第16章

Besidesthis，fromtheeconomicpointofviewvillagelifehasbeen，completelyrevolutionised。Formerlythemembersofapeasant，familyobtainedfromtheirordinarydomesticresourcesnearlyall，theyrequired。Theirfoodcamefromtheirfields，cabbage-garden，andfarmyard。Materialsforclothingweresuppliedbytheirplots，offlaxandtheirsheep，andwereworkedupintolinenandclothby，thefemalemembersofthehousehold。Fuel，asIhavesaid，and，torcheswherewithtolighttheizba——foroilwastooexpensiveand，petroleumwasunknown——wereobtainedgratis。Theirsheep，cattle，andhorseswerebredathome，andtheiragriculturalimplements，exceptinsofarasalittleironwasrequired，couldbemadeby，themselveswithoutanypecuniaryexpenditure。Moneywasrequired，onlyforthepurchaseofafewcheapdomesticutensils，suchas，pots，pans，knives，hatchets，woodendishes，andspoons，andfor，thepaymentoftaxes，whichweresmallinamountandoftenpaidby，theproprietor。Inthesecircumstancesthequantityofmoneyin，circulationamongthepeasantswasinfinitesimallysmall，thefew，exchangeswhichtookplaceinavillagebeinggenerallyeffectedby，barter。Thetaxes，andthevodkarequiredforvillagefestivals，weddings，orfunerals，weretheonlylargeitemsofexpenditurefor，theyear，andtheyweregenerallycoveredbythesumsbroughthome，bythemembersofthefamilywhowenttoworkinthetowns。

Verydifferentisthepresentconditionofaffairs。Thespinning，weaving，andotherhomeindustrieshavebeenkilledbythebig，factories，andtheflaxandwoolhavetobesoldtoraisealittle，readymoneyforthenumerousnewitemsofexpenditure。Everything，hastobebought——clothes，firewood，petroleum，improved，agriculturalimplements，andmanyotherarticleswhicharenow，regardedasnecessariesoflife，whilstcomparativelylittleis，earnedbyworkinginthetowns，becausethebigfamilieshavebeen，brokenup，andahouseholdnowconsistsusuallyofhusbandand，wife，whomustbothremainathome，andchildrenwhoarenotyet，bread-winners。Recallingtomindallthesethingsandtheother，drawbacksandadvantagesofhisactualposition，theoldmuzhikhas，naturallymuchdifficultyinstrikingabalance，andhemaywellbe，quitesincerewhen，onbeingaskedwhetherthingsnowareonthe，wholebetterorworsethaninthetimeofserfage，hescratchesthe，backofhisheadandreplieshesitatingly，withamystified，expressiononhiswrinkledface：“HowshallIsaytoyou？，Theyare，bothbetterandworse！”(“Kakvamskazat’？，Il鹴cheikh鹍zhe！”)

If，however，youpresshimfurtherandaskwhetherhewouldhimself，liketoreturntotheoldstateofthings，heisprettysureto，answer，withaslowshakeoftheheadandatwinkleinhiseye，as，ifsomeforgottenitemintheaccounthadsuddenlyrecurredtohim：

“Oh，no！”

Whatmateriallyincreasesthedifficultyofthisgeneral，computationisthatgreatchangeshavetakenplaceinthewell-

beingoftheparticularhouseholds。Somehavegreatlyprospered，whileothershavebecomeimpoverished。Thatisoneofthemost，characteristicconsequencesoftheEmancipation。Intheoldtimes，thegeneraleconomicstagnationandtheuncontrolledauthorityof，theproprietortendedtokeepallthehouseholdsofavillageon，thesamelevel。Therewaslittleopportunityforanintelligent，enterprisingserftobecomerich，andifhecontrivedtoincrease，hisrevenuehehadprobablytogiveaconsiderableshareofitto，theproprietor，unlesshehadthegoodfortunetobelongtoagrand，seigneurlikeCountSheremetief，whowasproudofhavingrichmen，amonghisserfs。Ontheotherhand，theproprietor，forevident，reasonsofself-interest，aswellasfrombenevolentmotives，preventedthelessintelligentandlessenterprisingmembersofthe，Communefrombecomingbankrupt。TheCommunalequalitythus，artificiallymaintainedhasnowdisappeared，therestrictionson，individualfreedomofactionhavebeenremoved，thestrugglefor，lifehasbecomeintensified，and，asalwayshappensinsuch，circumstances，thestrongmengoupintheworldwhiletheweak，onesgotothewall。Alloverthecountrywefindontheonehand，thebeginningsofavillagearistocracy——orperhapsweshouldcall，itaplutocracy，foritisbasedonmoney——andontheotherhandan，ever-increasingpauperism。Somepeasantspossesscapital，with，whichtheybuylandoutsidetheCommuneorembarkintrade，while，othershavetoselltheirlivestock，andhavesometimestocedeto，neighbourstheirshareoftheCommunalproperty。Thischangein，rurallifeissooftenreferredtothat，inordertoexpressita，new，barbarousword，differentsiatsia(differentiation)hasbeen，invented。

