoorly，paid，andstoodsolowinpublicestimation，thatthetemptations，todishonestyweredifficulttoresist。

Thepracticeofchoosingthejudgesbypopularelectionwasan，attempttorestoretothecourtssomethingoftheiroldpopular，character;butitdidnotsucceed，forveryobviousreasons。

Popularelectioninajudicialorganisationisusefulonlywhenthe，courtsarepublicandtheproceduresimple;onthecontrary，itis，positivelyprejudicialwhentheprocedureisinwritingand，extremelycomplicated。AndsoitprovedinRussia。Theelected，judges，unpreparedfortheirwork，andliabletobechangedat，shortintervals，rarelyacquiredaknowledgeoflaworprocedure。

Theywereforthemostpartpoor，indolentlandedproprietors，who，didlittlemorethansignthedecisionspreparedforthembythe，permanentofficials。Evenwhenajudgehappenedtohavesomelegal，knowledgehefoundsmallscopeforitsapplication，forherarely，ifever，examinedpersonallythematerialsoutofwhichadecision，wastobeelaborated。Thewholeofthepreliminarywork，whichwas，inrealitythemostimportant，wasperformedbyminorofficials，underthedirectionofthesecretaryofthecourt。Incriminal，cases，forinstance，thesecretaryexaminedthewrittenevidence——

allevidencewastakendowninwriting——extractedwhathe，consideredtheessentialpoints，arrangedthemashethought，proper，quotedthelawswhichoughtinhisopiniontobeapplied，putallthisintoareport，andreadthereporttothejudges。Of，coursethejudges，iftheyhadnopersonalinterestinthe，decision，acceptedthesecretary’sviewofthecase。Iftheydid，not，allthepreliminaryworkhadtobedoneanewbythemselves——a，taskthatfewjudgeswereable，andstillfewerwilling，to，perform。Thusthedecisionlayvirtuallyinthehandsofthe，secretaryandtheminorofficials，andingeneralneitherthe，secretarynortheminorofficialswerefitpersonstohavesuch，power。Thereisnoneedtodetailheretheingeniousexpedientsby，whichtheyincreasedtheirmeagresalaries，andhowtheygenerally，contrivedtoextractmoneyfrombothparties。*，Sufficeittosay，thatingeneralthechancelleriesofthecourtsweredensof，pettifoggingrascality，andthehabitual，unblushingbriberyhada，negativeaswellasapositiveeffect。Ifapersonaccusedofsome，crimehadnomoneywherewithtogreasethepalmofthesecretaryhe，mightremaininprisonforyearswithoutbeingbroughttotrial。A

well-knownRussianwriterstilllivingrelatesthatwhenvisitinga，prisonintheprovinceofNizhni-Novgorodhefoundamongthe，inmatesundergoingpreliminaryarresttwopeasantwomen，whowere，accusedofsettingfiretoahayricktorevengethemselvesona，landedproprietor，acrimeforwhichthelegalpunishmentwasfrom，fourtoeightmonths’imprisonment。Oneofthemhadasonofseven，yearsofage，andtheotherasonoftwelve，bothofwhomhadbeen，bornintheprison，andhadlivedthereeversinceamongthe，criminals。Suchalongpreliminaryarrestcausednosurpriseor，indignationamongthosewhoheardofit，becauseitwasquitea，commonoccurrence。Everyoneknewthatbribesweretakennotonly，bythesecretaryandhisscribes，butalsobythejudges，whowere，electedbythelocalNoblessefromitsownranks。

*Oldbook-cataloguessometimesmentionaplaybearingthe，significanttitle，“TheUnheard-ofWonder;or，TheHonest，Secretary“(NeslykhannoeDyeloiliTchestnySekretar)。Ihave，neverseenthiscuriousproduction，butIhavenodoubtthatit，referredtothepeculiaritiesoftheoldjudicialprocedure。

Withregardtothescaleofpunishments，notwithstandingsome，humanitarianprinciplesinthelegislation，theywereverysevere，andcorporalpunishmentplayedamongstthemadisagreeably，prominentpart。Capitalsentenceswereabolishedasearlyas1753-

54，butcastigationwiththeknout，whichoftenendedfatally，continueduntil1845，whenitwasreplacedbyflogginginthecivil，administration，thoughretainedforthemilitaryandfor，insubordinateconvicts。Forthenon-privilegedclassestheknout，orthelashsupplementednearlyallpunishmentsofacriminalkind。

Whenamanwascondemned，forexample，topenalservitude，he，receivedpubliclyfromthirtytoonehundredlashes，andwasthen，brandedontheforeheadandcheekswiththelettersK。A。T——the，firstthreelettersofkatorzhnik(convict)。Ifheappealedhe，receivedhislashesallthesame，andifhisappealwasrejectedby，theSenatehereceivedsomemorecastigationforhavingtroubled，unnecessarilythehigherjudicialauthorities。Forthemilitary，andinsubordinateconvictstherewasabarbarouspunishmentcalled，Spitsruten，totheextentof5，000or6，000blows，whichoften，endedinthedeathoftheunfortunate。

Theuseoftortureincriminalinvestigationswasformally，abolishedin1801，butifwemaybelievethetestimonyofapublic，prosecutor，itwasoccasionallyusedinMoscowaslateas1850。

Thedefectsandabusesoftheoldsystemweresoflagrantthatthey，becameknowneventotheEmperorNicholasI。andcausedhim，momentaryindignation，butheneverattemptedseriouslytoroot，themout。In1844，forexample，heheardofsomegrossabusesina，tribunalnotfarfromtheWinterPalace，andorderedan，investigation。BaronKorff，towhomtheinvestigationwas，entrusted，broughttolightwhathecalled“ayawningabyssofall，possiblehorrors，whichhavebeenaccumulatingforyears，“andhis，Majesty，afterreadingthereport，wroteuponitwithhisownhand：

“Unheard-ofdisgrace！，Thecarelessnessoftheauthority，immediatelyconcernedisincredibleandunpardonable。Ifeel，ashamedandsadthatsuchdisordercouldexistalmostundermyeyes，andremainunknowntome。”，UnfortunatelytheoutburstofImperial，indignationdidnotlastlongenoughtoproduceanydesirable，consequences。Theonlyresultwasthatonememberofthetribunal，wasdismissedfromtheservice，andtheGovernor-GeneralofSt。

