第9章

CHAPTERXVIII

THEDISSENTERS

DissentersnottobeConfoundedwithHeretics——ExtremeImportance，AttachedtoRitualObservances——TheRaskol，orGreatSchisminthe，SeventeenthCentury——AntichristAppears！——PolicyofPetertheGreat，andCatherineII——PresentIngeniousMethodofSecuringReligious，Toleration——InternalDevelopmentoftheRaskol——Schismamongthe，Schismatics——TheOldRitualists——ThePriestlessPeople——Coolingof，theFanaticalEnthusiasmandFormationofNewSects——RecentPolicy，oftheGovernmenttowardstheSectarians——NumericalForceand，PoliticalSignificanceofSectarianism。

Wemustbecarefulnottoconfoundthosehereticalsects，Protestantandfantastical，ofwhichIhavespokeninthepreceding，chapter，withthemorenumerousDissentersorSchismatics，the，descendantsofthosewhosecededfromtheRussianChurch——ormore，correctlyfromwhomtheRussianChurchseceded——intheseventeenth，century。Sofarfromregardingthemselvesasheretics，these，latterconsiderthemselvesmoreorthodoxthantheofficialOrthodox，Church。Theyareconservatives，too，inthesocialaswellasthe，religioussenseoftheterm。Amongthemaretobefoundthelast，remnantsofoldRussianlife，untingedbyforeigninfluences。

TheRussianChurch，asIhavealreadyhadoccasiontoremark，has，alwayspaidinordinateattentiontoceremonialobservancesand，somewhatneglectedthedoctrinalandmoralelementsofthefaith，whichitprofesses。Thispeculiaritygreatlyfacilitatedthe，spreadofitsinfluenceamongapeopleaccustomedtopaganrites，andmagicalincantations，butithadtheperniciouseffectof，confirminginthenewconvertstheirsuperstitiousbeliefinthe，virtueofmereceremonies。ThustheRussiansbecamezealous，Christiansinallmattersofexternalobservance，withoutknowing，muchaboutthespiritualmeaningoftheriteswhichtheypractised。

Theylookedupontheritesandsacramentsasmysteriouscharms，whichpreservedthemfromevilinfluencesinthepresentlifeand，securedthemeternalfelicityinthelifetocome，andthey，believedthatthesecharmswouldinevitablylosetheirefficacyif，modifiedintheslightestdegree。Extremeimportancewastherefore，attachedtotheritualminutiae，andtheslightestmodificationof，theseminutiaeassumedtheimportanceofanhistoricalevent。In，theyear1476，forinstance，theNovgorodianChroniclergravely，relates：

“Thiswintersomephilosophers(！)begantosing，’OLord，have，mercy，’andothersmerely，’Lord，havemercy。’“Andthisattaching，ofenormousimportancetotrifleswasnotconfinedtotheignorant，multitude。AnArchbishopofNovgoroddeclaredsolemnlythatthose，whorepeattheword“Alleluia“onlytwiceatcertainpointsinthe，liturgy“singtotheirowndamnation，“andacelebrated，EcclesiasticalCouncil，heldin1551，putsuchmattersasthe，positionofthefingerswhenmakingthesignofthecrossonthe，samelevelasheresies——formallyanathematisingthosewhoactedin，suchtriflescontrarytoitsdecisions。

Thisconservativespiritinreligiousconcernshadaconsiderable，influenceonsociallife。Astherewasnoclearlineof，demarcationbetweenreligiousobservancesandsimpletraditional，customs，themostordinaryactmightreceiveareligious，significance，andtheslightestdeparturefromatraditionalcustom，mightbelookeduponasadeadlysin。ARussianoftheoldentime，wouldhaveresistedtheattempttodeprivehimofhisbeardas，strenuouslyasaCalvinistofthepresentdaywouldresistthe，attempttomakehimabjurethedoctrineofPredestination——andboth，forthesamereason。AsthedoctrineofPredestinationisforthe，Calvinist，sothewearingofabeardwasfortheoldRussian——an，essentialofsalvation。”Where，“askedoneofthePatriarchsof，Moscow，“willthosewhoshavetheirchinsstandattheLastDay？——

amongtherighteousadornedwithbeards，oramongthebeardless，heretics？”Thequestionrequirednoanswer。

Intheseventeenthcenturythissuperstitious，conservativespirit，reacheditsclimax。Thecivilwarsandforeigninvasions，accompaniedbypillage，famine，andplagueswithwhichthatcentury，opened，producedawide-spreadconvictionthattheendofall，thingswasathand。ThemysteriousnumberoftheBeastwasfound，toindicatetheyear1666，andtimidsoulsbegantodiscoversigns，ofthatfallingawayfromtheFaithwhichisspokenofinthe，Apocalypse。Themajorityofthepeopledidnotperhapssharethis，notion，buttheybelievedthatthesufferingswithwhichtheyhad，beenvisitedwereaDivinepunishmentforhavingforsakenthe，ancientcustoms。Anditcouldnotbedeniedthatconsiderable，changeshadtakenplace。OrthodoxRussiawasnowtaintedwiththe，presenceofheretics。Foreignerswhoshavedtheirchinsandsmoked，theaccursedweedhadbeenallowedtosettleinMoscow，andthe，Tsarsnotonlyheldconversewiththem，buthadevenadoptedsome，oftheir“pagan“practises。Besidesthis，theGovernmenthad，introducedinnovationsandreforms，manyofwhichweredispleasing，tothepeople。Inshort，thecountrywaspollutedwith“heresy“——a，subtle，evilinfluencelurkingineverythingforeign，andvery，dangeroustothespiritualandtemporalwelfareoftheFaithful——

somethingofthenatureofanepidemic，butinfinitelymore，dangerous;fordiseasekillsmerelythebody，whereas“heresy“

killsthesoul，andcausesbothsoulandbodytobecastintohell-

fire。

HadtheGovernmentintroducedtheinnovationsslowlyand，cautiously，respectingasfaraspossiblealloutwardforms，it，mighthaveeffectedmuchwithoutproducingareligiouspanic;but，insteadofactingcircumspectlyastheoccasiondemanded，itran，full-tiltagainsttheancientprejudicesandsuperstitiousfears，anddrovethepeopleintoopenresistance。Whentheartof，printingwasintroduced，itbecamenecessarytochoosethebest，textsoftheLiturgy，Psalter，andotherreligiousbooks，andon，examinationitwasfoundthat，throughtheignoranceand，carelessnessofcopyists，numerouserrorshadcreptintothe，manuscriptsinuse。Thisdiscoveryledtofurtherinvestigation，whichshowedthatcertainirregularitieshadlikewisecreptinto，theceremonial。Thechiefoftheclericalerrorslayinthe，orthographyoftheword“Jesus，“andthechiefirregularityinthe，ceremonialregardedthepositionofthefingerswhenmakingthe，signofthecross。

TocorrecttheseerrorsthecelebratedNikon，whowasPatriarchin，thetimeofTsarAlexis，fatherofPetertheGreat，orderedallthe，oldliturgicalbooksandtheoldIconstobecalledin，andnew，onestobedistributed;buttheclergyandthepeopleresisted。

Believingthese“Nikoniannovelties“tobeheretical，theyclungto，theiroldIcons，theiroldmissalsandtheiroldreligiouscustoms，asthesoleanchorsofsafetywhichcouldsavetheFaithfulfrom，driftingtoperdition。InvainthePatriarchassuredthepeople，thatthechangewasareturntotheancientformsstillpreserved，inGreeceandConstantinople。”TheGreekChurch，“itwasreplied，“isnolongerfreefromheresy。Orthodoxyhasbecomemany-coloured，fromtheviolenceoftheTurkishMahomet;andtheGreeks，underthe，sonsofHagar，havefallenawayfromtheancienttraditions。”

Ananathema，formallypronouncedbyanEcclesiasticalCouncil，againsttheseNonconformists，hadnomoreeffectthanthe，admonitionsofthePatriarch。Theyperseveredintheirobstinacy，andrefusedtobelievethattheblessedsaintsandholymartyrswho，hadusedtheancientformshadnotprayedandcrossedthemselves，aright。”Notthoseholymenofold，butthepresentPatriarchand，hiscounsellorsmustbeheretics。”，“Woetous！，Woetous！”cried，themonksofSolovetskwhentheyreceivedthenewLiturgies。”What，haveyoudonewiththeSonofGod？，Givehimbacktous！，Youhave，changedIsus[theoldRussianformofJesus]intoIisus！，Itis，fearfulnotonlytocommitsuchasin，buteventothinkofit！”

Andthesturdymonksshuttheirgates，anddefiedPatriarch，Council，andTsarforsevenlongyears，tillthemonasterywas，takenbyanarmedforce。

ThedecreeofexcommunicationpronouncedbytheEcclesiastical，CouncilplacedtheNonconformistsbeyondthepaleoftheChurch，andthecivilpowerundertookthetaskofpersecutingthem。

Persecutionhadofcoursemerelytheeffectofconfirmingthe，victimsintheirbeliefthattheChurchandtheTsarhadbecome，heretical。Thousandsfledacrossthefrontierandsettledinthe，neighbouringcountries——Poland，Russia，Sweden，Austria，Turkey，theCaucasus，andSiberia。Othersconcealedthemselvesinthe，northernforestsandthedenselywoodedregionnearthePolish，frontier，wheretheylivedbyagricultureorfishing，andprayed，crossedthemselvesandburiedtheirdeadaccordingtothecustoms，oftheirforefathers。Thenorthernforestsweretheirfavourite，placeofrefuge。Hitherflockedmanyofthosewhowishedtokeep，themselvespureandundefiled。Herethemorelearnedmenamongthe，Nonconformists——wellacquaintedwithHolyWrit，withfragmentary，translationsfromtheGreekFathers，andwiththemoreimportant，decisionsoftheearlyEcumenicalCouncils——wrotepolemicaland，edifyingworksfortheconfoundingofhereticsandtheconfirming，oftruebelievers。Henceweresentoutinalldirectionszealous，missionaries，intheguiseoftraders，peddlers，andlabourers，to，sowwhattheycalledthelivingseed，andwhattheofficialChurch，termed“Satan’stares。”，WhentheGovernmentagentsdiscovered，theseretreats，theinmatesgenerallyfledfromthe“ravenous，wolves“;butonmorethanoneoccasionalargenumberoffanatical，menandwomen，shuttingthemselvesup，setfiretotheirhouses，andvoluntarilyperishedintheflames。InPaleostrofski，Monastery，forinstance，intheyear1687，nolessthan2，700

fanaticsgainedthecrownofmartyrdominthisway;andmany，similarinstancesareonrecord。*，Asinallperiodsofreligious，panic，theApocalypsewascarefullystudied，andtheMillennial，ideasrapidlyspread。Thesignsofthetimewereplain：Satanwas，beingletlooseforalittleseason。Menanxiouslylookedforthe，reappearanceofAntichrist——andAntichristappeared！