Hopingtoobtainfullerinformationwiththeaidofofficial，protection，Iattachedmyselftooneofthetravellingsectionsof，anagriculturalCommissionappointedbytheGovernment，andduring，awholesummerIhelpedtocollectmaterialsintheprovinces，borderingontheVolga。Theinquiryresultedinagiganticreport，ofnearly2，500foliopages，butthegeneralconclusionswere，extremelyvague。Thepeasantry，itwassaid，werepassing，like，thelandedproprietors，throughaperiodoftransition，inwhich，themainfeaturesoftheirfuturenormallifehadnotyetbecome，clearlydefined。Insomelocalitiestheirconditionhaddecidedly，improved，whereasinothersithadimprovedlittleornotatall。

Thenfollowedalonglistofrecommendationsinfavourof，Governmentassistance，betteragronomiceducation，competitive，exhibitions，morevariedrotationofcrops，andgreaterzealonthe，partoftheclergyindisseminatingamongthepeoplemoral，principlesingeneralandloveofworkinparticular。

Notgreatlyenlightenedbythisofficialactivity，Ireturnedtomy，privatestudies，andattheendofsixyearsIpublishedmy，impressionsandconclusionsinthefirsteditionofthiswork。

Whilerecognisingthattherewasmuchuncertaintyastothefuture，Iwasinclined，onthewhole，totakeahopefulviewofthe，situation。Iwasunable，however，tomaintainpermanentlythat，comfortableframeofmind。AftermydeparturefromRussiain1878，theaccountswhichreachedmefromvariouspartsofthecountry，becameblackerandblacker，andwerepartlyconfirmedbyshort，tourswhichImadein1889-1896。Atlast，inthesummerof1903，I

determinedtoreturntosomeofmyoldhauntsandlookatthings，withmyowneyes。Atthatmomentsomehospitablefriendsinvited，metopaythemavisitattheircountry-houseintheprovinceof，Smolensk，andIgladlyacceptedtheinvitation，becauseSmolensk，whenIknewitformerly，wasoneofthepoorestprovinces，andI

thoughtitwelltobeginmynewstudiesbyexaminingthe，impoverishment，ofwhichIhadheardsomuch，atitsmaximum。

FromtherailwaystationatViazma，whereIarrivedonemorningat，sunrise，Ihadsometwentymilestodrive，andassoonasIgot，clearofthelittletownIbeganmyobservations。WhatIsaw，aroundmeseemedtocontradictthesombreaccountsIhadreceived。

ThevillagesthroughwhichIpassedhadnotatallthelookof，dilapidationandmiserywhichIexpected。Onthecontrary，the，houseswerelargerandbetterconstructedthantheyusedtobe，and，eachofthemhadachimney！，Thatlatterfactwasimportantbecause，formerlyalargeproportionofthepeasantsofthisregionhadno，suchluxury，andallowedthesmoketofinditsexitbytheopen，door。InvainIlookedforahutoftheoldtype，andmyyamstchik，assuredmeIshouldhavetogoalongwaytofindone。ThenI

noticedagoodmanyironploughsoftheEuropeanmodel，andmy，yamstchikinformedmethattheirpredecessor，thesokhawithwhich，Ihadbeensofamiliar，hadentirelydisappearedfromthedistrict。

NextInoticedthatintheneighbourhoodofthevillagesflaxwas，growninlargequantities。Thatwascertainlynotanindicationof，poverty，becauseflaxisavaluableproductwhichrequirestobe，wellmanured，andplentifulmanureimpliesaconsiderablequantity，oflivestock。Lastly，beforearrivingatmydestination，I

noticedcloverbeinggrowninthefields。Thismademeopenmy，eyeswithastonishment，becausetheintroductionofartificial，grassesintothetraditionalrotationofcropsindicatesthe，transitiontoahigherandmoreintensivesystemofagriculture。

AsIhadneverseencloverinRussiaexceptontheestatesofvery，advancedproprietors，Isaidtomyyamstchik：

“Listen，littlebrother！，Thatfieldbelongstothelandlord？”

“Notatall，Master;itismuzhik-land。”

Onarrivingatthecountry-houseItoldmyfriendswhatIhadseen，andtheyexplainedittome。Smolenskisnolongeroneofthe，poorerprovinces;ithasbecomecomparativelyprosperous。Intwo，orthreedistrictslargequantitiesofflaxareproducedandgive，thecultivatorsabigrevenue;inotherdistrictsplentyof，remunerativeworkissuppliedbytheforests。Everywherea，considerableproportionoftheyoungermengoregularlytothe，townsandbringhomesavingsenoughtopaythetaxesandmakea，littlesurplusinthedomesticbudget。Afewdaysafterwardsthe，villagesecretarybroughtmehisbooks，andshowedmethatthere，werepracticallynoarrearsoftaxation。