Petersburghadtoresign，butthelattersubsequentlyreceivedan，honoraryreward，andtheEmperorremarkedthathewashimselfto，blameforhavingkepttheGovernor-Generalsolongathispost。

WhenhisMajesty’shabitualoptimismhappenedtobetroubledby，incidentsofthissortheprobablyconsoledhimselfwith，rememberingthathehadorderedsomepreparatorywork，bywhichthe，administrationofjusticemightbeimproved，andthisworkwas，beingdiligentlycarriedoutinthelegislativesectionofhisown，chancerybyCountBludof，oneoftheablestRussianlawyersofhis，time。Unfortunatelytheexistingstateofthingswasnotthereby，improved，becausethepreparatoryworkwasnotofthekindthatwas，wanted。Ontheassumptionthatanyevilwhichmightexistcouldbe，removedbyimprovingthelaws，CountBludofdevotedhisefforts，almostentirelytocodification。Inrealitywhatwasrequiredwas，tochangeradicallytheorganisationofthecourtsandthe，procedure，andabovealltoletinontheirproceedingsthe，cleansingatmosphereofpublicity。ThistheEmperorNicholascould，notunderstand，andifhehadunderstoodithecouldnothave，broughthimselftoadopttheappropriateremedies，becauseradical，reformandcontrolofofficialsbypublicopinionwerehistwopet，bugbears。

Verydifferentwashissonandsuccessor，AlexanderII。inthe，firstyearsofhisreign。Inhisaccessionmanifestoaprominent，placewasgiventohisdesirethatjusticeandmercyshouldreign，inthecourtsoflaw。Referringtothesewordsinalater，manifesto，heexplainedhiswishesmorefullyas“thedesireto，establishinRussiaexpeditious，just，merciful，impartialcourts，ofjusticeforalloursubjects;toraisethejudicialauthority;

togiveittheproperindependence，andingeneraltoimplantin，thepeoplethatrespectforthelawwhichoughttobetheconstant，guideofallandeveryonefromthehighesttothelowest。”，These，werenotmerevainwords。Peremptoryordershadbeengiventhat，thegreatworkshouldbeundertakenwithoutdelay，andwhenthe，EmancipationquestionwasbeingdiscussedintheProvincial，Committees，theCouncilofStateexaminedthequestionofjudicial，reform“fromthehistorical，thetheoretical，andthepractical，pointofview，“andcametotheconclusionthattheexisting，organisationmustbecompletelytransformed。

Thecommissionappointedtoconsiderthisimportantmatterfileda，lengthyindictmentagainsttheexistingsystem，andpointedoutno，lessthantwenty-fiveradicaldefects。Toremovetheseitproposed，thatthejudicialorganisationshouldbecompletelyseparatedfrom，allotherbranchesoftheAdministration;thatthemostample，publicity，withtrialbyjuryincriminalcases，shouldbe，introducedintothetribunals;thatJusticeofPeaceCourtsshould，becreatedforpettyaffairs;andthattheprocedureinthe，ordinarycourtsshouldbegreatlysimplified。

ThesefundamentalprincipleswerepublishedbyImperialcommandon，September29th，1862——ayearandahalfafterthepublicationof，theEmancipationManifesto——andonNovember20th，1864，thenew，legislationfoundedontheseprinciplesreceivedtheImperial，sanction。

Likemostinstitutionserectedonatabularasa，thenewsystemis，atoncesimpleandsymmetrical。Asawhole，thearchitectureof，theedificeisdecidedlyFrench，buthereandtherewemaydetect，unmistakablesymptomsofEnglishinfluence。Itisnot，however，a，servilecopyofanyolderedifice;anditmaybefairlysaidthat，thougheveryindividualparthasbeenfashionedaccordingtoa，foreignmodel，thewholehasacertainoriginality。

Thelowerpartofthebuildinginitsoriginalformwascomposedof，twogreatsections，distinctfrom，andindependentof，eachother——

ontheonehandtheJusticeofPeaceCourts，andontheotherthe，RegularTribunals。BothsectionscontainedanOrdinaryCourtanda，CourtofAppeal。Theupperpartofthebuilding，coveringequally，bothsections，wastheSenateasSupremeCourtofRevision(Courde，Cassation)。

Thedistinctivecharacterofthetwoindependentsectionsmaybe，detectedataglance。ThefunctionoftheJusticeofPeaceCourts，istodecidepettycasesthatinvolvenoabstruselegalprinciples，andtosettle，ifpossiblebyconciliation，thosepettyconflicts，anddisputeswhicharisenaturallyintherelationsofeveryday，life;thefunctionoftheRegularTribunalsistotakecognisance，ofthosegraveraffairsinwhichthefortuneorhonourof，individualsorfamiliesismoreorlessimplicated，orinwhichthe，publictranquillityisseriouslyendangered。Thetwokindsof，courtswereorganisedinaccordancewiththeseintendedfunctions。

Intheformertheprocedureissimpleandconciliatory，the，jurisdictionisconfinedtocasesoflittleimportance，andthe，judgeswereatfirstchosenbypopularelection，generallyfrom，amongthelocalinhabitants。Inthelatterthereismoreof“the，pompandmajestyofthelaw。”，Theprocedureismorestrictand，formal，thejurisdictionisunlimitedwithregardtotheimportance，ofthecases，andthejudgesaretrainedjuristsnominatedbythe，Emperor。