*Alistofwell-authenticatedcasesisgivenbyNilski，“Semeinaya，zhiznvrusskomRaskole，“St。Petersburg，1869;partI。pp。55-57。

Thenumberoftheseself-immolatorscertainlyamountedtomany，thousands。

Themaninwhomthepeoplerecognisedtheincarnatespiritofevil，wasnootherthanPetertheGreat。

FromtheNonconformistpointofview，Peterhadverystrongclaims，tobeconsideredAntichrist。Hehadnoneofthestaid，pious，demeanouroftheoldTsars，andshowednorespectformanythings，whichwereveneratedbythepeople。Heate，drank，andhabitually，associatedwithheretics，spoketheirlanguage，woretheircostume，chosefromamongthemhismostintimatefriends，andfavouredthem，morethanhisownpeople。Imaginethehorrorandcommotionwhich，wouldbeproducedamongpiousCatholicsifthePopeshouldsomeday，appearinthecostumeoftheGrandTurk，andshouldchoosePashas，ashischiefcounsellors！，ThehorrorwhichPeter’sconduct，producedamongalargesectionofhissubjectswasnotlessgreat。

Theycouldnotexplainitotherwisethanbysupposinghimtobethe，Devilindisguise，andtheysawinallhisimportantmeasures，convincingproofsofhisSatanicorigin。Thenewlyinvented，census，or“revision，“wasaprofane“numberingofthepeople，“and，anattempttoenrolintheserviceofBe雔zebubthosewhosenames，werewrittenintheLamb’sBookofLife。Thenewtitleof，Imperatorwasexplainedtomeansomethingverydiabolical。The，passportbearingtheImperialarmswasthesealofAntichrist。The，ordertoshavethebeardwasanattempttodisfigure“theimageof，God，“afterwhichmanhadbeencreated，andbywhichChristwould，recogniseHisownattheLastDay。Thechangeinthecalendar，by，whichNewYear’sDaywastransferredfromSeptembertoJanuary，was，thedestructionof“theyearsofourLord，“andtheintroductionof，theyearsofSatanintheirplace。Oftheingeniousargumentsby，whichthesethesesweresupported，Imayquoteonebywayof，illustration。Theworld，itwasexplained，couldnothavebeen，createdinJanuaryasthenewcalendarseemedtoindicate，because，applesarenotripeatthatseason，andconsequentlyEvecouldnot，havebeentemptedinthewaydescribed！*

*Ifoundthisingeniousargumentinoneofthepolemicaltreatises，oftheOldBelievers。

TheseideasregardingPeterandhisreformswerestronglyconfirmed，bythevigorouspersecutionswhichtookplaceduringtheearlier，yearsofhisreign。TheNonconformistswereconstantlyconvicted，ofpoliticaldisaffection——especiallyof“insultingtheImperial，Majesty“——andwereaccordinglyflogged，tortured，andbeheaded，withoutmercy。ButwhenPeterhadsucceededinputtingdownall，armedopposition，andfoundthatthemovementwasnolonger，dangerousforthethrone，headoptedapolicymoreinaccordance，withhispersonalcharacter。Whetherhehadhimselfanyreligious，beliefwhatevermaybedoubted;certainlyhehadnotasparkof，religiousfanaticisminhisnature。Exclusivelyoccupiedwith，secularconcerns，hetooknointerestinsubtlequestionsof，religiousceremonial，andwasprofoundlyindifferentastohowhis，subjectsprayedandcrossedthemselves，providedtheyobeyedhis，ordersinworldlymattersandpaidtheirtaxesregularly。Assoon，therefore，aspoliticalconsiderationsadmittedofclemency，he，stoppedthepersecutions，andatlast，in1714，issuedukazesto，theeffectthatallDissentersmightliveunmolested，providedthey，inscribedthemselvesintheofficialregistersandpaidadouble，poll-tax。Somewhatlatertheywereallowedtopractisefreelyall，theiroldritesandcustoms，onconditionofpayingcertainfines。

WiththeaccessionofCatherineII。“thefriendofphilosophers，“

theRaskol，*astheschismhadcometobecalled，enteredonanew，phase。Penetratedwiththeideasofreligioustolerationthenin，fashioninWesternEurope，Catherineabolishedthedisabilitiesto，whichtheRaskolniksweresubjected，andinvitedthoseofthemwho，hadfledacrossthefrontiertoreturntotheirhomes。Thousands，acceptedtheinvitation，andmanywhohadhithertosoughtto，concealthemselvesfromtheeyesoftheauthoritiesbecamerichand，respectedmerchants。Thepeculiarsemi-monasticreligious，communities，whichhaduptillthattimeexistedonlyinthe，forestsofthenorthernandwesternprovinces，begantoappearin，Moscow，andwereofficiallyrecognisedbytheAdministration。At，firsttheytooktheformofhospitalsforthesick，orasylumsfor，theagedandinfirm，butsoontheybecameregularmonasteries，the，superiorsofwhichexercisedanundefinedspiritualauthoritynot，onlyovertheinmates，butalsooverthemembersofthesect，throughoutthelengthandbreadthoftheEmpire。

*ThetermisderivedfromtwoRussianwords——ras，asunder;and，kolot，tosplit。ThosewhobelongtotheRaskolarecalled，Raskolniki。TheycallthemselvesStaro-obriadtsi(OldRitualists)

orStaroveri(OldBelievers)。

FromthattimedowntothepresenttheGovernmenthasfolloweda，waveringpolicy，oscillatingbetweencompletetoleranceandactive，persecution。Itmust，however，besaidthatthepersecutionhas，neverbeenofaverysearchingkind。Inpersecution，asinall，othermanifestations，theRussianChurchdirectsitsattention，chieflytoexternalforms。Itdoesnotseektoferretoutheresy，inaman’sopinions，butcomplacentlyacceptsasOrthodoxallwho，annuallyappearatconfessionandcommunion，andwhorefrainfrom，actsofopenhostility。Thosewhocanmaketheseconcessionsto，conveniencearepracticallyfreefrommolestation，andthosewho，cannotsotriflewiththeirconsciencehaveanequallyconvenient，methodofescapingpersecution。Theparishclergy，withtheir，customaryindifferencetothingsspiritualandtheirtraditional，habitofregardingtheirfunctionsfromthefinancialpointof，view，arehostiletosectarianismchieflybecauseitdiminishes，theirrevenuesbydiminishingthenumberofparishionersrequiring，theirministrations。Thiscauseofhostilitycaneasilyberemoved，byacertainpecuniarysacrificeonthepartofthesectarians，and，accordinglytheregenerallyexistsbetweenthemandtheirparish，priestatacitcontract，bywhichbothpartiesareperfectly，satisfied。Thepriestreceiveshisincomeasifallhis，parishionersbelongedtotheStateChurch，andtheparishionersare，leftinpeacetobelieveandpractisewhattheyplease。Bythis，rude，convenientmethodaverylargeamountoftolerationis，effectuallysecured。Whetherthepractisehasabeneficialmoral，influenceontheparishclergyis，ofcourse，anentirelydifferent，question。

Whenthepriesthasbeensatisfied，therestillremainsthepolice，whichlikewiseleviesanirregulartaxonheterodoxy;butthe，negotiationsaregenerallynotdifficult，foritisintheinterest，ofbothpartiesthattheyshouldcometotermsandliveingood-

fellowship。ThuspracticallytheRaskolnikiliveinthesame，conditionasinthetimeofPeter：theypayataxandarenot，molested——onlythemoneypaiddoesnotnowfinditswayintothe，ImperialExchequer。

TheseexternalchangesinthehistoryoftheRaskolhaveexercised，apowerfulinfluenceonitsinternaldevelopment。

WhenformallyanathematisedandexcludedfromthedominantChurch，theNonconformistshadneitheradefiniteorganisationnora，positivecreed。Theonlytiethatboundthemtogetherwas，hostilitytothe“Nikoniannovelties，“andalltheydesiredwasto，preserveintactthebeliefsandcustomsoftheirforefathers。At，firsttheyneverthoughtofcreatinganypermanentorganisation。

ThemoremoderatebelievedthattheTsarwouldsoonre-establish，Orthodoxy，andthemorefanaticalimaginedthattheendofall，thingswasathand。*，Ineithercasetheyhadonlytosufferfora，littleseason，keepingthemselvesfreefromthetaintofheresyand，fromallcontactwiththekingdomofAntichrist。

*Somehadcoffinsmade，andlaydowninthematnight，inthe，expectationthattheSecondAdventmighttakeplacebeforethe，morning。

Butyearspassed，andneitheroftheseexpectationswasfulfilled。

Thefanaticsawaitedinvainthesoundofthelasttrumpandthe，appearanceofChrist，comingwithHisangelstojudgetheworld。

Thesuncontinuedtorise，andtheseasonsfollowedeachotherin，theiraccustomedcourse，buttheendwasnotyet。Nordidthe，civilpowerreturntotheoldfaith。NikonfellavictimtoCourt，intriguesandhisownoverweeningpride，andwasformallydeposed。

TsarAlexisinthefulnessoftimewasgathereduntohisfathers。

Buttherewasnosignofare-establishmentoftheoldOrthodoxy。

GraduallytheleadingRaskolnikiperceivedthattheymustmake，preparations，notfortheDayofJudgment，butforaterrestrial，future——thattheymustcreatesomepermanentformofecclesiastical，organisation。Inthisworktheyencounteredattheveryoutsetnot，onlypractical，butalsotheoreticaldifficulties。

Solongastheyconfinedthemselvessimplytoresistingthe，officialinnovations，theyseemedtobeunanimous;butwhenthey，wereforcedtoabandonthisnegativepolicyandtodetermine，theoreticallytheirnewposition，radicaldifferencesofopinion，becameapparent。AllwereconvincedthattheofficialRussian，Churchhadbecomeheretical，andthatithadnowAntichristinstead，ofChristasitshead;butitwasnoteasytodeterminewhatshould，bedonebythosewhorefusedtobowthekneetotheSonof，Destruction。AccordingtoProtestantconceptionstherewasavery，simplesolutionofthedifficulty：theNonconformistshadsimplyto，createanewChurchforthemselves，andworshipGodinthewaythat，seemedgoodtothem。ButtotheRussiansofthattimesuchnotions，werestillmorerepulsivethantheinnovationsofNikon。Thesemen，wereOrthodoxtothebackbone——“plusroyalistesqueleroi“——and，accordingtoOrthodoxconceptionsthefoundingofanewChurchis，anabsurdity。Theybelievedthatifthechainofhistoric，continuitywereoncebroken，theChurchmustnecessarilyceaseto，exist，inthesamewayasanancientfamilybecomesextinctwhen，itssolerepresentativedieswithoutissue。If，therefore，the，Churchhadalreadyceasedtoexist，therewasnolongeranymeans，ofcommunicationbetweenChristandHispeople，thesacramentswere，nolongerefficacious，andmankindwasforeverdeprivedofthe，ordinarymeansofgrace。