PassingontootherprovincesIfoundsimilarproofsofprogress，andprosperity，butatthesametimenotafewindicationsof，impoverishment;andIwasrapidlyrelapsingintomypreviousstate，ofuncertaintyastowhetheranygeneralconclusionscouldbe，drawn，whenanoldfriend，himselfafirst-rateauthoritywithmany，yearsofpracticalexperience，cametomyassistance。*，Heinformed，methatanumberofspecialistshadrecentlymadedetailed，investigationsintothepresenteconomicconditionsoftherural，population，andhekindlyplacedatmydisposal，inhischarming，country-housenearMoscow，thevoluminousresearchesofthese，investigators。Here，duringagoodmanyweeks，Irevelledinthe，statisticalmaterialscollected，andtothebestofmyabilityI

testedtheconclusionsdrawnfromthem。Manyoftheseconclusions，IhadtodismisswiththeScotchverdictof“notproven，“whilst，othersseemedtomeworthyofacceptance。Oftheselatterthemost，importantwerethosedrawnfromthearrearsoftaxation。

*IhopeIamcommittingnoindiscretionwhenIsaythattheold，friendinquestionwasPrinceAlexanderStcherbatofofVasilefskoe。

Thearrearsinthepaymentoftaxesmayberegardedasapretty，safebarometerfortestingtheconditionoftheruralpopulation，becausethepeasanthabituallypayshisratesandtaxeswhenhehas，themeansofdoingso;whenhefallsseriouslyandpermanentlyinto，arrearsitmaybeassumedthatheisbecomingimpoverished。Ifthe，arrearsfluctuatefromyeartoyear，thecausesofthe，impoverishmentmayberegardedasaccidentalandperhapstemporary，butiftheysteadilyaccumulate，wemustconcludethatthereis，somethingradicallywrong。Bearingthesefactsinmind，letus，hearwhatthestatisticssay。

DuringthefirsttwentyyearsaftertheEmancipation(1861-81)

thingswentonintheiroldgrooves。Thepoorprovincesremained，poor，andthefertileprovincesshowednosignsofdistress。

Duringthenexttwentyyears(1881-1901)thearrearsofthewhole，ofEuropeanRussiarose，roughlyspeaking，from27to144millions，ofroubles，andtheincrease，strangetosay，tookplaceinthe，fertileprovinces。In1890，forexample，outof52millions，nearly41millions，or78percent。felltotheshareofthe，provincesoftheBlack-earthZone。Insevenofthesetheaverage，arrearspermale，whichhadbeenin1882only90kopeks，rosein，1893to600，andin1899to2，200！，Andthisaccumulationhadtaken，placeinspiteofreductionsoftaxationtotheextentof37

millionroublesin1881-83，andsuccessivefaminegrantsfromthe，Treasuryin1891-99totheamountof203millions。*，Ontheother，hand，intheprovinceswithapoorsoilthearrearshadgreatly，decreased。InSmolensk，forexample，theyhadsunkfrom202per，cent，to13percent。oftheannualsumtobepaid，andinnearly，alltheotherprovincesofthewestandnorthasimilarchangefor，thebetterhadtakenplace。

TheseandmanyotherfigureswhichImightquoteshowthatagreat，andverycuriouseconomicrevolutionhasbeengraduallyeffected。

TheBlack-earthZone，whichwasformerlyregardedasthe，inexhaustiblegranaryoftheEmpire，hasbecomeimpoverished，whilsttheprovinceswhichwereformerlyregardedashopelessly，poorarenowinacomparativelyflourishingcondition。Thisfact，hasbeenofficiallyrecognised。Inaclassificationofthe，provincesaccordingtotheirdegreeofprosperity，drawnupbya，specialcommissionofexpertsin1903，thosewithapoorlightsoil，appearatthetop，andthosewiththefamousblackearthareatthe，bottomofthelist。Inthedeliberationsofthecommissionmany，reasonsforthisextraordinarystateofthingsareadduced。Most，ofthemhavemerelyalocalsignificance。Thebigfact，takenasa，whole，seemstometoshowthat，inconsequenceofcertainchanges，ofwhichIshallspeakpresently，thepeasantryofEuropeanRussia，cannolongerlivebythetraditionalmodesofagriculture，evenin，themostfertiledistricts，andrequirefortheirsupportsome，subsidiaryoccupationssuchasarepractisedinthelessfertile，provinces。

*In1901anadditionalfaminegrantof331/2millionroubleshad，tobemadebytheGovernment。

Anothersignofimpoverishmentisthedecreaseinthequantityof，livestock。Accordingtotheveryimperfectstatisticsavailable，foreveryhundredinhabitantsthenumberofhorseshasdecreased，from26to17，thenumberofcattlefrom36to25，andthenumber，ofsheepfrom73to40。Thisisaseriousmatter，becauseitmeans，thatthelandisnotsowellmanuredandcultivatedasformerly，andisconsequentlynotsoproductive。Severaleconomistshave，attemptedtofixpreciselytowhatextenttheproductivityhas，decreased，butIconfessIhavelittlefaithintheaccuracyof，theirconclusions。M。Polenof，forexample，amostableand，conscientiousinvestigator，calculatesthatbetween1861and1895，alloverRussia，theamountoffoodproduced，inrelationtothe，numberofthepopulation，hasdecreasedbysevenpercent。His，methodsofcalculationareingenious，butthestatisticaldatawith，whichheoperatesaresofarfromaccuratethathisconclusionson，thispointhave，inmyopinion，littleornoscientificvalue。