TheJusticeofPeaceCourtsreceivedjurisdictionoverall，obligationsandcivilinjuriesinwhichthesumatstakewasnot，morethan500roubles——about50pounds——andallcriminalaffairsin，whichthelegalpunishmentdidnotexceed300roubles——about30

pounds——oroneyearofpunishment。Whenanyonehadacomplaintto，make，hemightgototheJusticeofthePeace(MirovoiSudya)and，explaintheaffairorally，orinwriting，withoutobservingany，formalities;andifthecomplaintseemedwellfounded，theJustice，atoncefixedadayforhearingthecase，andgavetheotherparty，noticetoappearattheappointedtime。Whenthetimeappointed，arrived，theaffairwasdiscussedpubliclyandorally，eitherby，thepartiesthemselves，orbyanyrepresentativeswhomtheymight，appoint。Ifitwasacivilsuit，theJusticebeganbyproposingto，thepartiestoterminateitatoncebyacompromise，andindicated，whatheconsideredafairarrangement。Manyaffairswere，terminatedinthissimpleway。If，however，eitheroftheparties，refusedtoconsenttoacompromise，thematterwasfullydiscussed，andtheJusticegaveaformalwrittendecision，containingthe，groundsonwhichitwasbased。Incriminalcasestheamountof，punishmentwasalwaysdeterminedbyreferencetoaspecialCriminal，Code。

Ifthesumatissueexceededthirtyroubles——about3pounds——orif，thepunishmentexceededafineoffifteenroubles——about30s——or，threedaysofarrest，anappealmightbemadetotheAssemblyof，Justices(MirovoiSyezd)。ThisisapointinwhichEnglishrather，thanFrenchinstitutionsweretakenasamodel。Accordingtothe，Frenchsystem，allappealsfromaJugedePaixaremadetothe，“Tribunald’Arrondissement，“andtheJusticeofPeaceCourtsare，therebysubordinatedtotheRegularTribunals。Accordingtothe，Englishsystem，certaincasesmaybecarriedonappealfromthe，JusticeofthePeacetotheQuarterSessions。Thislatter，principlewasadoptedandgreatlydevelopedbytheRussian，legislation。TheMonthlySessions，composedofalltheJusticesof，theDistrict(uyezd)，consideredappealsagainstthedecisionsof，theindividualJustices。Theprocedurewassimpleandinformal，as，inthelowercourt，butanassistantoftheProcureurwasalways，present。Thisfunctionarygavehisopinioninsomecivilandin，allcriminalcasesimmediatelyafterthedebate，andtheCourttook，hisopinionintoconsiderationinframingitsjudgment。

Intheothergreatsectionofthejudicialorganisation——the，RegularTribunals——therearelikewiseOrdinaryCourtsandCourtsof，Appeal，calledrespectively“Tribunauxd’Arrondissement“

(OkruzhniyeSudy)and“PalaisdeJustice“(SudebniyaPalaty)。Each，OrdinaryCourthasjurisdictionoverseveralDistricts(uyezdy)，andthejurisdictionofeachCourtofAppealscomprehendsseveral，Provinces。Allcivilcasesaresubjecttoappeal，howeversmall，thesumatstakemaybe，butcriminalcasesaredecidedFINALLYby，thelowercourtwiththeaidofajury。Thusincriminalaffairs，the“PalaisdeJustice“isnotatallacourtofappeal，butasno，regularcriminalprosecutioncanberaisedwithoutitsformal，consent，itcontrolsinsomemeasuretheactionofthelower，courts。

Asthegeneralreadercannotbesupposedtotakeaninterestinthe，detailsofcivilprocedure，Ishallmerelysayonthissubjectthat，inbothsectionsoftheRegularTribunalsthecasesarealways，triedbyatleastthreejudges，thesittingsarepublic，andoral，debatesbyofficiallyrecognisedadvocatesformanimportantpart，oftheproceedings。Iventure，however，tospeakalittlemoreat，lengthregardingthechangewhichhasbeenmadeinthecriminal，procedure——asubjectthatislesstechnicalandmoreinteresting，fortheuninitiated。

Downtothetimeoftherecentjudicialreformstheprocedurein，criminalcaseswassecretandinquisitorial。Theaccusedhad，littleopportunityofdefendinghimself，but，ontheotherhand，theStatetookendlessformalprecautionsagainstcondemningthe，innocent。Thepracticalconsequenceofthissystemwasthatan，innocentmanmightremainforyearsinprisonuntiltheauthorities，convincedthemselvesofhisinnocence，whilstaclevercriminal，mightindefinitelypostponehiscondemnation。

Instudyingthehistoryofcriminalprocedureinforeigncountries，thosewhowereentrustedwiththetaskofpreparingprojectsof，reformfoundthatnearlyeverycountryofEuropehadexperienced，theevilsfromwhichRussiawassuffering，andthatonecountry，afteranotherhadcometotheconvictionthatthemostefficient，meansofremovingtheseevilswastoreplacetheinquisitorialby，litigiousprocedure，togiveafairfieldandnofavourtothe，prosecutorandtheaccused，andallowthemtofightouttheir，battlewithwhateverlegalweaponstheymightthinkfit。Further，itwasdiscoveredthat，accordingtothemostcompetentforeign，authorities，itwaswellinthismodernformofjudicialcombatto，leavethedecisiontoajuryofrespectablecitizens。Thesteps，whichRussiahadtotakewerethusclearlymarkedoutbythe，experienceofothernations，anditwasdecidedthattheyshouldbe，takenatonce。Theorgansfortheprosecutionofsupposed，criminalswerecarefullyseparatedfromthejudgesontheonehand，andfromthepoliceontheother;oraldiscussionsbetweenthe，PublicProsecutorandtheprisoner’scounsel，togetherwithoral，examinationandcross-questioningofwitnesses，wereintroduced，intotheprocedure;andthejurywasmadeanessentialfactorin，criminaltrials。

Whenacase，whethercivilorcriminal，hasbeendecidedinthe，RegularTribunals，thereisnopossibilityofappealinthestrict，senseoftheterm，butanapplicationmaybemadeforarevisionof，thecaseonthegroundoftechnicalinformality。TousetheFrench，terms，therecannotbeappel，buttheremaybecassation。Ifthere，hasbeenanyomissionortransgressionofessentiallegal，formalities，oriftheCourthasoversteppedtheboundsofits，legalauthority，theinjuredpartymaymakeanapplicationtohave，thecaserevisedandtriedagain。*，Thisisnot，accordingto，Frenchjuridicalconceptions，anappeal。TheCourtofRevision**

(CourdeCassation)doesnotenterintothematerialfactsofthe，case，butmerelydecidesthequestionastowhethertheessential，formalitieshavebeendulyobserved，andastowhetherthelawhas，beenproperlyinterpretedandapplied;andifitbefoundon，examinationthatthereissomegroundforinvalidatingthe，decision，itdoesnotdecidethecase。Accordingtothenew，Russiansystem，thesoleCourtofRevisionistheSenate。