Now，onthisimportantpointtherewasadifferenceofopinion，amongtheDissenters。Someofthembelievedthat，thoughthe，ecclesiasticalauthoritieshadbecomeheretical，theChurchstill，existedinthecommunionofthosewhohadrefusedtoacceptthe，innovations。OthersdeclaredboldlythattheOrthodoxChurchhad，ceasedtoexist，thattheancientmeansofgracehadbeen，withdrawn，andthatthosewhohadremainedfaithfulmust，thenceforthseeksalvation，notinthesacraments，butinprayer，andsuchotherreligiousexercisesasdidnotrequiretheco-

operationofdulyconsecratedpriests。Thustookplaceaschism，amongtheSchismatics。Theonepartyretainedallthesacraments，andceremonialobservancesintheolderform;theotherrefrained，fromthesacramentsandfrommanyoftheordinaryrites，onthe，groundthattherewasnolongerarealpriesthood，andthat，consequentlythesacramentscouldnotbeefficacious。Theformer，partyaretermedStaro-obriadsti，orOldRitualists;thelatterare，calledBezpopoftsi——thatistosay，people“withoutpriests“(bez，popov)。

ThesucceedinghistoryofthesetwosectionsoftheNonconformists，hasbeenwidelydifferent。TheOldRitualists，beingsimply，ecclesiasticalConservativesdesirousofresistingallinnovations，haveremainedacompactbodylittletroubledbydifferencesof，opinion。ThePriestlessPeople，onthecontrary，everseekingto，discoversomeneweffectualmeansofsalvation，havefallenintoan，endlessnumberofindependentsects。

TheOldRitualistshadstill，however，oneimportanttheoretical，difficulty。Atfirsttheyhadamongstthemselvesplentyof，consecratedpriestsforthecelebrationoftheordinances，butthey，hadnomeansofrenewingthesupply。Theyhadnobishops，and，accordingtoOrthodoxbeliefthelowerdegreesoftheclergycannot，becreatedwithoutepiscopalconsecration。Atthetimeofthe，schismonebishophadthrowninhislotwiththeSchismatics，but，hehaddiedshortlyafterwardswithoutleavingasuccessor，and，thereafternobishophadjoinedtheirranks。Astimeworeon，the，necessityofepiscopalconsecrationcametobemoreandmorefelt，anditisnotalittleinterestingtoobservehowtheserigorists，whoheldtotheletterofthelawanddeclaredthemselvesreadyto，dieforajotoratittle，modifiedtheirtheoryinaccordancewith，thechangingexigenciesoftheirposition。Whenthepriestswho，hadkeptthemselves“pureandundefiled“——freefromallcontact，withAntichrist——becamescarce，itwasdiscoveredthatcertain，priestsofthedominantChurchmightbeacceptediftheyformally，abjuredtheNikoniannovelties。Atfirst，however，onlythosewho，hadbeenconsecratedprevioustothesupposedapostasyofthe，Churchwereaccepted，fortheverygoodreasonthatconsecrationby，bishopswhohadbecomehereticalcouldnotbeefficacious。When，thesecouldnolongerbeobtaineditwasdiscoveredthatthosewho，hadbeenbaptisedprevioustotheapostasymightbeaccepted;and，wheneventhesecouldnolongerbefound，astillfurther，concessionwasmadetonecessity，andallconsecratedpriestswere，receivedonconditionoftheirsolemnlyabjuringtheirerrors。Of，suchprieststherewasalwaysanabundantsupply。Ifaregular，priestcouldnotfindaparish，orifhewasdeposedbythe，authoritiesforsomecrimeormisdemeanour，hehadmerelytopass，overtotheOldRitualists，andwassuretofindamongthema，heartywelcomeandatolerablesalary。

BytheseconcessionstheindefiniteprolongationofOldRitualism，wassecured，butmanyoftheOldRitualistscouldnotbutfeelthat，theirpositionwas，tosaytheleast，extremelyanomalous。They，hadnobishopsoftheirown，andtheirpriestswereallconsecrated，bybishopswhomtheybelievedtobeheretical！，Formanyyearsthey，hopedtoescapefromthisdilemmabydiscovering“Orthodox“——that，istosay，OldRitualist——bishopssomewhereintheEast;butwhen，theEasthadbeensearchedinvain，andalltheireffortstoobtain，nativebishopsprovedfruitless，theyconceivedthedesignof，creatingabishopricsomewherebeyondthefrontier，amongtheOld，RitualistswhohadintimesofpersecutionfledtoPrussia，Austria，andTurkey。Therewere，however，immensedifficultiesin，theway。Inthefirstplaceitwasnecessarytoobtaintheformal，permissionofsomeforeignGovernment;andinthesecondplacean，Orthodoxbishopmustbefound，willingtoconsecrateanOld，RitualistortobecomeanOldRitualisthimself。Againandagain，theattemptwasmade，andfailed;butatlast，afteryearsof，effortandintrigue，thedesignwasrealised。In1844theAustrian，GovernmentgavepermissiontofoundabishopricatBelayaKrinitsa，inGalicia，afewmilesfromtheRussianfrontier;andtwoyears，laterthedeposedMetropolitanofBosniaconsented，aftermuch，hesitation，topassovertotheOldRitualistconfessionandaccept，thediocese。*，FromthattimetheOldRitualistshavehadtheirown，bishops，andhavenotbeenobligedtoaccepttherunawaypriestsof，theofficialChurch。

*Aninterestingaccountofthesenegotiations，andamostcurious，pictureoftheOrthodoxecciestiasticalworldinConstantinople，is，givenbySubbotiny，“IstoriaBelokrinitskoiIerarkhii，“Moscow，1874。

TheOldRitualistswerenaturallymuchgrievedbytheschism，and，wereoftensorelytriedbypersecution，buttheyhavealways，enjoyedacertainspiritualtranquillity，proceedingfromthe，convictionthattheyhavepreservedforthemselvesthemeansof，salvation。Thepositionofthemoreextremesectionofthe，Schismaticswasmuchmoretragical。Theybelievedthatthe，sacramentshadirretrievablylosttheirefficacy，thattheordinary，meansofsalvationwereforeverwithdrawn，thatthepowersof，darknesshadbeenletlooseforalittleseason，thatthe，authoritiesweretheagentsofSatan，andthatthepersonagewho，filledtheplaceoftheoldGod-fearingTsarswasnootherthan，Antichrist。Undertheinfluenceofthesehorribleideastheyfled，tothewoodsandthecavestoescapefromtherageoftheBeast，andtoawaitthesecondcomingofOurLord。

Thisstateofthingscouldnotcontinuepermanently。Extreme，religiousfanaticism，likeallotherabnormalstates，cannotlong，existinamassofhumanbeingswithoutsomeconstantexciting，cause。Thevulgarnecessitiesofeverydaylife，especiallyamong，peoplewhohavetolivebythelabouroftheirhands，havea，wonderfullysoberinginfluenceontheexcitedbrain，andmust，always，soonerorlater，provefataltoinordinateexcitement。A

fewpeculiarlyconstitutedindividualsmayshowthemselvescapable，ofalifelongenthusiasm，butthemultitudeiseverspasmodicin，itsfervour，andbeginstoslidebacktoitsformerapathyassoon，astheexcitingcauseceasestoact。

AllthiswefindexemplifiedinthehistoryofthePriestless，People。Whenitwasfoundthattheworlddidnotcometoanend，andthattherigoroussystemofpersecutionwasrelaxed，theless，excitablenaturesreturnedtotheirhomes，andresumedtheirold，modeoflife;andwhenPetertheGreatmadehispolitic，concessions，manywhohaddeclaredhimtobeAntichristcameto，suspectthathewasreallynotsoblackashewaspainted。This，ideastruckdeeprootinareligiouscommunitynearLakeOnega，(VuigovskiSkit)whichhadreceivedspecialprivilegesoncondition，ofsupplyinglabourersfortheneighbouringmines;andherewas，developedanewtheorywhichopenedupawayofreconciliationwith，theGovernment。ByamoreattentivestudyofHolyWritandancient，booksitwasdiscoveredthatthereignofAntichristwouldconsist，oftwoperiods。Intheformer，theSonofDestructionwouldreign，merelyinthespiritualsense，andtheFaithfulwouldnotbemuch，molested;inthelatter，hewouldreignvisiblyintheflesh，and，truebelieverswouldbesubjectedtothemostfrightful，persecution。Thesecondperiod，itwasheld，hadevidentlynotyet，arrived，fortheFaithfulnowenjoyed“atimeoffreedom，andnot，ofcompulsionoroppression。”，Whetherthistheoryisstrictlyin，accordancewithApocalypticprophecyandpatristictheologymaybe，doubted，butitfullysatisfiedthosewhohadalreadyarrivedat，theconclusionbyadifferentroad，andwhosoughtmerelyameans，ofjustifyingtheirposition。Certainitisthatverymany，acceptedit，anddeterminedtorenderuntoCaesarthethingsthat，wereCaesar’s，or，insecularlanguage，toprayfortheTsarandto，paytheirtaxes。

ThisingeniouscompromisewasnotacceptedbyallthePriestless，People。Onthecontrary，manyofthemregardeditasawoeful，backsliding——anewdeviceoftheEvilOne;andamongthese，irreconcilableswasacertainpeasantcalledTheodosi，amanof，littleeducation，butofremarkableintellectualpowerandunusual，strengthofcharacter。Heraisedanewtheoldfanaticismbyhis，preachingandwritings——widelycirculatedinmanuscript——and，succeededinfoundinganewsectintheforestregionnearthe，Polishfrontier。

ThePriestlessNonconformiststhusfellintotwosections;theone，calledPomortsi，*acceptedatleastapartialreconciliationwith，thecivilpower;theother，calledTheodosians，aftertheir，founder，heldtotheoldopinions，andrefusedtoregardtheTsar，otherwisethanasAntichrist。

*ThewordPomortsimeans“thosewholiveneartheseashore。”，Itis，commonlyappliedtotheinhabitantsoftheNorthernprovinces——that，is，thosewholiveneartheshoreoftheWhiteSea，theonly，maritimefrontierthatRussiapossessedprevioustotheconquests，ofPetertheGreat。