WithallduedeferencetoRussianeconomists，Imaysay，parentheticallythattheyareveryfoundofjugglingwith，carelesslycollectedstatistics，asiftheirdataweremathematical，quantities。

SeveraloftheZemstvoshavegrappledwiththisquestionofpeasant，impoverishment，andthedatawhichtheyhavecollectedmakeavery，dolefulimpression。IntheprovinceofMoscow，forexample，a，carefulinvestigationgavethefollowingresults：Fortypercent。

ofthepeasanthouseholdshadnolongeranyhorses，15percent。

hadgivenupagriculturealtogether，andabout10percent。hadno，longeranyland。Wemustnot，however，assume，asisoftendone，thatthepeasantfamilieswhohavenolivestockandnolongertill，thelandareutterlyruined。Inrealitymanyofthemarebetter，offthantheirneighbourswhoappearasprosperousintheofficial，statistics，havingfoundprofitableoccupationinthehome，industries，inthetowns，inthefactories，orontheestatesof，thelandedproprietors。ItmustberememberedthatMoscowisthe，centreofoneoftheregionsinwhichmanufacturingindustryhas，progressedwithgiganticstridesduringthelasthalf-century，and，itwouldbestrangeindeedif，insucharegion，thepeasantrywho，supplythelabourtothetownsandfactoriesremainedthriving，agriculturists。ThatmanyRussiansaresurprisedandhorrifiedat，theactualstateofthingsshowstowhatanextenttheeducated，classesarestillundertheillusionthatRussiacancreatefor，herselfamanufacturingindustrycapableofcompetingwiththatof，WesternEuropewithoutuprootingfromthesoilaportionofher，ruralpopulation。

Itisonlyinthepurelyagriculturalregionsthatfamilies，officiallyclassedasbelongingtothepeasantrymayberegardedas，onthebrinkofpauperismbecausetheyhavenolivestock，andeven，withregardtothemIshouldhesitatetomakesuchanassumption，becausethemuzhiks，asIhavealreadyhadoccasiontoremark，have，strangenomadichabitsunknowntotheruralpopulationofother，countries。Itisamistake，therefore，tocalculatetheRussian，peasant’sbudgetexclusivelyonthebasisoflocalresources。

Tothepessimistswhoassuremethataccordingtotheir，calculationsthepeasantryingeneralmustbeonthebrinkof，starvation，Ireplythattherearemanyfacts，eveninthe，statisticaltablesonwhichtheyrely，whichruncountertotheir，deductions。Letmequoteonebywayofillustration。Thetotal，amountofdepositsinsavingsbanks，aboutone-fourthofwhichis，believedtobelongtotheruralpopulation，roseinthecourseof，sixyears(1894-1900)from347to680millionsofroubles。Besides，thesavingsbanks，thereexistedintheruraldistrictson1st，December，1902，nolessthan1，614small-creditinstitutions，with，atotalcapital(1stJanuary，1901)of69millionroubles，ofwhich，only4，653，000hadbeenadvancedbytheStateBankandtheZemstvo，theremaindercominginfromprivatesources。Thisisnotmuchfor，abigcountrylikeRussia，butitisabeginning，anditsuggests，thattheimpoverishmentisnotsosevereandsouniversalasthe，pessimistswouldhaveusbelieve。

Thereisthusroomfordifferencesofopinionastohowfarthe，peasantryhavebecomeimpoverished，butthereisnodoubtthat，theirconditionisfarfromsatisfactory，andwehavetofacethe，importantproblemwhytheabolitionofserfagehasnotproducedthe，beneficentconsequenceswhichevenmoderatemensoconfidently，predicted，andhowthepresentunsatisfactorystateofthingsisto，beremedied。