*ThisistheprocedurereferredtobyKarlKarl’itch，videsupra，p37。

**Iamquiteawarethattheterm“CourtofRevision“isequivocal，butIhavenobettertermtopropose，andIhopetheabove，explanationswillpreventconfusion。

TheSenatethusformstheregulatorofthewholejudicialsystem，butitsactionismerelyregulative。Ittakescognisanceonlyof，whatispresentedtoit，andsuppliestothemachinenomotive，power。Ifanyofthelowercourtsshouldworkslowlyorceaseto，workaltogether，theSenatemightremainignorantofthefact，and，certainlycouldtakenoofficialnoticeofit。Itwasconsidered，necessary，therefore，tosupplementthespontaneousvitalityofthe，lowercourts，andforthispurposewascreatedaspecial，centralisedjudicialadministration，attheheadofwhichwas，placedtheMinisterofJustice。TheMinisteris“Procureur-

General，“andhassubordinatesinallthecourts。Theprimary，functionofthisadministrationistopreservetheforceofthe，law，todetectandrepairallinfractionsofjudicialorder，to，defendtheinterestsoftheStateandofthosepersonswhoare，officiallyrecognisedasincapableoftakingchargeoftheirown，affairs，andtoactincriminalmattersasPublicProsecutor。

Viewedasawhole，andfromalittledistance，thisgrandjudicial，edificeseemsperfectlysymmetrical，butacloserandmoreminute，inspectionbringstolightunmistakableindicationsofachangeof，planduringtheprocessofconstruction。Thoughtheworklasted，onlyabouthalf-a-dozenyears，thestyleoftheupperdiffersfrom，thestyleofthelowerparts，preciselyasinthoseGothic，cathedralswhichgrewupslowlyduringthecourseofcenturies。

Andthereisnothingherethatneedsurpriseus，foraconsiderable，changetookplaceintheopinionsoftheofficialworldduringthat，shortperiod。Thereformwasconceivedatatimeofuncritical，enthusiasmforadvancedliberalideas，ofboundlessfaithinthe，dictatesofscience，ofunquestioningrelianceonpublicspirit，publiccontrol，andpublichonesty——atimeinwhichitwasbelieved，thatthepublicwouldspontaneouslydoeverythingnecessaryforthe，commonweal，ifitwereonlyfreedfromtheadministrative，swaddling-clothesinwhichithadbeenhithertobound。Still，smartingfromthesevereregimeofNicholas，menthoughtmoreabout，protectingtherightsoftheindividualthanaboutpreserving，publicorder，andundertheinfluenceofthesocialisticideasin，voguemalefactorswereregardedastheunfortunate，involuntary，victimsofsocialinequalityandinjustice。

Towardstheendoftheperiodinquestionallthishadbegunto，change。Manywerebeginningtoperceivethatlibertymighteasily，turntolicense，thatthespontaneouspublicenergywaslargely，expendedinemptywords，andthatacertainamountofhierarchical，disciplinewasnecessaryinordertokeepthepublicadministration，inmotion。Itwasfound，therefore，in1864，thatitwas，impossibletocarryouttotheirultimateconsequencesthegeneral，principleslaiddownandpublishedin1862。Eveninthosepartsof，thelegislationwhichwereactuallyputinforce，itwasfound，necessarytomakemodificationsinanindirect，covertway。Of，these，onemaybecitedbywayofillustration。In1860criminal，inquiriesweretakenoutofthehandsofthepoliceandtransferred，toJugesd’instruction(SudebniyeSledovateli)，whowerealmost，entirelyindependentofthePublicProsecutor，andcouldnotbe，removedunlesscondemnedforsomelegaltransgressionbyaRegular，Tribunal。Thisreformcreatedatfirstmuchrejoicingandgreat，expectations，becauseitraisedabarrieragainstthetyrannyof，thepoliceandagainstthearbitrarypowerofthehigherofficials。

Butverysoonthedefectsofthesystembecameapparent。Many，Jugesd’instruction，feelingthemselvesindependent，andknowing，thattheywouldnotbeprosecutedexceptforsomeflagrantly，illegalact，gavewaytoindolence，andspenttheirtimein，inactivity。*，Insuchcasesitwasalwaysdifficult，andsometimes，impossible，toprocureacondemnation——forindolencemustassume，giganticproportionsinordertobecomeacrime——andtheminister，hadtoadoptthepracticeofappointing，withoutImperial，confirmation，temporaryJugesd’instructionwhomhecouldremoveat，pleasure。

*Aflagrantcaseofthiskindcameundermyownobservation。

Itisunnecessary，however，toenterintothesetheoretical，defects。Theimportantquestionforthegeneralpublicis：Howdo，theinstitutionsworkinthelocalconditionsinwhichtheyare，placed？

ThisisaquestionwhichhasaninterestnotonlyforRussians，but，forallstudentsofsocialscience，forittendstothrowlighton，thedifficultsubjectastohowfarinstitutionsmaybe，successfullytransplantedtoaforeignsoil。Manythinkershold，andnotwithoutreason，thatnoinstitutioncanworkwellunlessit，isthenaturalproductofprevioushistoricaldevelopment。Nowwe，havehereanopportunityoftestingthistheorybyexperience;we，haveevenwhatBacontermsanexperimentumcrucis。Thisnew，judicialsystemisanartificialcreationconstructedinaccordance，withprincipleslaiddownbyforeignjurists。Allthatthe，elaboratorsoftheprojectsaidaboutdevelopingoldinstitutions，wasmeretalk。Inrealitytheymadeatabularasaoftheexisting，organisation。Iftheintroductionofpublicoralprocedureand，trialbyjurywasareturntoancientcustoms，itwasareturnto，whathadbeenlongsinceforgottenbyallexceptantiquarian，specialists，andnoseriousattemptwasmadetodevelopwhat，actuallyexisted。Oneform，indeed，oforalprocedurehadbeen，preservedintheCode，butithadfallencompletelyintodisuse，andseemstohavebeenoverlookedbytheelaboratorsofthenew，system。*