Theselatterwereatfirstverywildintheirfanaticism，butere，longtheygavewaytotheinfluenceswhichhadsoftenedthe，fanaticismofthePomortsi。Undertheliberal，conciliatoryrule，ofCatherinetheylivedincontentment，andmanyofthemenriched，themselvesbytrade。Theirfanaticalzealandexclusiveness，evaporatedundertheinfluenceofmaterialwell-beingandconstant，contactwiththeouterworld，especiallyaftertheywereallowedto，buildamonasteryinMoscow。TheSuperiorofthismonastery，aman，ofmuchshrewdnessandenormouswealth，succeededingainingthe，favournotonlyofthelowerofficials，whocouldbeeasilybought，butevenofhigh-placeddignitaries，andformanyyearshe，exercisedaveryreal，ifundefined，authorityoverallsectionsof，thePriestlessPeople。”Hisfame，“itissaid，“soundedthroughout，Moscow，andtheechoeswereheardinPetropol(St。Petersburg)，Riga，Astrakhan，Nizhni-Novgorod，andotherlandsofpiety“;and，whendeputiescametoconsulthim，theyprostratedthemselvesin，hispresence，asbeforethegreatonesoftheearth。Livingthus，notonlyinpeaceandplenty，buteveninhonourandluxury，“the，proudPatriarchoftheTheodosianChurch“couldnotconsistently，fulminateagainst“theravenouswolves“withwhomhewason，friendlyterms，orexcitethefanaticismofhisfollowersbyhighly，coloureddescriptionsof“theawfulsufferingsandpersecutionof，God’speopleintheselatterdays，“asthefounderofthesecthad，beenwonttodo。Thoughhecouldnotopenlyabandonany，fundamentaldoctrines，heallowedtheideasaboutthereignof，Antichristtofallintothebackground，andtaughtbyexample，if，notbyprecept，thattheFaithfulmight，byprudentconcessions，liveverycomfortablyinthispresentevilworld。Thisseedfell，uponsoilalreadypreparedforitsreception。TheFaithful，graduallyforgottheiroldsavagefanaticism，andtheyhavesince，contrived，whileholdingmanyoftheiroldideasintheory，to，accommodatethemselvesinpracticetotheexistingorderofthings。

Thegradualsofteningandtoningdownoftheoriginalfanaticismin，thesetwosectsarestrikinglyexemplifiedintheirideasof，marriage。AccordingtoOrthodoxdoctrine，marriageisasacrament，whichcanonlybeperformedbyaconsecratedpriest，and，consequentlyforthePriestlessPeoplethecelebrationofmarriage，wasanimpossibility。Inthefirstagesofsectarianismastateof，celibacywasquiteinaccordancewiththeirsurroundings。Living，inconstantfearoftheirpersecutors，andwanderingfromoneplace，ofrefugetoanother，thesufferersfortheFaithhadlittletime，orinclinationtothinkoffamilyties，andreadilylistenedtothe，monks，whoexhortedthemtomortifythelustsoftheflesh。

Theresult，however，provedthatcelibacyinthecreedbynomeans，ensureschastityinpractice。Notonlyinthevillagesofthe，Dissenters，buteveninthosereligiouscommunitieswhichprofessed，amoreasceticmodeoflife，anumerousclassof“orphans“beganto，appear，whoknewnotwhotheirparentswere;andthisignoranceof，blood-relationshipnaturallyledtoincestuousconnections。

Besidesthis，thedoctrineofcelibacyhadgravepractical，inconveniences，forthepeasantrequiresahousewifetoattendto，domesticconcernsandtohelphiminhisagriculturaloccupations。

Thusthenecessityofre-establishingfamilylifecametobefelt，andthefeelingsoonfoundexpressioninadoctrinalformboth，amongthePomortsiandamongtheTheodsians。Learneddissertations，werewrittenanddisseminatedinmanuscriptcopies，violent，discussionstookplace，andatlastagreatCouncilwasheldin，Moscowtodiscussthequestion。*，Thepointatissuewasnever，unanimouslydecided，butmanyacceptedtheingeniousargumentsin，favourofmatrimony，andcontractedmarriageswhichwere，of，course，nullandvoidintheeyeofthelawandoftheChurch，but，validinallotherrespects。

*Icannothereenterintothedetailsofthisremarkable，controversy，butImaysaythatinstudyingitIhavebeen，frequentlyastonishedbythedialecticalpowerandlogicalsubtlety，displayedbythedisputants，someofthemsimplepeasants。

Thisnewbackslidingoftheunstablemultitudeproducedanew，outburstoffanaticismamongthestubbornfew。Someofthosewho，hadhithertosoughttoconcealtheoriginofthe“orphan“class，abovereferredtonowboldlyassertedthattheexistenceofthis，classwasareligiousnecessity，becauseinordertobesavedmen，mustrepent，andinordertorepentmenmustsin！，Atthesametime，theoldideasaboutAntichristwererevivedandpreachedwith，fervourbyapeasantcalledPhilip，whofoundedanewsectcalled，thePhilipists。Thissectstillexists。Theyholdfasttotheold，beliefthattheTsarisAntichrist，andthattheciviland，ecclesiasticalauthoritiesaretheservantsofSatan——anideathat，waskeptalivebythecorruptionandextortionforwhichthe，Administrationwasnotorious。Theydonotventureonopen，resistancetotheauthorities，buttheboldermemberstakelittle，painstoconcealtheiropinionsandsentiments，andmaybeeasily，recognisedbytheirsevereaspect，theirPuritanicalmanner，and，theirPharisaicalhorrorofeverythingwhichtheysupposeheretical，andunclean。Someofthem，itissaid，carrythisfastidiousness，tosuchanextentthattheythrowawaythehandleofadoorifit，hasbeentouchedbyaheretic！

Itmayseemthatwehaveherereachedtheextremelimitsof，fanaticism，butinrealitythereweremenwhomeventhePharisaical，PuritanismofthePhilipistsdidnotsatisfy。Thesenewzealots，whoappearedinthetimeofCatherineII。butfirstbecameknown，totheofficialworldinthereignofNicholasI。rebukedthe，lukewarmnessoftheirbrethren，andfoundedanewsectinorderto，preserveintacttheasceticismpractisedimmediatelyafterthe，schism。Thissectstillexists。Theycallthemselves“Christ’s，people“(ChristoviyeLyudi)，butarebetterknownunderthepopular，nameof“Wanderers“(Stranniki)，or“Fugitives“(Beguny)。Ofall，thesectstheyarethemosthostiletotheexistingpoliticaland，socialorganisation。Notcontentwithcondemningthemilitary，conscription，thepaymentoftaxes，theacceptanceofpassports，andeverythingconnectedwiththecivilandecclesiastical，authorities，theyconsideritsinfultolivepeaceablyamongan，orthodox——thatis，accordingtotheirbelief，aheretical——

population，andtohavedealingswithanywhodonotsharetheir，extremeviews。HoldingtheAntichristdoctrineintheextreme，form，theydeclarethatTsarsarethevesselsofSatan，thatthe，EstablishedChurchisthedwelling-placeoftheFatherofLies，and，thatallwhosubmittotheauthoritiesarechildrenoftheDevil。

Accordingtothiscreed，thosewhowishtoescapefromthewrathto，comemusthaveneitherhousesnorfixedplacesofabode，mustsever，alltiesthatbindthemtotheworld，andmustwanderabout，continuallyfromplacetoplace。TrueChristiansarebutstrangers，andpilgrimsinthepresentlife，andwhosobindshimselftothe，worldwillperishwiththeworld。

SuchisthetheoryoftheseWanderers，butamongthem，asamongthe，lessfanaticalsects，practicalnecessitieshaveproduced，concessionsandcompromises。Asitisimpossibletoleadanomadic，lifeinRussianforests，theWanderershavebeencompelledtoadmit，intotheirrankswhatmaybecalledlay-brethren——menwhonominally，belongtothesect，butwholivelikeordinarymortalsandhave，somerationalwayofgainingalivelihood。Theselatterlivein，thevillagesortowns，supportthemselvesbyagricultureortrade，acceptpassportsfromtheauthorities，paytheirtaxesregularly，andconductthemselvesinalloutwardrespectslikeloyalsubjects。

Theirchiefreligiousdutyconsistsingivingfoodandshelterto，theirmorezealousbrethren，whohaveadoptedavagabondlifein，practiseaswellasintheory。Itisonlywhentheyfeeldeath，approachingthattheyconsideritnecessarytoseparatethemselves，fromthehereticalworld，andtheyeffectthisbyhavingthemselves，carriedouttosomeneighbouringwood——orintoagardenifthereis，nowoodathand——wheretheymaydieintheopenair。

Thus，wesee，thereisamongtheRussianNonconformistsectswhat，maybecalledagradationoffanaticism，inwhichisreflectedthe，historyoftheGreatSchism。IntheWandererswehavethe，representativesofthosewhoadoptedandpreservedtheAntichrist，doctrineinitsextremeform——thesuccessorsofthosewhofledto，theforeststoescapefromtherageoftheBeastandtoawaitthe，secondcomingofChrist。InthePhilipistswehavethe，representativesofthosewhoadoptedtheseideasinasomewhat，softerform，andwhocametorecognisethenecessityofhavingsome，regularmeansofsubsistenceuntilthelasttrumpshouldbeheard。

TheTheodosiansrepresentthosewhowereintheoryatonewiththe，precedingcategory，butwho，havinglessreligiousfanaticism，considereditnecessarytoyieldtoforceandmakepeacewiththe，Governmentwithoutsacrificingtheirconvictions。InthePomortsi，weseethosewhopreservedonlythereligiousideasoftheschism，andbecamereconciledwiththecivilpower。LastlywehavetheOld，Ritualists，whodifferedfromalltheothersectsinretainingthe，oldordinances，andwhosimplyrejectedthespiritualauthorityof，thedominantChurch。Besidesthesechiefsectionsofthe，Nonconformiststhereareagreatmanyminordenominations(tolki)，differingfromeachotheronminorpointsofdoctrine。Incertain，districts，itissaid，nearlyeveryvillagehasoneortwo，independentsects。ThisisespeciallythecaseamongtheDon，CossacksandtheCossacksoftheUral，whoareinpartdescendants，ofthemenwhofledfromtheearlypersecutions。

OfallthesectstheOldRitualistsstandnearesttotheofficial，Church。Theyholdthesamedogmas，practisethesamerites，and，differonlyintriflingceremonialmatters，whichfewpeople，consideressential。Inthehopeofinducingthemtoreturntothe，officialfoldtheGovernmentcreatedatthebeginningoflast，centuryspecialchurches，inwhichtheywereallowedtoretain，theirceremonialpeculiaritiesonconditionofacceptingregularly，consecratedpriestsandsubmittingtoecclesiasticaljurisdiction。

Asyetthedesignhasnotmetwithmuchsuccess。Thegreat，majorityoftheOldRitualistsregarditasatrap，andassertthat，theChurchinmakingthisconcessionhasbeenguiltyofself-

contradiction。”TheEcclesiasticalCouncilofMoscow，“theysay，“anathematisedourforefathersforholdingtotheoldritual，and，declaredthatthewholecourseofnaturewouldbechangedsooner，thanthecursebewithdrawn。Thecourseofnaturehasnotbeen，changed，buttheanathemahasbeencancelled。”，Thisargumentought，tohaveacertainweightwiththosewhobelieveinthe，infallibilityofEcclesiasticalCouncils。