Themostcommonexplanationamongthosewhohaveneverseriously，studiedthesubjectisthatitallcomesfromthedemoralisationof，thecommonpeople。Inthisviewthereisamodicumoftruth。That，thepeasantryinjuretheirmaterialwelfarebydrunkennessand，improvidencetherecanbenoreasonabledoubt，asisshownbythe，comparativelyflourishingstateofcertainvillagesofOld，RitualistsandMolokanyeinwhichthereisnodrunkenness，andin，whichthecommunityexercisesastrongmoralcontroloverthe，individualmembers。IftheOrthodoxChurchcouldmakethe，peasantryrefrainfromtheinordinateuseofstrongdrinkas，effectuallyasitmakesthemrefrainduringagreatpartofthe，yearfromanimalfood，andifitcouldinstilintotheirmindsa，fewsimplemoralprinciplesassuccessfullyasithasinspiredthem，withabeliefintheefficacyoftheSacraments，itwouldcertainly，conferonthemaninestimablebenefit。Butthisisnottobe，expected。Thegreatmajorityoftheparishpriestsarequiteunfit，forsuchatask，andthefewwhohaveaspirationsinthatdirection，rarelyacquireaperceptiblemoralinfluenceovertheir，parishioners。Perhapsmoreistobeexpectedfromtheschoolmaster，thanfromthepriest，butitwillbelongbeforetheschoolscan，produceevenapartialmoralregeneration。Theirfirstinfluence，strangeastheassertionmayseem，isofteninadiametrically，oppositedirection。Whenonlyafewpeasantsinavillagecanread，andwritetheyhavesuchfacilitiesforoverreachingtheir“dark“

neighboursthattheyareapttoemploytheirknowledgefor，dishonestpurposes;andthusitoccasionallyhappensthattheman，whohasthemosteducationisthegreatestscoundrelintheMir。

Suchfactsareoftenusedbytheopponentsofpopulareducation，butinrealitytheysupplyagoodreasonfordisseminatingprimary，educationasrapidlyaspossible。Whenallthepeasantshave，learnedtoreadandwritetheywillpresentalessinvitingfield，forswindling，andthetemptationstodishonestywillbe，proportionatelydiminished。Meanwhile，itisonlyfairtostate，thatthecommonassertionsaboutdrunkennessbeinggreatlyonthe，increasearenotborneoutbytheofficialstatisticsconcerning，theconsumptionofspirituousliquors。

Afterdrunkenness，thebesettingsinwhichissupposedtoexplain，theimpoverishmentofthepeasantryisincorrigiblelaziness。On，thatsubjectIfeelinclinedtoputinapleaofextenuating，circumstancesinfavourofthemuzhik。Certainlyheisveryslow，inhismovements——slowerperhapsthantheEnglishrustic——andhe，hasamarvellouscapacityforwastingvaluabletimewithoutany，perceptiblequalmsofconscience;butheisinthisrespect，ifI

mayuseafavouritephraseoftheSocialScientists，“theproduct，ofenvironment。”，Totheproprietorswhohabituallyreproachhim，withtime-wastinghemightreplywithaverystrongtuquoque，argument，andtoalltheotherclassestheargumentmightlikewise，beaddressed。TheSt。Petersburgofficial，forexample，whowrites，edifyingdisquisitionsaboutpeasantindolence，considersthatfor，himselfattendanceathisofficeforfourhours，alargeportionof，whichisdevotedtotheunproductivelabourofcigarettesmoking，constitutesaveryfairday’swork。ThetruthisthatinRussia，thestruggleforlifeisnotnearlysointenseasinmoredensely，populatedcountries，andsocietyissoconstitutedthatallcan，livewithoutverystrenuousexertion。TheRussiansseem，therefore，tothetravellerwhocomesfromtheWestanindolent，apatheticrace。IfthetravellerhappenstocomefromtheEast——

especiallyifhehasbeenlivingamongpastoralraces——theRussians，willappeartohimenergeticandlaborious。Theircharacterin，thisrespectcorrespondstotheirgeographicalposition：theystand，midwaybetweenthelaborious，painstaking，industriouspopulation，ofWesternEuropeandtheindolent，undisciplined，spasmodically，energeticpopulationsofCentralAsia。Theyarecapableof，effectingmuchbyvigorous，intermittenteffort——witnessthe，peasantatharvest-time，ortheSt。Petersburgofficialwhensome，biglegislativeprojecthastobesubmittedtotheEmperorwithina，giventime——buttheyhavenotyetlearnedregularlaborioushabits。

Inshort，theRussiansmightmovetheworldifitcouldbedoneby，ajerk，buttheyarestilldeficientinthatcalmperseveranceand，doggedtenacitywhichcharacterisetheTeutonicrace。

Withoutseekingfurthertodeterminehowfarthemoraldefectsof，thepeasantryhaveadeleteriousinfluenceontheirmaterial，welfare，Iproceedtoexaminetheexternalcauseswhichare，generallysupposedtocontributelargelytotheirimpoverishment，andwilldealfirstwiththeevilsofpeasantself-government。

Thatthepeasantself-governmentisveryfarfrombeingina，satisfactoryconditionmustbeadmittedbyanyimpartialobserver。