*Irefertotheso-calledSudpoformeestablishedbyanukazof，PetertheGreat，in1723。IwasmuchastonishedwhenI

accidentallystumbleduponitintheCode。

Havingingenerallittleconfidenceininstitutionswhichspring，ready-madefromthebrainsofautocraticlegislators，Iexpectedto，findthatthisnewjudicialorganisation，whichlookssowellon，paper，waswell-nighworthlessinreality。Observation，however，hasnotconfirmedmypessimisticexpectations。Onthecontrary，I

havefoundthatthesenewinstitutions，thoughtheyhavenotyet，hadtimetostrikedeeproot，andareveryfarfrombeingperfect，eveninthehumansenseoftheterm，workonthewholeremarkably，well，andhavealreadyconferredimmensebenefitonthecountry。

InthecourseofafewyearstheJusticeofPeaceCourts，whichmay，perhapsbecalledthenewestpartofthenewinstitutions，became，thoroughlyacclimatised，asiftheyhadexistedforgenerations。

Assoonastheywereopenedtheybecameextremelypopular。In，Moscowtheauthoritieshadcalculatedthatunderthenewsystemthe，numberofcaseswouldbemorethandoubled，andthatonanaverage，eachjusticewouldhavenearlyathousandcasesbroughtbeforehim，inthecourseoftheyear。Therealityfarexceededtheir，expectations：eachjusticehadonanaverage2，800cases。InSt。

Petersburgandtheotherlargetownstheamountofworkwhichthe，justiceshadtogetthroughwasequallygreat。

TounderstandthepopularityoftheJusticeofPeaceCourts，we，mustknowsomethingoftheoldpolicecourtswhichtheysupplanted。

Thenobles，themilitary，andthesmallofficialshadalwayslooked，onthepolicewithcontempt，becausetheirpositionsecuredthem，againstinterference，andthemerchantsacquiredasimilarimmunity，bysubmittingtoblackmail，whichoftentooktheformofafixed，subsidy;butthelowerclassesintownandcountrystood，infear，ofthehumblestpoliceman，anddidnotdaretocomplainofhimto，hissuperiors。Iftwoworkmenbroughttheirdifferencesbeforea，policecourt，insteadofgettingtheircasedecidedongroundsof，equity，theywereprettysuretogetscoldedinlanguageunfitfor，earspolite，ortoreceivestillworsetreatment。Evenamongthe，higherofficersoftheforcemanybecamefamousfortheir，brutality。AGorodnitchiofthetownofTcherkassy，forexample，madeforhimselfinthisrespectaconsiderablereputation。Ifany，humbleindividualventuredtoofferanobjectiontohim，hehadat，oncerecoursetohisfists，andanyreferencetothelawputhim，intoastateoffrenzy。”Thetown，“hewaswonttosayonsuch，occasions，“hasbeenentrustedtomebyhisMajesty，andyoudare，totalktomeofthelaw？，Thereisthelawforyou！”——theremark，beingaccompaniedwithablow。Anotherofficerofthesametype，longresidentinKief，hadasomewhatdifferentmethodof，maintainingorder。Hehabituallydroveaboutthetownwitha，Cossackescort，andwhenanyoneofthelowerclasseshadthe，misfortunetodispleasehim，heorderedoneofhisCossacksto，applyalittlecorporalpunishmentonthespotwithoutanylegal，formalities。

IntheJusticeofPeaceCourtsthingswereconductedinavery，differentstyle。Thejustice，alwaysscrupulouslypolitewithout，distinctionofpersons，listenedpatientlytothecomplaint，tried，toarrangetheaffairsamicably，andwhenhiseffortsfailed，gave，hisdecisionatonceaccordingtolawandcommon-sense。No，attentionwaspaidtorankorsocialposition。Ageneralwhowould，notattendtothepoliceregulationswasfinedlikeanordinary，workingman，andinadisputebetweenagreatdignitaryandamanof，thepeoplethetwoweretreatedinpreciselythesameway。No，wondersuchcourtsbecamepopularamongthemasses;andtheir，popularitywasincreasedwhenitbecameknownthattheaffairswere，disposedofexpeditiously，withoutunnecessaryformalitiesand，withoutanybribesorblackmail。Manypeasantsregardedthe，justiceastheyhadbeenwonttoregardkindlyproprietorsofthe，oldpatriarchaltype，andbroughttheirgriefsandsorrowstohim，inthehopethathewouldsomehowalleviatethem。Oftenthey，submittedmostintimatedomesticandmatrimonialconcernsofwhich，nocourtcouldpossiblytakecognisance，andsometimesthey，demandedthefulfilmentofcontractswhichwereinflagrant，contradictionnotonlywiththewrittenlaw，butalsowithordinary，morality。*

*Manycuriousinstancesofthishavecometomyknowledge，but，theyareofsuchakindthattheycannotbequotedinawork，intendedforthegeneralpublic。

Ofcourse，thecourtswerenotentirelywithoutblemishes。Inthe，matter，forexample，ofmakingnodistinctionofpersonssomeof，theearlyjustices，inseekingtoavoidScylla，camedangerously，neartoCharybdis。Imaginingthattheirmissionwastoeradicate，theconceptionsandhabitswhichhadbeencreatedandfosteredby，serfage，theysometimesusedtheirauthorityforgivinglessonsin，philanthropicliberalism，andtookamaliciousdelightinwounding，thesusceptibilities，andoccasionallyeventhematerialinterests，ofthosewhomtheyregardedasenemiestothegoodcause。In，disputesbetweenmasterandservant，orbetweenemployerand，workmen，thejusticeofthistypeconsideredithisdutytoresist，thetyrannyofcapital，andwasapttoforgethisofficial，characterofjudgeinhisassumedcharacterofsocialreformer。

Happilytheseaberrationsonthepartofthejusticesarealready，thingsofthepast，buttheyhelpedtobringaboutareaction，as，weshallseepresently。