TowardsthePriestlessPeopletheGovernmenthasalwaysactedina，muchlessconciliatoryspirit。Itsseverityhasbeensometimes，justifiedonthegroundthatsectarianismhashadapoliticalas，wellasareligioussignificance。AStatelikeRussiacannot，overlooktheexistenceofsectswhichpreachthedutyofsystematic，resistancetothecivilandecclesiasticalauthoritiesandhold，doctrineswhichleadtothegrossestimmorality。Thisargument，it，mustbeadmitted，isnotwithoutacertainforce，butitseemsto，methatthepolicyadoptedtendedtoincreaseratherthandiminish，theevilswhichitsoughttocure。Insteadofdispellingthe，absurdideathattheTsarwasAntichristbyasystemofstrictand，evenhandedjustice，punishingmerelyactualcrimesand，delinquencies，theGovernmentconfirmedthenotioninthemindsof，thousandsbypersecutingthosewhohadcommittednocrimeandwho，desiredmerelytoworshipGodaccordingtotheirconscience。Above，alliterredinopposingandpunishingthosemarriageswhich，thoughlegallyirregular，werethebestpossiblemeansof，diminishingfanaticism，byleadingbackthefanaticstohealthy，sociallife。Fortunatelytheseerrorshavenowbeenabandoned。A

policyofgreaterclemencyandconciliationhasbeenadopted，and，hasprovedmuchmoreefficaciousthanpersecution。TheDissenters，havenotreturnedtotheofficialfold，buttheyhavelostmuchof，theiroldfanaticismandexclusiveness。

Inrespectofnumbersthesectarianscomposeaveryformidable，body。OfOldRitualistsandPriestlessPeoplethereare，itis，said，nolessthanelevenmillions;andtheProtestantand，fantasticalsectscompriseprobablyaboutfivemillionsmore。If，thesenumbersbecorrect，thesectariansconstituteaboutaneighth，ofthewholepopulationoftheEmpire。Theycountintheirranks，noneofthenobles——noneoftheso-calledenlightenedclass——but，theyincludeintheirnumberarespectableproportionofthe，peasants，athirdoftherichmerchantclass，themajorityofthe，DonCossacks，andnearlyalltheCossacksoftheUral。

Underthesecircumstancesitisimportanttoknowhowfarthe，sectariansarepoliticallydisaffected。Somepeopleimaginethat，intheeventofaninsurrectionoraforeigninvasiontheymight，riseagainsttheGovernment，whilstothersbelievethatthis，supposeddangerispurelyimaginary。FormyownpartIagreewith，thelatteropinion，whichisstronglysupportedbythehistoryof，manyimportantevents，suchastheFrenchinvasionin1812，the，CrimeanWar，andthelastPolishinsurrection。Thegreatmajority，oftheSchismaticsandhereticsare，Ibelieve，loyalsubjectsof，theTsar。Themoreviolentsects，whicharealonecapableof，activehostilityagainsttheauthorities，areweakinnumbers，and，regardalloutsiderswithsuchprofoundmistrustthattheyare，whollyimpervioustoinflammatoryinfluencesfromwithout。Evenif，allthesectswerecapableofactivehostility，theywouldnotbe，nearlysoformidableastheirnumbersseemtoindicate，forthey，arehostiletoeachother，andarewhollyincapableofcombining，foracommonpurpose。

Thoughsectarianismisthusbynomeansaseriouspoliticaldanger，ithasneverthelessaconsiderablepoliticalsignificance。It，provessatisfactorilythattheRussianpeopleisbynomeansso，docileandpliableasiscommonlysupposed，andthatitiscapable，ofshowingastubborn，passiveresistancetoauthoritywhenit，believesgreatintereststobeatstake。Thedoggedenergywhich，ithasdisplayedinassertingforcenturiesitsreligiousliberty，mayperhapssomedaybeemployedinthearenaofsecularpolitics。

CHAPTERXIX

CHURCHANDSTATE

TheRussianOrthodoxChurch——RussiaOutsideoftheMediaevalPapal，Commonwealth——InfluenceoftheGreekChurch——EcclesiasticalHistory，ofRussia——RelationsbetweenChurchandState——EasternOrthodoxy，andtheRussianNationalChurch——TheSynod——Ecclesiastical，Grumbling——LocalEcclesiasticalAdministration——TheBlackClergy，andtheMonasteries——TheCharacteroftheEasternChurchReflected，intheHistoryofReligiousArt——PracticalConsequences——TheUnion，Scheme。

FromthecuriousworldofhereticsandDissentersletuspassnow，totheRussianOrthodoxChurch，towhichthegreatmajorityofthe，Russianpeoplebelong。Ithasplayedanimportantpartinthe，nationalhistory，andhasexercisedapowerfulinfluenceinthe，formationofthenationalcharacter。

Russiansareinthehabitofpatrioticallyandproudly，congratulatingthemselvesonthefactthattheirforefathersalways，resistedsuccessfullytheaggressivetendenciesofthePapacy，but，itmaybedoubtedwhether，fromaworldlypointofview，the，freedomfromPapalauthorityhasbeenanunmixedblessingforthe，country。IfthePopesfailedtorealisetheirgranddesignof，creatingavastEuropeanempirebasedontheocraticprinciples，theysucceededatleastininspiringwithafeelingofbrotherhood，andavagueconsciousnessofcommoninterestallthenationswhich，acknowledgedtheirspiritualsupremacy。Thesenations，whilst，remainingpoliticallyindependentandfrequentlycominginto，hostilecontactwitheachother，alllookedtoRomeasthecapital，oftheChristianworld，andtothePopeasthehighestterrestrial，authority。ThoughtheChurchdidnotannihilatenationality，it，madeawidebreachinthepoliticalbarriers，andformedachannel，forinternationalcommunicationbywhichthesocialand，intellectualprogressofeachnationbecameknowntoalltheother，membersofthegreatChristianconfederacy。Throughoutthelength，andbreadthofthePapalCommonwealtheducatedmenhadacommon，language，acommonliterature，acommonscientificmethod，andtoa，certainextentacommonjurisprudence。WesternChristendomwas，thusallthroughtheMiddleAgesnotmerelyanabstractconception，orageographicalexpression：ifnotapolitical，itwasatleasta，religiousandintellectualunit，andallthecountriesofwhichit，wascomposedbenefitedmoreorlessbytheconnection。

ForcenturiesRussiastoodoutsideofthisreligiousand，intellectualconfederation，forherChurchconnectedhernotwith，Rome，butwithConstantinople，andPapalEuropelookeduponheras，belongingtothebarbarousEast。WhentheMongolhostssweptover，herplains，burnthertownsandvillages，andfinallyincorporated，herintothegreatempireofGenghiskhan，theso-calledChristian，worldtooknointerestinthestruggleexceptinsofarasitsown，safetywasthreatened。Andastimeworeon，thebarrierswhich，separatedthetwogreatsectionsofChristendombecamemoreand，moreformidable。Theaggressivepretensionsandambitiousschemes，oftheVaticanproducedintheGreekOrthodoxworldaprofound，antipathytotheRomanCatholicChurchandtoWesterninfluenceof，everykind。Sostrongwasthisaversionthatwhenthenationsof，theWestawakenedinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesfrom，theirintellectuallethargyandbegantomoveforwardonthepath，ofintellectualandmaterialprogress，Russianotonlyremained，unmoved，butlookedonthenewcivilisationwithsuspicionandfear，asathinghereticalandaccursed。Wehavehereoneofthechief，reasonswhyRussia，atthepresentday，isinmanyrespectsless，civilisedthanthenationsofWesternEurope。

Butitisnotmerelyinthisnegativewaythattheacceptanceof，ChristianityfromConstantinoplehasaffectedthefateofRussia。

TheGreekChurch，whilstexcludingRomanCatholiccivilisation，exertedatthesametimeapowerfulpositiveinfluenceonthe，historicaldevelopmentofthenation。

TheChurchoftheWestinheritedfromoldRomesomethingofthat，logical，juridical，administrativespiritwhichhadcreatedthe，Romanlaw，andsomethingofthatambitionanddogged，energetic，perseverancethathadformednearlythewholeknownworldintoa，greatcentralisedempire。TheBishopsofRomeearlyconceivedthe，designofreconstructingthatoldempireonanewbasis，andlong，strovetocreateauniversalChristiantheocraticState，inwhich，kingsandothercivilauthoritiesshouldbethesubordinatesof，Christ’sVicaruponearth。TheEasternChurch，onthecontrary，hasremainedtruetoherByzantinetraditions，andhasnever，dreamedofsuchloftypretensions。Accustomedtoleanonthecivil，power，shehasalwaysbeencontenttoplayasecondarypart，and，hasneverstrenuouslyresistedtheformationofnationalchurches。

ForabouttwocenturiesaftertheintroductionofChristianity——

from988to1240——Russiaformed，ecclesiasticallyspeaking，partof，thePatriarchateofConstantinople。Themetropolitansandthe，bishopswereGreekbybirthandeducation，andtheecclesiastical，administrationwasguidedandcontrolledbytheByzantine，Patriarchs。ButfromthetimeoftheMongolinvasion，when，communicationwithConstantinoplebecamemoredifficultand，educatednativepriestshadbecomemorenumerous，thiscomplete，dependenceonthePatriarchofConstantinopleceased。ThePrinces，graduallyarrogatedtothemselvestherightofchoosingthe，MetropolitanofKief——whowasatthattimethechiefecclesiastical，dignitaryinRussia——andmerelysenttheirnomineesto，Constantinopleforconsecration。About1448thisformalitycameto，bedispensedwith，andtheMetropolitanwascommonlyconsecratedby，aCouncilofRussianbishops。Afurtherstepinthedirectionof，ecclesiasticalautonomywastakenin1589，whentheTsarsucceeded，inprocuringtheconsecrationofaRussianPatriarch，equalin，dignityandauthoritytothePatriarchsofConstantinople，Jerusalem，Antioch，andAlexandria。

InallmattersofexternalformthePatriarchofMoscowwasavery，importantpersonage。Heexercisedacertaininfluenceincivilas，wellasecclesiasticalaffairs，boretheofficialtitleof“Great，Lord“(VelikiGosudar)，whichhadpreviouslybeenreservedforthe，civilheadoftheState，andhabituallyreceivedfromthepeople，scarcelylessvenerationthantheTsarhimself。Butinrealityhe，possessedverylittleindependentpower。TheTsarwasthereal，rulerinecclesiasticalaswellasincivilaffairs。*

*AsthisisfrequentlydeniedbyRussians，itmaybewelltoquote，oneauthorityoutofmanythatmightbecited。BishopMakarii，whoseeruditionandgoodfaitharealikeabovesuspicion，saysof，DmitrioftheDon：“Hearrogatedtohimselffull，unconditional，powerovertheHeadoftheRussianChurch，andthroughhimoverthe，wholeRussianChurchitself。”，(“IstoriyaRusskoiTserkvi，“V。p。