Themorelaboriousandwell-to-dopeasants，unlesstheywishto，abusetheirpositiondirectlyorindirectlyfortheirown，advantage，trytoescapeelectionasoffice-bearers，andleavethe，administrationinthehandsofthelessrespectablemembers。Not，unfrequentlyaVolostEldertradeswiththemoneyhecollectsas，duesortaxes;andsometimes，whenhebecomesinsolvent，the，peasantshavetopaytheirtaxesandduesasecondtime。The，VillageAssemblies，too，havebecomeworsethantheywereinthe，daysofserfage。AtthattimetheHeadsofHouseholds——who，it，mustberemembered，havealoneavoiceinthedecisions——werefew，innumber，laborious，andwell-to-do，andtheykeptthelazy，unrulymembersunderstrictcontrol。Nowthatthelargefamilies，havebeenbrokenupandalmosteveryadultpeasantisHeadofa，Household，theCommunalaffairsaresometimesdecidedbyanoisy，majority;andcertainCommunaldecisionsmaybeobtainedby，“treatingtheMir“——thatistosay，bysupplyingacertainamount，ofvodka。OftenIhaveheardoldpeasantsspeakofthesethings，andfinishtheirrecitalbysomesuchremarkasthis：“Thereisno，ordernow;thepeoplehavebeenspoiled;itwasbetterinthetime，ofthemasters。”

Theseevilsareveryreal，andIhavenodesiretoextenuatethem，butIbelievetheyarebynomeanssogreatasiscommonly，supposed。Ifthelazy，worthlessmembersoftheCommunehadreally，thedirectionofCommunalaffairsweshouldfindthatinthe，NorthernAgriculturalZone，whereitisnecessarytomanurethe，soil，theperiodicalredistributionsoftheCommunallandwouldbe，veryfrequent;forinanewdistributionthelazypeasanthasa，goodchanceofgettingawell-manuredlotinexchangeforthelot，whichhehasexhausted。Inreality，sofarasmyobservations，extend，thesegeneraldistributionsofthelandarenotmore，frequentthantheywerebefore。

Ofthevariousfunctionsofthepeasantself-governmentthe，judicialareperhapsthemostfrequentlyandthemostseverely，criticised。Andcertainlynotwithoutreason，fortheVolost，Courtsaretoooftenaccessibletotheinfluenceofalcohol，andin，somedistrictsthepeasantssaythathewhobecomesajudgetakesa，sinonhissoul。Iamnotatallsure，however，thatitwouldbe，welltoabolishthesecourtsaltogether，assomepeoplepropose。

Inmanyrespectstheyarebettersuitedtopeasantrequirements，thantheordinarytribunals。Theirprocedureisinfinitely，simpler，moreexpeditious，andincomparablylessexpensive，and，theyareguidedbytraditionalcustomandplaincommon-sense，whereastheordinarytribunalshavetojudgeaccordingtothecivil，law，whichisunknowntothepeasantryandnotalwaysapplicableto，theiraffairs。

Fewordinaryjudgeshaveasufficientlyintimateknowledgeofthe，minutedetailsofpeasantlifetobeabletodecidefairlythe，casesthatarebroughtbeforetheVolostCourts;andevenifa，Justicehadsufficientknowledgehecouldnotadoptthemoraland，juridicalnotionsofthepeasantry。Theseareoftenverydifferent，fromthoseoftheupperclasses。Incasesofmatrimonial，separation，forinstance，theeducatedmannaturallyassumesthat，ifthereisanyquestionofaliment，itshouldbepaidbythe，husbandtothewife。Thepeasant，onthecontrary，assumesas，naturallythatitshouldbepaidbythewifetothehusband——or，rathertotheHeadoftheHousehold——asacompensationfortheloss，oflabourwhichherdesertioninvolves。Inlikemanner，according，totraditionalpeasant-law，ifanunmarriedsonisworkingaway，fromhome，hisearningsdonotbelongtohimself，buttothe，family，andinVolostCourttheycouldbeclaimedbytheHeadof，theHousehold。

Occasionally，itistrue，thepeasantjudgesallowtheirrespect，foroldtraditionalconceptionsingeneralandfortheauthorityof，parentsinparticular，tocarrythemalittletoofar。Iwastold，latelyofoneaffairwhichtookplacenotlongago，withina，hundredmilesofMoscow，inwhichthejudgedecidedthata，respectableyoungpeasantshouldbefloggedbecauseherefusedto，givehisfatherthemoneyheearnedasgroomintheserviceofa，neighbouringproprietor，thoughitwasnotoriousinthedistrict，thatthefatherwasadisreputableolddrunkardwhocarriedtothe，kabak(gin-shop)allthemoneyhecouldobtainbyfairmeansand，foul。WhenIremarkedtomyinformant，whowasnotanadmirerof，peasantinstitutions，thattheincidentremindedmeoftherespect，forthepatriapotestasinoldRomantimes，hestaredatmewitha，lookofsurpriseandindignation，andexclaimedlaconically，“Patriapotestas？……Vodka！”Hewasevidentlyconvincedthat，thedisreputablefatherhadgothisrespectablesonfloggedby，“treating“thejudges。Insuchcasesfloggingcannolongerbe，used，fortheVolostCourts，aswehaveseen，wererecently，deprivedoftherighttoinflictcorporalpunishment。