TheextremepopularityoftheJusticeofPeaceCourtsdidnotlast，verylong。TheirhistoryresembledthatoftheZemstvoandmany，othernewinstitutionsinRussia——atfirst，enthusiasmand，inordinateexpectations;thenconsciousnessofdefectsand，practicalinconveniences;and，lastly，inaninfluentialsectionof，thepublic，thepessimismofshatteredillusions，accompaniedby，theadoptionofareactionarypolicyonthepartoftheGovernment。

Thediscontentappearedfirstamongtheso-calledprivileged，classes。Topeoplewhohadalltheirlivesenjoyedgreatsocial，considerationitseemedmonstrousthattheyshouldbetreated，exactlyinthesamewayasthemuzhik;andwhenageneralwhowas，accustomedtobeaddressedas“YourExcellency，“wasaccusedof，usingabusivelanguagetohiscook，andfoundhimselfseatedonthe，samebenchwiththemenial，henaturallysupposedthattheendof，allthingswasathand;orperhapsagreatcivilofficial，whowas，accustomedtoregardthepoliceascreatedmerelyforthelower，classes，suddenlyfoundhimself，tohisinexpressibleastonishment，finedforacontraventionofpoliceregulations！，Naturallythe，justiceswereaccusedofdangerousrevolutionarytendencies，and，whentheyhappenedtobringtolightsomeinjusticeonthepartof，thetchinovniktheywereseverelycondemnedforunderminingthe，prestigeoftheImperialauthority。

Foratimetheaccusationsprovokedmerelyasmileoracaustic，remarkamongtheLiberals，butaboutthemiddleoftheeighties，criticismsbegantoappearevenintheLiberalPress。Novery，graveallegationsweremade，butdefectsinthesystemand，miscarriagesofjusticewereputforwardandseverelycommented，upon。Occasionallyithappenedthatajusticewasindolent，or，thatattheSessionsinasmallcountrytownitwasimpossibleto，formaquorumontheappointedday。Overlookingthegoodfeatures，oftheinstitutionandthegoodservicesrenderedbyit，the，criticsbegantoproposepartialreorganisationinthesenseof，greatercontrolbycentralauthorities。Itwassuggested，for，example，thatthePresidentofSessionsshouldbeappointedbythe，Government，thatthejusticesshouldbesubordinatedtotheRegular，Tribunals，andthattheprincipleofelectionbytheZemstvoshould，beabolished。

ThesecomplaintswerenotatallunwelcometotheGovernment，becauseithadembarkedonareactionarypolicy，andin1889it，suddenlygrantedtothecriticsagreatdealmorethanthey，desired。IntheruraldistrictsofCentralRussiathejustices，werereplacedbytheruralsupervisors，ofwhomIhavespokenina，previouschapter，andthepartoftheirfunctionswhichcouldnot，wellbeentrustedtothosenewofficialswastransferredtojudges，oftheRegularCourts。Insomeofthelargertownsandinthe，ruraldistrictsofoutlyingprovincesthejusticeswerepreserved，butinsteadofbeingelectedbytheZemstvotheywerenominatedby，theGovernment。

TheregularTribunalslikewisebecameacclimatisedinanincredibly，shortspaceoftime。Thefirstjudgeswerenotbyanymeans，profoundjurists，andweretoooftendeficientinthat，dispassionatecalmnesswhichweareaccustomedtoassociatewith，theBench;buttheywereatleasthonest，educatedmen，and，generallypossessedafairknowledgeofthelaw。Theirdefects，wereduetothefactthatthedemandfortrainedjuristsfar，exceededthesupply，andtheGovernmentwasforcedtonominatemen，whounderordinarycircumstanceswouldneverhavethoughtof，presentingthemselvesascandidates。Atthebeginningof1870，in，the32“Tribunauxd’Arrondissement“whichthenexisted，therewere，227judges，ofwhom44hadneverreceivedajuridicaleducation。

Eventhepresidentshadnotallpassedthroughaschooloflaw。Of，coursethecourtscouldnotbecomethoroughlyeffectiveuntilall，thejudgesweremenwhohadreceivedagoodspecialeducationand，hadapracticalacquaintancewithjudicialmatters。Thishasnow，beeneffected，andthepresentgenerationofjudgesarebetter，preparedandmorecapablethantheirpredecessors。Onthescoreof，probityIhaveneverheardanycomplaints。

Ofallthejudicialinnovations，perhapsthemostinterestingis，thejury。

Atthetimeofthereformstheintroductionofthejuryintothe，judicialorganisationawakenedamongtheeducatedclassesagreat，amountofsentimentalenthusiasm。Theinstitutionhadthe，reputationofbeing“liberal，“andwasknowntobeapprovedofby，thelatestauthoritiesincriminaljurisprudence。Thiswas，sufficienttoinsureitafavourablereception，andtoexcitemost，exaggeratedexpectationsastoitsbeneficentinfluence。Tenyears，ofexperiencesomewhatcooledthisenthusiasm，andvoicesmightbe，hearddeclaringthattheintroductionofthejurywasamistake。

TheRussianpeople，itwasheld，wasnotyetripeforsuchan，institution，andnumerousanecdoteswererelatedinsupportofthis，opinion。Onejury，forinstance，wassaidtohavereturneda，verdictof“NOTguiltywithextenuatingcircumstances“;and，another，beingunabletocometoadecision，wasreportedtohave，castlotsbeforeanIcon，andtohavegivenaverdictinaccordance，withtheresult！，Besidesthis，juriesoftengaveaverdictof“not，guilty“whentheaccusedmadeafullandformalconfessiontothe，court。

HowfarthecomicanecdotesaretrueIdonotundertaketodecide，butIventuretoassertthatsuchincidents，iftheyreallyoccur，aretoofewtoformthebasisofaseriousindictment。Thefact，however，thatjuriesoftenacquitprisonerswhoopenlyconfess，theircrimeisbeyondallpossibilityofdoubt。

TomostEnglishmenthisfactwillprobablyseemsufficienttoprove，thattheintroductionoftheinstitutionwasatleastpremature，butbeforeadoptingthissweepingconclusionitwillbewellto，examinethephenomenonalittlemorecloselyinconnectionwith，Russiancriminalprocedureasawhole。