101。)，ThisissaidofaGrandPrincewhohadstrongrivalsandhad，totreattheChurchasanally。WhentheGrandPrincesbecame，Tsarsandhadnolongeranyrivals，theirpowerwascertainlynot，diminished。Anyfurtherconfirmationthatmayberequiredwillbe，foundintheLifeofthefamousPatriarchNikon。

TheRussianPatriarchatecametoanendinthetimeofPeterthe，Great。Peterwished，amongotherthings，toreformthe，ecclesiasticaladministration，andtointroduceintohiscountry，manynoveltieswhichthemajorityoftheclergyandofthepeople，regardedasheretical;andheclearlyperceivedthatabigoted，energeticPatriarchmightthrowconsiderableobstaclesinhisway，andcausehiminfiniteannoyance。ThoughsuchaPatriarchmightbe，deposedwithoutanyflagrantviolationofthecanonical，formalities，theoperationwouldnecessarilybeattendedwithgreat，troubleandlossoftime。Peterwasnofriendofroundabout，tortuousmethods，andpreferredtoremovethedifficultyinhis，usualthorough，violentfashion。WhenthePatriarchAdriandied，thecustomaryshortinterregnumwasprolongedfortwentyyears，and，whenthepeoplehadthusbecomeaccustomedtohavingnoPatriarch，itwasannouncedthatnomorePatriarchswouldbeelected。Their，placewassuppliedbyanecclesiasticalcouncil，orSynod，in，which，asacontemporaryexplained，“themainspringwasPeter’s，power，andthependulumhisunderstanding。”，Thegreatautocrat，justlyconsideredthatsuchacouncilcouldbemuchmoreeasily，managedthanastubbornPatriarch，andthewisdomofthemeasure，hasbeendulyappreciatedbysucceedingsovereigns。Thoughthe，ideaofre-establishingthePatriarchatehasmorethanoncebeen，raised，ithasneverbeencarriedintoexecution。TheHolySynod，remainsthehighestecclesiasticalauthority。

ButtheEmperor？，WhatishisrelationtotheSynodandtothe，Churchingeneral？

ThisisaquestionaboutwhichzealousOrthodoxRussiansare，extremelysensitive。Ifaforeignerventurestohintintheir，presencethattheEmperorseemstohaveaconsiderableinfluencein，theChurch，hemayinadvertentlyproducealittleoutburstof，patrioticwarmthandvirtuousindignation。Thetruthisthatmany，Russianshaveapettheoryonthissubject，andhaveatthesame，timeadimconsciousnessthatthetheoryisnotquiteinaccordance，withreality。TheyholdtheoreticallythattheOrthodoxChurchhas，no“Head“butChrist，andisinsomepeculiarundefinedsense，entirelyindependentofallterrestrialauthority。Inthisrespect，itisoftencontrastedwiththeAnglicanChurch，muchtothe，disadvantageofthelatter;andthesupposeddifferencesbetween，thetwoaremadeathemeforsemi-religious，semi-patriotic，exultation。Khomiakof，forinstance，inoneofhismostvigorous，poems，predictsthatGodwillonedaytakethedestinyoftheworld，outofthehandsofEnglandinordertogiveittoRussia，andhe，adducesasoneofthereasonsforthistransferthefactthat，England“haschained，withsacrilegioushand，theChurchofGodto，thepedestalofthevainearthlypower。”，Sofarthetheory。Asto，thefacts，itisunquestionablethattheTsarexercisesamuch，greaterinfluenceinecclesiasticalaffairsthantheKingand，ParliamentinEngland。AllwhoknowtheinternalhistoryofRussia，areawarethattheGovernmentdoesnotdrawaclearlineof，distinctionbetweenthetemporalandthespiritual，andthatit，occasionallyusestheecclesiasticalorganisationforpolitical，purposes。

What，then，aretherelationsbetweenChurchandState？

Toavoidconfusion，wemustcarefullydistinguishbetweenthe，EasternOrthodoxChurchasawholeandthatsectionofitwhichis，knownastheRussianChurch。

TheEasternOrthodoxChurch*is，properlyspeaking，aconfederation，ofindependentchurcheswithoutanycentralauthority——aunity，foundedonthepossessionofacommondogmaandonthetheoretical，butnowunrealisablepossibilityofholdingEcumenicalCouncils。

TheRussianNationalChurchisoneofthemembersofthis，ecclesiasticalconfederation。Inmattersoffaithitisboundby，thedecisionsoftheancientEcumenicalCouncils，butinallother，respectsitenjoyscompleteindependenceandautonomy。

*OrGreekOrthodoxChurch，asitissometimescalled。

InrelationtotheOrthodoxChurchasawholetheEmperorofRussia，isnothingmorethanasimplemember，andcannomoreinterfere，withitsdogmasorceremonialthanaKingofItalyoranEmperorof，theFrenchcouldmodifyRomanCatholictheology;butinrelationto，theRussianNationalChurchhispositionispeculiar。Heis，describedinoneofthefundamentallawsas“thesupremedefender，andpreserverofthedogmasofthedominantfaith，“andimmediately，afterwardsitissaidthat“theautocraticpoweractsinthe，ecclesiasticaladministrationbymeansofthemostHolyGoverning，Synod，createdbyit。”*，Thisdescribesveryfairlytherelations，betweentheEmperorandtheChurch。Heismerelythedefenderof，thedogmas，andcannotintheleastmodifythem;butheisatthe，sametimethechiefadministrator，andusestheSynodasan，instrument。

*SvodZakonovI。42，43。

Someingeniouspeoplewhowishtoprovethatthecreationofthe，Synodwasnotaninnovationrepresenttheinstitutionasa，resuscitationoftheancientlocalcouncils;butthisviewis，utterlyuntenable。TheSynodisnotacouncilofdeputiesfrom，varioussectionsoftheChurch，butapermanentcollege，or，ecclesiasticalsenate，themembersofwhichareappointedand，dismissedbytheEmperorashethinksfit。Ithasnoindependent，legislativeauthority，foritslegislativeprojectsdonotbecome，lawtilltheyhavereceivedtheImperialsanction;andtheyare，alwayspublished，notinthenameoftheChurch，butinthenameof，theSupremePower。Eveninmattersofsimpleadministrationitis，notindependent，forallitsresolutionsrequiretheconsentofthe，Procureur，alaymannominatedbyhisMajesty。Intheorythis，functionaryprotestsonlyagainstthoseresolutionswhicharenot，inaccordancewiththecivillawofthecountry;butashealone，hastherighttoaddresstheEmperordirectlyonecclesiastical，concerns，andasallcommunicationsbetweentheEmperorandthe，Synodpassthroughhishands，hepossessesinrealityconsiderable，power。Besidesthis，hecanalwaysinfluencetheindividual，membersbyholdingoutprospectsofadvancementanddecorations，andifthisdevicefails，hecanmakerefractorymembersretire，andfilluptheirplaceswithmenofmorepliantdisposition。A

Councilconstitutedinthiswaycannot，ofcourse，displaymuch，independenceofthoughtoraction，especiallyinacountrylike，Russia，wherenooneventurestoopposeopenlytheImperialwill。

Itmustnot，however，besupposedthattheRussianecclesiastics，regardtheImperialauthoritywithjealousyordislike。Theyare，allmostloyalsubjects，andwarmadherentsofautocracy。Those，ideasofecclesiasticalindependencewhicharesocommoninWestern，Europe，andthatspiritofoppositiontothecivilpowerwhich，animatestheRomanCatholicclergy，areentirelyforeigntotheir，minds。Ifabishopsometimescomplainstoanintimatefriendthat，hehasbeenbroughttoSt。Petersburgandmadeamemberofthe，Synodmerelytoappendhissignaturetoofficialpapersandtogive，hisconsenttoforegoneconclusions，hisdispleasureisdirected，notagainsttheEmperor，butagainsttheProcureur。Heisfullof，loyaltyanddevotiontotheTsar，andhasnodesiretoseehis，Majestyexcludedfromallinfluenceinecclesiasticalaffairs;but，hefeelssaddenedandhumiliatedwhenhefindsthatthewhole，governmentoftheChurchisinthehandsofalayfunctionary，who，maybeamilitaryman，andwholooksatallmattersfromalayman’s，pointofview。

ThiscloseconnectionbetweenChurchandStateandthethoroughly，nationalcharacteroftheRussianChurchiswellillustratedbythe，historyofthelocalecclesiasticaladministration。Theciviland，theecclesiasticaladministrationhavealwayshadthesame，characterandhavealwaysbeenmodifiedbythesameinfluences。

TheterrorismwhichwaslargelyusedbytheMuscoviteTsarsand，broughttoaclimaxbyPetertheGreatappearedequallyinboth。

Intheepiscopalcirculars，asintheImperialukazes，wefind，frequentmentionof“mostcruelcorporalpunishment，““cruel，punishmentwithwhips，sothatthedelinquentandothersmaynot，acquirethehabitofpractisingsuchinsolence，“andmuchmoreof，thesamekind。Andtheseterriblyseveremeasuresweresometimes，directedagainstveryvenialoffences。TheBishopofVologda，for，instance，in1748decrees“cruelcorporalpunishment“against，priestswhowearcoarseandraggedclothes，*andtherecordsofthe，Consistorialcourtscontainabundantproofthatsuchdecreeswere，rigorouslyexecuted。WhenCatherineII。introducedamorehumane，spiritintotheciviladministration，corporalpunishmentwasat，onceabolishedintheConsistorialcourts，andtheprocedurewas，modifiedaccordingtotheacceptedmaximsofciviljurisprudence。

ButImustnotwearythereaderwithtiresomehistoricaldetails。

Sufficeittosaythat，fromthetimeofPetertheGreatdownwards，thecharacterofallthemoreenergeticsovereignsisreflectedin，thehistoryoftheecclesiasticaladministration。

*Znamenski，“PrikhodskoeDukhovenstvovRossiisovremenireformy，Petra，“Kazan，1873。

Eachprovince，or“government，“formsadiocese，andthebishop，likethecivilgovernor，hasaCouncilwhichtheoreticallycontrols，hispower，butpracticallyhasnocontrollinginfluencewhatever。

TheConsistorialCouncil，whichhasinthetheoryofecclesiastical，procedureaveryimposingappearance，isinrealitythebishop’s，chancellerie，anditsmembersarelittlemorethansecretaries，whosechiefobjectistomakethemselvesagreeabletotheir，superior。Anditmustbeconfessedthat，solongastheyremain，whattheyare，thelesspowertheypossessthebetteritwillbe，forthosewhohavethemisfortunetobeundertheirjurisdiction。

Thehigherdignitarieshaveatleastlargeraimsandacertain，consciousnessofthedignityoftheirposition;butthelower，officials，whohavenosuchhealthyrestraintsandreceive，ridiculouslysmallsalaries，grosslymisusethelittleauthority，whichtheypossess，andhabituallypilferandextortinthemost，shamelessmanner。TheConsistoriesare，infact，whatthepublic，officeswereinthetimeofNicholasI。