Theseadministrativeandjudicialabusesgraduallyreachedtheears，oftheGovernment，andin1889itattemptedtoremovethemby，creatingabodyofRuralSupervisors(ZemskiyeNatchalniki)。Under，theirsupervisionandcontrolsomeabusesmayhavebeen，occasionallypreventedorcorrected，andsomerascallyVolost，secretariesmayhavebeenpunishedordismissed，butthepeasant，self-governmentasawholehasnotbeenperceptiblyimproved。

Letusglancenowattheopinionsofthosewhoholdthatthe，materialprogressofthepeasantryispreventedchiefly，notbythe，mereabusesoftheCommunaladministration，butbytheessential，principlesoftheCommunalinstitutions，andespeciallybythe，practiceofperiodicallyredistributingtheCommunalland。From，thetheoreticalpointofviewthisquestionisoneofgreat，interest，anditmayacquireinthefutureanimmensepractical，significance;butforthepresentithasnot，inmyopinion，the，importancewhichisusuallyattributedtoit。Therecanbeno，doubtthatitismuchmoredifficulttofarmwellonalargenumber，ofnarrowstripsofland，manyofwhichareatagreatdistance，fromthefarmyard，thanonacompactpieceoflandwhichthefarmer，maydivideandcultivateashepleases;andtherecanbeaslittle，doubtthatthehusbandmanismorelikelytoimprovehislandifhis，tenureissecure。Allthisandmuchmoreofthesamekindmustbe，acceptedasindisputabletruth，butithaslittledirectbearingon，thepracticalquestionunderconsideration。Wearenotconsidering，intheabstractwhetheritwouldbebetterthatthepeasantshould，beafarmerwithabundantcapitalandallthemodernscientific，appliances，butsimplythepracticalquestion，Whatarethe，obstructionswhichatpresentpreventthepeasantfromameliorating，hisactualcondition？

ThattheCommunepreventsitsmembersfromadoptingvarioussystems，ofhighfarmingisasuppositionwhichscarcelyrequiresserious，consideration。Thepeasantsdonotyetthinkofanysuchradical，innovations;andiftheydid，theyhaveneithertheknowledgenor，thecapitalnecessarytoeffectthem。Inmanyvillagesafewof，thericherandmoreintelligentpeasantshaveboughtlandoutside，oftheCommuneandcultivateitastheyplease，freefromall，Communalrestraints;andIhavealwaysfoundthattheycultivate，thispropertypreciselyinthesamewayastheirshareofthe，Communalland。Astominorchanges，weknowbyexperiencethatthe，Miropposestothemnoseriousobstacles。

Thecultivationofbeetfortheproductionofsugarhasgreatly，increasedinthecentralandsouthwesternprovinces，andflaxis，nowlargelyproducedinCommunesinnortherndistrictswhereitwas，formerlycultivatedmerelyfordomesticuse。TheCommunalsystem，is，infact，extremelyelastic，andmaybemodifiedassoonasthe，majorityofthemembersconsidermodificationsprofitable。When，thepeasantsbegintothinkofpermanentimprovements，suchas，drainage，irrigation，andthelike，theywillfindtheCommunal，institutionsahelpratherthananobstruction;forsuch，improvements，ifundertakenatall，mustbeundertakenonalarger，scale，andtheMirisanalreadyexistingassociation。Theonly，permanentimprovementswhichcanbeforthepresentprofitably，undertakenconsistinthereclaimingofwasteland;andsuch，improvementsarealreadysometimesattempted。Iknowatleastof，onecaseinwhichaCommuneintheprovinceofYaroslavlhas，reclaimedaconsiderabletractofwastelandbymeansofhired，labourers。NordoestheMirpreventinthisrespectindividual，initiative。InmanyCommunesofthenorthernprovincesitisa，receivedprincipleofcustomarylawthatifanymemberreclaims，wastelandheisallowedtoretainpossessionofitforanumberof，yearsproportionatetotheamountoflabourexpended。

ButdoesnottheCommune，asitexists，preventgoodcultivation，accordingtothemodeofagricultureactuallyinuse？

Exceptinthefarnorthandthestepperegion，wherethe，agricultureisofapeculiarkind，adaptedtothelocalconditions，thepeasantsinvariablytilltheirlandaccordingtotheordinary，three-fieldsystem，inwhichgoodcultivationmeans，practically，speaking，theplentifuluseofmanure。Does，then，theexistence，oftheMirpreventthepeasantsfrommanuringtheirfieldswell？

Manypeoplewhospeakonthissubjectinanauthoritativetoneseem，toimaginethatthepeasantsingeneraldonotmanuretheirfields，atall。Thisideaisanuttermistake。Inthoseregions，itis，true，wheretherichblacksoilstillretainsalargepartofits，virginfertility，themanureisusedasfuel，orsimplythrown，away，becausethepeasantsbelievethatitwouldnotbeprofitable，toputitontheirfields，andtheirconvictionis，atleastto，someextent，wellfounded;*butintheNorthernAgriculturalZone，whereunmanuredsoilgivesalmostnoharvest，thepeasantsputupon，theirfieldsallthemanuretheypossess。Iftheydonotput，enoughitissimplybecausetheyhavenotsufficientlivestock。