InEnglandtheBenchisallowedverygreatlatitudeinfixingthe，amountofpunishment。Thejurycanthereforeconfinethemselvesto，thequestionoffactandleavetothejudgetheappreciationof，extenuatingcircumstances。InRussiathepositionofthejuryis，different。TheRussiancriminallawfixesminutelythepunishment，foreachcategoryofcrimes，andleavesalmostnolatitudetothe，judge。Thejuryknowthatiftheygiveaverdictofguilty，the，prisonerwillinevitablybepunishedaccordingtotheCode。Now，theCode，borrowedingreatpartfromforeignlegislation，is，foundedonconceptionsverydifferentfromthoseoftheRussian，people，andinmanycasesitattachesheavypenaltiestoactswhich，theordinaryRussianiswonttoregardasmerepeccadilloes，or，positivelyjustifiable。EveninthosemattersinwhichtheCodeis，inharmonywiththepopularmorality，therearemanyexceptional，casesinwhichsummumjusisreallysummainjuria。Suppose，for，instance——asactuallyhappenedinacasewhichcameundermy，notice——thatafirebreaksoutinavillage，andthattheVillage，Elder，drivenoutofpatiencebytheapathyandlazinessofsomeof，hisyoungfellow-villagers，overstepsthelimitsofhisauthority，asdefinedbylaw，andaccompanieshisreproachesandexhortations，withafewlustyblows。Surelysuchamanisnotguiltyofavery，heinouscrime——certainlyheisnotintheopinionofthepeasantry——

andyetifhebeprosecutedandconvictedheinevitablyfallsinto，thejawsofanarticleoftheCodewhichcondemnstotransportation，foralongtermofyears。

Insuchcaseswhatisthejurytodo？，InEnglandtheymightsafely，giveaverdictofguilty，andleavethejudgetotakeinto，considerationalltheextenuatingcircumstances;butinRussiathey，cannotactinthisway，fortheyknowthatthejudgemustcondemn，theprisoneraccordingtotheCriminalCode。Thereremains，therefore，butoneissueoutofthedifficulty——averdictof，acquittal;andRussianjuries——totheirhonourbeitsaid——

generallyadoptthisalternative。Thusthejury，inthosecasesin，whichitismostseverelycondemned，providesacorrectiveforthe，injusticeofthecriminallegislation。Occasionally，itistrue，theygoalittletoofarinthisdirectionandarrogateto，themselvesarightofpardon，butcasesofthatkindare，I

believe，veryrare。Iknowofonlyonewell-authenticated，instance。Theprisonerhadbeenprovedguiltyofaseriouscrime，butithappenedtobetheeveofagreatreligiousfestival，and，thejurythoughtthatinpardoningtheprisonerandgivinga，verdictofacquittaltheywouldbeactingasgoodChristians！

Thelegislationregards，ofcourse，thispracticeasanabuse，and，hastriedtopreventitbyconcealingasfaraspossiblefromthe，jurythepunishmentthatawaitstheaccusedifhebecondemned。

Forthispurposeitforbidsthecounselfortheprisonertoinform，thejurywhatpunishmentisprescribedbytheCodeforthecrimein，question。Thisingeniousdevicenotonlyfailsinitsobject，but，hassometimesadirectlyoppositeeffect。Notknowingwhatthe，punishmentwillbe，andfearingthatitmaybeoutofall，proportiontothecrime，thejurysometimesacquitacriminalwhom，theywouldcondemniftheyknewwhatpunishmentwouldbeinflicted。

Andwhenajuryis，asitwere，entrapped，andfindsthatthe，punishmentismoreseverethanitsupposed，itcantakeitsrevenge，inthesucceedingcases。Iknowatleastofoneinstanceofthis，kind。Ajuryconvictedaprisonerofanoffencewhichitregarded，asverytrivial，butwhichinrealityentailed，accordingtothe，Code，sevenyearsofpenalservitude！，Sosurprisedandfrightened，werethejurymenbythisunexpectedconsequenceoftheirverdict，thattheyobstinatelyacquitted，inthefaceofthemostconvincing，evidence，alltheotherprisonersbroughtbeforethem。

Themostfamouscaseofacquitalwhentherewasnoconceivable，doubtastotheguiltoftheaccusedwasthatofVeraZasulitch，whoshotGeneralTrepof，PrefectofSt。Petersburg;butthe，circumstancesweresopeculiarthattheywillhardlysupportany，generalconclusion。Ihappenedtobepresent，andwatchedthe，proceedingsclosely。VeraZasulitch，ayoungwomanwhohadfor，sometimetakenpartintherevolutionarymovement，heardthata，youngrevolutionistcalledBogoliubof，imprisonedinSt。

Petersburg，hadbeenfloggedbyordersofGeneralTrepof，*and，thoughshedidnotknowthevictimpersonallyshedeterminedto，avengetheindignitytowhichhehadbeensubjected。Withthis，intentionsheappearedatthePrefecture，ostensiblyforthe，purposeofpresentingapetition，andwhenshefoundherselfinthe，presenceofthePrefectshefiredarevolverathim，woundinghim，seriously，butnotmortally。Atthetrialthemainfactswerenot，disputed，andyetthejurybroughtinaverdictofnotguilty。

Thisunexpectedresultwasdue，Ibelieve，partlytoadesireto，makealittlepoliticaldemonstration，andpartlytoastrong，suspicionthattheprisonauthorities，incarryingoutthe，Prefect’sorders，hadactedinsummaryfashionwithoutobserving，thetediousformalitiesprescribedbythelaw。Certainlyoneof，theprisonofficials，whenundercross-examination，madeonme，and，onthepublicgenerally，theimpressionthathewasprevaricating，inordertoshieldhissuperiors。

*ThereasonallegedbyGeneralTrepofforgivingtheseorderswas，that，duringavisitofinspection，Bogoliubofhadbehaved，disrespectfullytowardshim，andhadtherebycommittedan，infractionofprisondiscipline，forwhichthelawprescribesthe，useofcorporalpunishment。