Thehigherecclesiasticaladministrationhasalwaysbeeninthe，handsofthemonks，or“BlackClergy，“astheyarecommonlytermed，whoformalargeandinfluentialclass。Themonkswhofirst，settledinRussiawere，likethosewhofirstvisitednorth-western，Europe，menoftheearnest，ascetic，missionarytype。Filledwith，zealforthegloryofGodandthesalvationofsouls，theytook，littleornothoughtforthemorrow，anddevoutlybelievedthat，theirHeavenlyFather，withoutwhoseknowledgenosparrowfallsto，theground，wouldprovidefortheirhumblewants。Poor，cladin，rags，eatingthemostsimplefare，andeverreadytosharewhat，theyhadwithanyonepoorerthanthemselves，theyperformed，faithfullyandearnestlytheworkwhichtheirMasterhadgiventhem，todo。ButthisidealofmonasticlifesoongavewayinRussia，as，intheWest，topracticeslesssimpleandaustere。Bytheliberal，donationsandbequestsofthefaithfulthemonasteriesbecamerich，ingold，insilver，inpreciousstones，andaboveallinlandand，serfs。Troitsa，forinstance，possessedatonetime120，000serfs，andaproportionateamountofland，anditissaidthatatthe，beginningoftheeighteenthcenturymorethanafourthofthe，entirepopulationhadfallenunderthejurisdictionoftheChurch。

Manyofthemonasteriesengagedincommerce，andthemonkswere，if，wemaycreditFletcher，whovisitedRussiain1588，themost，intelligentmerchantsofthecountry。

DuringtheeighteenthcenturytheChurchlandsweresecularised，andtheserfsoftheChurchbecameserfsoftheState。Thiswasa，severeblowforthemonasteries，butitdidnotprovefatal，as，manypeoplepredicted。Somemonasterieswereabolishedandothers，werereducedtoextremepoverty，butmanysurvivedandprospered。

Thesecouldnolongerpossessserfs，buttheyhadstillthree，sourcesofrevenue：alimitedamountofrealproperty，Government，subsidies，andthevoluntaryofferingsofthefaithful。Atpresent，thereareabout500monasticestablishments，andthegreatmajority，ofthem，thoughnotwealthy，haverevenuesmorethansufficientto，satisfyalltherequirementsofanasceticlife。

ThusinRussia，asinWesternEurope，thehistoryofmonastic，institutionsiscomposedofthreechapters，whichmaybebriefly，entitled：asceticismandmissionaryenterprise;wealth，luxury，and，corruption;secularisationofpropertyanddecline。Butbetween，EasternandWesternmonasticismthereisatleastonemarked，difference。ThemonasticismoftheWestmadeatvariousepochsof，itshistoryavigorous，spontaneouseffortatself-regeneration，whichfoundexpressioninthefoundationofseparateOrders，each，ofwhichproposedtoitselfsomespecialaim——somespecialsphere，ofusefulness。InRussiawefindnosimilarphenomenon。Herethe，monasteriesneverdeviatedfromtherulesofSt。Basil，which，restrictthememberstoreligiousceremonies，prayer，and，contemplation。Fromtimetotimeasolitaryindividualraisedhis，voiceagainsttheprevailingabuses，orretiredfromhismonastery，tospendtheremainderofhisdaysinasceticsolitude;butneither，inthemonasticpopulationasawhole，norinanyparticular，monastery，dowefindatanytimeaspontaneous，vigorousmovement，towardsreform。Duringthelasttwohundredyearsreformshave，certainlybeeneffected，buttheyhaveallbeentheworkofthe，civilpower，andintherealisationofthemthemonkshaveshown，littlemorethanthevirtueofresignation。Here，aselsewhere，we，haveevidenceofthatinertness，apathy，andwantofspontaneous，vigourwhichformoneofthemostcharacteristictraitsofRussian，nationallife。Inthis，asinotherdepartmentsofnational，activity，thespringofactionhaslainnotinthepeople，butin，theGovernment。

Itisonlyfairtothemonkstostatethatintheirdisliketo，progressandchangeofeverykindtheymerelyreflectthe，traditionalspiritoftheChurchtowhichtheybelong。TheRussian，Church，liketheEasternOrthodoxChurchgenerally，isessentially，conservative。Anythinginthenatureofareligiousrevivalis，foreigntohertraditionsandcharacter。Quietanonmovereisher，fundamentalprincipleofconduct。Shepridesherselfasbeing，aboveterrestrialinfluences。

Themodificationsthathavebeenmadeinheradministrative，organisationhavenotaffectedherinnernature。Inspiritand，charactersheisnowwhatshewasunderthePatriarchsinthetime，oftheMuscoviteTsars，holdingfasttothepromisethatnojotor，tittleshallpassfromthelawtillallbefulfilled。Tothosewho，talkabouttherequirementsofmodernlifeandmodernscienceshe，turnsadeafear。Partlyfromthepredominancewhichshegivesto，theceremonialelement，partlyfromthefactthatherchiefaimis，topreserveunmodifiedthedoctrineandceremonialasdeterminedby，theearlyEcumenicalCouncils，andpartlyfromthelowstateof，generalcultureamongtheclergy，shehaseverremainedoutsideof，theintellectualmovements。TheattemptsoftheRomanCatholic，Churchtodevelopthetraditionaldogmasbydefinitionand，deduction，andtheeffortsofProtestantstoreconciletheircreeds，withprogressivescienceandtheever-varyingintellectualcurrents，ofthetime，arealikeforeigntohernature。Henceshehas，producednoprofoundtheologicaltreatisesconceivedina，philosophicalspirit，andhasmadenoattempttocombatthespirit，ofinfidelityinitsmodernforms。Profoundlyconvincedthather，positionisimpregnable，shehas“letthenationsrave，“and，scarcelydeignedtocastaglanceattheirintellectualand，religiousstruggles。Inaword，sheis“intheworld，butnotof，it。”

Ifwewishtoseerepresentedinavisibleformthepeculiar，characteristicsoftheRussianChurch，wehaveonlytoglanceat，Russianreligiousart，andcompareitwiththatofWesternEurope。

IntheWest，fromthetimeoftheRenaissancedownwards，religious，arthaskeptpacewithartisticprogress。Graduallyitemancipated，itselffromarchaicformsandchildishsymbolism，convertedthe，lifelesstypicalfiguresintolivingindividuals，lituptheirdull，eyesandexpressionlessfaceswithhumanintelligenceandhuman，feeling，andfinallyaimedatarchaeologicalaccuracyincostume，andotherdetails。ThusintheWesttheIcongrewslowlyintothe，naturalisticportrait，andtherudesymbolicalgroupsdeveloped，graduallyintohighly-finishedhistoricalpictures。InRussiathe，historyofreligiousarthasbeenentirelydifferent。Insteadof，distinctiveschoolsofpaintingandgreatreligiousartists，there，hasbeenmerelyananonymoustraditionalcraft，destituteofany，artisticindividuality。Inalltheproductionsofthiscraftthe，oldByzantineformshavebeenfaithfullyandrigorouslypreserved，andwecanseereflectedinthemodernIcons——stiff，archaic，expressionless——theimmobilityoftheEasternChurchingeneral，andoftheRussianChurchinparticular。

TotheRomanCatholic，whostrugglesagainstscienceassoonasit，contradictstraditionalconceptions，andtotheProtestant，who，strivestobringhisreligiousbeliefsintoaccordancewithhis，scientificknowledge，theRussianChurchmayseemtoresemblean，antediluvianpetrifaction，oracumbrousline-of-battleshipthat，hasbeenlongstranded。Itmustbeconfessed，however，thatthe，sereneinactivityforwhichsheisdistinguishedhashadvery，valuablepracticalconsequences。TheRussianclergyhaveneither，thathaughty，aggressiveintolerancewhichcharacterisestheir，RomanCatholicbrethren，northatbitter，uncharitable，sectarian，spiritwhichistoooftentobefoundamongProtestants。They，allownotonlytoheretics，butalsotomembersoftheirown，communion，themostcompleteintellectualfreedom，andneverthink，ofanathematisinganyoneforhisscientificorunscientific，opinions。Allthattheydemandisthatthosewhohavebeenborn，withinthepaleofOrthodoxyshouldshowtheChurchacertain，nominalallegiance;andinthismatterofallegiancetheyarebyno，meanveryexacting。Solongasamemberrefrainsfromopenly，attackingtheChurchandfromgoingovertoanotherconfession，he，mayentirelyneglectallreligiousordinancesandpubliclyprofess，scientifictheorieslogicallyinconsistentwithanykindof，dogmaticreligiousbeliefwithouttheslightestdangerofincurring，ecclesiasticalcensure。

Thisapathetictolerancemaybepartlyexplainedbythenational，character，butitisalsotosomeextentduetothepeculiar，relationsbetweenChurchandState。Thegovernmentvigilantly，protectstheChurchfromattack，andatthesametimepreventsher，fromattackingherenemies。Hencereligiousquestionsarenever，discussedinthePress，andtheecclesiasticalliteratureisall，historical，homiletic，ordevotional。Theauthoritiesallowpublic，oraldiscussionstobeheldduringLentintheKremlinofMoscow，betweenmembersoftheStateChurchandOldRitualists;butthese，debatesarenottheologicalinoursenseoftheterm。Theyturn，exclusivelyondetailsofChurchhistory，andontheminutiaeof，ceremonialobservance。

Afewyearsagotherewasagooddealofvaguetalkabouta，possibleunionoftheRussianandAnglicanChurches。Ifby“union“

ismeantsimplyunioninthebondsofbrotherlylove，therecanbe，ofcourse，noobjectiontoanyamountofsuchpiadesideria;butif，anythingmorerealandpracticalisintended，theprojectisan，absurdity。ArealunionoftheRussianandAnglicanChurcheswould，beasdifficultofrealisation，andisasundesirable，asaunion，oftheRussianCouncilofStateandtheBritishHouseofCommons。*

*Isupposethatthemoreseriouspartisansoftheunionscheme，meanunionwiththeEasternOrthodox，andnotwiththeRussian，Church。Tothemtheaboveremarksarenotaddressed。Theirscheme，is，inmyopinion，unrealisableandundesirable，butitcontains，nothingabsurd。

CHAPTERXX

THENOBLESSE

TheNoblesInEarlyTimes——TheMongolDomination——TheTsardomof，Muscovy——FamilyDignity——ReformsofPetertheGreat——TheNobles，AdoptWest-EuropeanConceptions——AbolitionofObligatoryService——

InfluenceofCatherineII——TheRussianDvoryanstvoComparedwith，theFrenchNoblesseandtheEnglishAristocracy——RussianTitles——

ProbableFutureoftheRussianNoblesse。

HithertoIhavebeencompellingthereadertomoveaboutamongwhat，weshouldcallthelowerclasses——peasants，burghers，traders，parishpriests，Dissenters，heretics，Cossacks，andthelike——and，hefeelsperhapsinclinedtocomplainthathehashadno，opportunityofmixingwithwhatold-fashionedpeoplecallgentle-

folkandpersonsofquality。Bywayofmakingamendstohimfor，thisreprehensibleconductonmypart，Iproposenowtopresenthim，tothewholeNoblesse*inabody，notonlythoseatpresentliving，butalsotheirnearanddistantancestors，rightbacktothe，foundationoftheRussianEmpireathousandyearsago。Thereafter，Ishallintroducehimtosomeofthecountryfamiliesandinvite，himtomakewithmeafewcountry-housevisits。

*Iusehereaforeign，inpreferencetoanEnglish，term，because，theword“Nobility“wouldconveyafalseimpression。

EtymologicallytheRussianword“Dvoryanin“meansaCourtier(from，Dvor=court);butthistermisequallyobjectionable，becausethe，greatmajorityoftheDvoryanstvohavenothingtodowiththe，Court。

Intheoldtimes，whenRussiawasmerelyacollectionofsome，seventyindependentprincipalities，eachreigningprincewas，surroundedbyagroupofarmedmen，composedpartlyofBoyars，or，largelandedproprietors，andpartlyofknights，orsoldiersof，fortune。Thesemen，whoformedtheNoblesseofthetime，weretoa，certainextentundertheauthorityofthePrince，buttheywereby，nomeansmereobedient，silentexecutorsofhiswill。TheBoyars，mightrefusetotakepartinhismilitaryexpeditions，andthe，“free-lances“mightleavehisserviceandseekemployment，elsewhere。Ifhewishedtogotowarwithouttheirconsent，they，couldsaytohim，astheydidononeoccasion，“Youhaveplanned，thisyourself，Prince，sowewillnotgowithyou，forweknew，nothingofit。”，Norwasthisresistancetotheprincelywill，alwaysmerelypassive。Once，intheprincipalityofGalitch，the，armedmenseizedtheirprince，killedhisfavourites，burnedhis，mistress，andmadehimswearthathewouldinfuturelivewithhis，lawfulwife。Tohissuccessor，whohadmarriedthewifeofa，priest，theyspokethus：“WehavenotrisenagainstYOU，Prince，butwewillnotdoreverencetoapriest’swife：wewillputherto，death，andthenyoumaymarrywhomyouplease。”，Eventheenergetic，Bogolubski，oneofthemostremarkableoftheoldPrinces，didnot，succeedinhavinghisownway。Whenheattemptedtoforcethe，Boyarshemetwithstubbornopposition，andwasfinally，assassinated。Fromtheseincidents，whichmightbeindefinitely，multipliedfromtheoldchronicles，weseethatintheearlyperiod，ofRussianhistorytheBoyarsandknightswereabodyoffreemen，possessingaconsiderableamountofpoliticalpower。

UndertheMongoldominationthispoliticalequilibriumwas，destroyed。Whenthecountryhadbeenconquered，thePrincesbecame，servilevassalsoftheKhanandarbitraryrulerstowardstheirown，subjects。Thepoliticalsignificanceofthenobleswasthereby，greatlydiminished。Itwasnot，however，byanymeansannihilated。

ThoughthePrincenolongerdependedentirelyontheirsupport，he，hadaninterestinretainingtheirservices，toprotecthis，territoryincaseofsuddenattack，ortoincreasehispossessions，attheexpenseofhisneighbourswhenaconvenientopportunity，presenteditself。Theoretically，suchconquestswereimpossible，forallremovingoftheancientlandmarksdependedonthedecision，oftheKhan;butinrealitytheKhanpaidlittleattentiontothe，affairsofhisvassalssolongasthetributewasregularlypaid;

andmuchtookplaceinRussiawithouthispermission。Wefind，therefore，insomeoftheprincipalitiestheoldrelationsstill，subsistingunderMongolrule。ThefamousDmitrioftheDon，for，instance，whenonhisdeath-bed，speaksthustohisBoyars：“You，knowmyhabitsandmycharacter;Iwasbornamongyou，grewup，amongyou，governedwithyou——fightingbyyourside，showingyou，honourandlove，andplacingyouovertownsanddistricts。Iloved，yourchildren，anddideviltonoone。Irejoicedwithyouinyour，joy，mournedwithyouinyourgrief，andcalledyoutheprincesof，myland。”，Then，turningtohischildren，headds，asaparting，advice：“LoveyourBoyars，mychildren;showthemthehonourwhich，theirservicesmerit，andundertakenothingwithouttheirconsent。”

WhentheGrandPrincesofMoscowbroughttheotherprincipalities，undertheirpower，andformedthemintotheTsardomofMuscovy，the，noblesdescendedanotherstepinthepoliticalscale。Solongas，thereweremanyprincipalitiestheycouldquittheserviceofa，Princeassoonashegavethemreasontobediscontented，knowing，thattheywouldbewellreceivedbyoneofhisrivals;butnowthey，hadnolongeranychoice。TheonlyrivalofMoscowwasLithuania，andprecautionsweretakentopreventthediscontentedfrom，crossingtheLithuanianfrontier。Thenobleswerenolonger，voluntaryadherentsofaPrince，buthadbecomesubjectsofaTsar;

andtheTsarswerenotastheoldPrinceshadbeen。Byaviolent，legalfictiontheyconceivedthemselvestobethesuccessorsofthe，ByzantineEmperors，andcreatedanewcourtceremonial，borrowed，partlyfromConstantinopleandpartlyfromtheMongolHorde。They，nolongerassociatedfamiliarlywiththeBoyars，andnolonger，askedtheiradvice，buttreatedthemratherasmenials。Whenthe，noblesenteredtheiraugustmaster’spresencetheyprostrated，themselvesinOrientalfashion——occasionallyasmanyasthirty，times——andwhentheyincurredhisdispleasuretheyweresummarily，floggedorexecuted，accordingtotheTsar’sgoodpleasure。In，succeedingtothepoweroftheKhans，theTsarshadadopted，we，see，agooddealoftheMongolsystemofgovernment。

Itmayseemstrangethataclassofmenwhichhadformerlyshowna，proudspiritofindependenceshouldhavesubmittedquietlytosuch，humiliationandoppressionwithoutmakingaseriousefforttocurb，thenewpower，whichhadnolongeraTartarHordeatitsbackto，quellopposition。Butwemustrememberthatthenobles，aswellas，thePrinces，hadpassedinthemeantimethroughtheschoolofthe，Mongoldomination。Inthecourseoftwocenturiestheyhad，graduallybecomeaccustomedtodespoticruleintheOrientalsense。

Iftheyfelttheirpositionhumiliatingandirksome，theymusthave，felt，too，howdifficultitwastobetterit。Theironlyresource，layincombiningagainstthecommonoppressor;andwehaveonlyto，glanceatthemotley，disorganisedgroup，astheyclusterroundthe，Tsar，toperceivethatcombinationwasextremelydifficult。Wecan，distinguishtherethemediatisedPrinces，stillharbouringdesigns，fortherecoveryoftheirindependence;theMoscowBoyars，jealous，oftheirfamilyhonourandproudofMuscovitesupremacy;Tartar，Murzi，whohavesubmittedtobebaptisedandhavereceivedland，liketheothernobles;theNovgorodianmagnate，whocannotforget，theancientgloryofhisnativecity;Lithuaniannobles，whofind，itmoreprofitabletoservetheTsarthantheirownsovereign;

pettychiefswhohavefledfromtheoppositionoftheTeutonic，order;andsoldiersoffortunefromeverypartofRussia。Strong，permanentpoliticalfactorsarenoteasilyformedoutofsuch，heterogeneousmaterial。

Attheendofthesixteenthcenturytheolddynastybecameextinct，andafterashortperiodofpoliticalanarchy，commonlycalled“the，troubloustimes“(smutnoevremya)，theRomanoffamilywereraised，tothethronebythewillofthepeople，oratleastbythosewho，wereassumedtobeitsrepresentatives。Bythischangethe，Noblesseacquiredasomewhatbetterposition。Theywerenolonger，exposedtocapricioustyrannyandbarbarouscruelty，suchasthey，hadexperiencedatthehandsofIvantheTerrible，buttheydid，not，asaclass，gainanypoliticalinfluence。Therewerestill，rivalfamiliesandrivalfactions，buttherewerenopolitical，partiesinthepropersenseoftheterm，andthehighestaimof，familiesandfactionswastogainthefavouroftheTsar。

Thefrequentquarrelsaboutprecedencewhichtookplaceamongthe，rivalfamiliesatthisperiodformoneofthemostcuriousepisodes，ofRussianhistory。Theoldpatriarchalconceptionofthefamily，asaunit，oneandindivisible，wasstillsostrongamongthesemen，thattheelevationordegradationofonememberofafamilywas，consideredtoaffectdeeplythehonourofalltheothermembers。

Eachnoblefamilyhaditsrankinarecognisedscaleofdignity，accordingtotherankwhichitheld，orhadpreviouslyheld，inthe，Tsar’sservice;andawholefamilywouldhaveconsidereditself，dishonouredifoneofitsmembersacceptedapostlowerthanthat，towhichhewasentitled。Wheneveravacantplaceintheservice，wasfilledup，thesubordinatesofthesuccessfulcandidate，examinedtheofficialrecordsandthegenealogicaltreesoftheir，families，inordertodiscoverwhethersomeancestoroftheirnew，superiorhadnotservedunderoneoftheirownancestors。Ifthe，subordinatefoundsuchacase，hecomplainedtotheTsarthatit，wasnotbecomingforhimtoserveunderamanwhohadlessfamily，honourthanhimself。

Unfoundedcomplaintsofthiskindoftenentailedimprisonmentor，corporalpunishment，butinspiteofthisthequarrelsfor，precedencewereveryfrequent。Atthecommencementofacampaign，manysuchdisputesweresuretoarise，andtheTsar’sdecisionwas，notalwaysacceptedbythepartywhoconsideredhimselfaggrieved。

Ihavemetatleastwithoneexampleofagreatdignitary，voluntarilymutilatinghishandinordertoescapethenecessityof，servingunderamanwhomheconsideredhisinferiorinfamily，dignity。EvenattheTsar’stabletheserivalriessometimes，producedunseemlyincidents，foritwasalmostimpossibleto，arrangetheplacessoastosatisfyalltheguests。Inone，recordedinstanceanoblewhoreceivedaplacelowerthanthatto，whichheconsideredhimselfentitledopenlydeclaredtotheTsar，thathewouldratherbecondemnedtodeaththansubmittosuchan，indignity。Inanotherinstanceofasimilarkindtherefractory，guestwasputonhischairbyforce，butsavedhisfamilyhonourby，slippingunderthetable！