Atthecloseoftheproceedings，whichweredexterouslyconducted，byCounselinsuchawaythat，astheEmperorisreportedtohave，said，itwasnotVeraZasulitchbutGeneralTrepofwhowasbeing，tried，aneminentRussianjournalistrusheduptomeinastateof，intenseexcitementandsaid：“Isnotthisagreatdayforthecause，ofpoliticalfreedominRussia？”IcouldnotagreewithhimandI

venturedtopredictthatneitherofuswouldeveragainseea，politicalcasetriedpubliclybyjuryinanordinarycourt。The，predictionhasprovedtrue。Sincethattimepoliticaloffenders，havebeentriedbyspecialtribunalswithoutajuryordealtwith，“byadministrativeprocedure，“thatistosay，inquisitorially，withoutanyregulartrial。

Thedefects，realandsupposed，ofthepresentsystemarecommonly，attributedtothepredominanceofthepeasantelementinthe，juries;andthisopinion，foundedonapriorireasoning，seemsto，manytooevidenttorequireverification。Thepeasantryarein，manyrespectsthemostignorantclass，andtherefore，itis，assumed，theyareleastcapableofweighingconflictingevidence。

Plainandconclusiveasthisreasoningseems，itisinmyopinion，erroneous。Thepeasantshave，indeed，littleeducation，butthey，havealargefundofplaincommon-sense;andexperienceproves——so，atleastIhavebeeninformedbymanyjudgesandPublic，Prosecutors——that，asageneralrule，apeasantjuryismoretobe，reliedonthanajurydrawnfromtheeducatedclasses。Itmustbe，admitted，however，thatapeasantjuryhascertainpeculiarities，anditisnotalittleinterestingtoobservewhatthose，peculiaritiesare。

Inthefirstplace，ajurycomposedofpeasantsgenerallyactsina，somewhatpatriarchalfashion，anddoesnotalwaysconfineits，attentiontotheevidenceandtheargumentsadducedatthetrial。

Themembersformtheirjudgmentasmendointheaffairsof，ordinarylife，andaresuretobegreatlyinfluencedbyanyjurors，whohappentobepersonallyacquaintedwiththeprisoner。If，severalofthejurorsknowhimtobeabadcharacter，hehaslittle，chanceofbeingacquitted，eventhoughthechainofevidence，againsthimshouldnotbequiteperfect。Peasantscannot，understandwhyanotoriousscoundrelshouldbeallowedtoescape，becausealittlelinkintheevidenceiswanting，orbecausesome，littlejudicialformalityhasnotbeendulyobserved。Indeed，theirideasofcriminalprocedureingeneralareextremely，primitive。TheCommunalmethodofdealingwithmalefactorsisbest，inaccordancewiththeirconceptionsofwell-regulatedsociety。

TheMirmay，byaCommunaldecreeandwithoutaformaltrial，have，anyofitsunrulymemberstransportedtoSiberia！，Thissummary，informalmodeofprocedureseemstothepeasantsverysatisfactory。

Theyareatalosstounderstandhowanotoriousculpritisallowed，to“buy“anadvocatetodefendhim，andareveryinsensibletothe，boughtadvocate’seloquence。Tomanyofthem，ifImaytrustto，conversationswhichIhavecasuallyoverheardinandaroundthe，courts，“buyinganadvocate“seemstobeverymuchthesamekindof，operationasbribingajudge。

Inthesecondplace，thepeasants，whenactingasjurors，arevery，severewithregardtocrimesagainstproperty。Inthistheyare，instigatedbythesimpleinstinctofself-defence。Theyare，in，fact，continuallyatthemercyofthievesandmalefactors。They，liveinwoodenhouseseasilysetonfire;theirstablesmightbe，brokenintobyachild;atnightthevillageisguardedmerelyby，anoldman，whocannotbeinmorethanoneplaceatatime，andin，theoneplaceheisapttogotosleep;apoliceofficerisrarely，seen，exceptwhenacrimehasactuallybeencommitted。Afew，cleverhorse-stealersmayruinmanyfamilies，andafire-raiser，in，hisdesiretoavengehimselfonanenemy，mayreduceawhole，villagetodestitution。Theseandsimilarconsiderationstendto，makethepeasantsverysevereagainsttheft，robbery，andarson;

andaPublicProsecutorwhodesirestoobtainaconvictionagainst，amanchargedwithoneofthesecrimesendeavourstohaveajuryin，whichthepeasantclassislargelyrepresented。

Withregardtofraudinitsvariousforms，thepeasantsaremuch，morelenient，probablybecausethelineofdemarcationbetween，honestanddishonestdealingincommercialaffairsisnotvery，clearlydrawnintheirminds。Many，forinstance，areconvinced，thattradecannotbesuccessfullycarriedonwithoutalittle，clevercheating;andhencecheatingisregardedasavenial，offence。Ifthemoneyfraudulentlyacquiredberestoredtothe，owner，thecrimeissupposedtobecompletelycondoned。Thuswhen，aVolostElderappropriatesthepublicmoney，andsucceedsin，repayingitbeforethecasecomesonfortrial，heisinvariably，acquitted——andsometimesevenre-elected！

Anequalleniencyisgenerallyshownbypeasantstowardscrimes，againsttheperson，suchasassaults，cruelty，andthelike。This，factiseasilyexplained。Refinedsensitivenessandakeen，sympathywithphysicalsufferingaretheresultofacertainamount，ofmaterialwell-being，togetherwithacertaindegreeof，intellectualandmoralculture，andneitheroftheseisyet，possessedbytheRussianpeasantry。Anyonewhohashad，opportunitiesoffrequentlyobservingthepeasantsmusthavebeen，oftenastonishedbytheirindifferencetosuffering，bothintheir，ownpersonsandinthepersonofothers。Inadrunkenbrawlheads，maybebrokenandwoundsinflictedwithoutanyinterferenceonthe，partofthespectators。Ifnofatalconsequencesensue，the，peasantdoesnotthinkitnecessarythatofficialnoticeshouldbe，takenoftheincident，andcertainlydoesnotconsiderthatanyof，thecombatantsshouldbetransportedtoSiberia。Slightwounds，healoftheirownaccordwithoutanyseriouslosstothesufferer，andthereforethemanwhoinflictsthemisnottobeputonthe，samelevelasthecriminalwhoreducesafamilytobeggary。This，reasoningmay，perhaps，shockpeopleofsensitivenerves，butit，undeniablycontainsacertainamountofplain，homelywisdom。