*Asrecentlyastwoyearsago(1903)Ifoundthatoneofthemost，intelligentandenergeticlandlordsoftheprovinceofVoronezh，followedinthisrespecttheexampleofthepeasants，andhe，assuredmethathehadprovedbyexperiencetheadvantageofdoing，so。

Itisonlyinthesouthernprovinces，wherenomanureisrequired，thatperiodicalre-distributionstakeplacefrequently。Aswe，travelnorthwardwefindthetermlengthens;andintheNorthern，AgriculturalZone，wheremanureisindispensable，generalre-

distributionsareextremelyrare。IntheprovinceofYaroslavl，forexample，theCommunallandisgenerallydividedintotwoparts：

themanuredlandlyingnearthevillage，andtheunmanuredland，lyingbeyond。Thelatteraloneissubjecttofrequentre-

distribution。Ontheformertheexistingtenuresarerarely，disturbed，andwhenitbecomesnecessarytogiveasharetoanew，household，thechangeiseffectedwiththeleastpossibleprejudice，tovestedrights。

ThepolicyoftheGovernmenthasalwaysbeentoadmit，redistributionsinprinciple，buttopreventtheirtoofrequent，recurrence。ForthispurposetheEmancipationLawstipulatedthat，theycouldbedecreedonlybyathree-fourthsmajorityofthe，VillageAssembly，andin1893afurtherobstaclewascreatedbya，lawprovidingthattheminimumtermbetweentwore-distributions，shouldbetwelveyears，andthattheyshouldneverbeundertaken，withoutthesanctionoftheRuralSupervisor。

AcertainnumberofCommuneshavemadetheexperimentof，transformingtheCommunaltenureintohereditaryallotments，and，itsonlyvisibleeffecthasbeenthattheallotmentsaccumulatein，thehandsofthericherandmoreenterprisingpeasants，andthe，poorermembersoftheCommunebecomelandless，whiletheprimitive，systemofagricultureremainsunimproved。

UptothispointIhavedealtwiththeso-calledcausesofpeasant，impoverishmentwhicharemuchtalkedof，butwhichare，inmy，opinion，onlyofsecondaryimportance。Ipassnowtothosewhich，aremoretangibleandwhichhaveexertedontheconditionofthe，peasantryamorepalpableinfluence。And，first，inordinate，taxation。

Thisisaverybigsubject，onwhichabulkyvolumemightbe，written，butIshallcutitveryshort，becauseIknowthatthe，ordinaryreaderdoesnotliketobebotheredwithvoluminous，financialstatistics。Briefly，then，thepeasanthastopaythree，kindsofdirecttaxation：ImperialtotheCentralGovernment，local，totheZemstvo，andCommunetotheMirandtheVolost;andbesides，thesehehastopayayearlysumfortheredemptionoftheland-

allotmentwhichhereceivedatthetimeoftheEmancipation。Taken，together，theseformaheavyburden，butfortenortwelveyears，theemancipatedpeasantryboreitpatiently，withoutfallingvery，deeplyintoarrears。Thenbegantoappearsymptomsofdistress，especiallyintheprovinceswithapoorsoil，andin1872the，GovernmentappointedaCommissionofInquiry，inwhichIhadthe，privilegeoftakingpartunofficially。Theinquiryshowedthat，somethingoughttobedone，butatthatmomenttheGovernmentwas，sobusywithadministrativereformsandwithtryingtodevelop，industryandcommercethatithadlittletimetodevotetostudying，andimprovingtheeconomicpositionofthesilent，long-suffering，muzhik。Itwasnottillnearlytenyearslater，whenthe，Governmentbegantofeelthepinchoftheever-increasingarrears，thatitrecognisedthenecessityofrelievingtheruralpopulation。

Forthispurposeitabolishedthesalt-taxandthepoll-taxand，repeatedlylessenedtheburdenoftheredemption-payments。Ata，laterperiod(1899)itaffordedfurtherreliefbyanimportant，reforminthemodeofcollectingthedirecttaxes。Fromthe，police，whooftenruinedpeasanthouseholdersbyapplyingdistraint，indiscriminately，thecollectionoftaxeswastransferredto，specialauthoritieswhotookintoconsiderationthetemporary，pecuniaryembarrassmentsofthetax-payers。Anotherbenefit，conferredonthepeasantrybythisreformisthatanindividual，memberoftheCommuneisnolongerresponsibleforthefiscal，obligationsoftheCommuneasawhole。

Sincethesealleviationshavebeengrantedtheannualtotal，demandedfromthepeasantryfordirecttaxationandland-redemption，paymentsis173millionroubles，andtheaverageannualsumtobe，paidbyeachpeasanthouseholdvaries，accordingtothelocality，from111/2to20roubles(21s。6d。to40s。)。Inadditiontothis，annuitythereisaheavyburdenofaccumulatedarrears，especially，inthecentralandeasternprovinces，whichamountedin1899to143

millions。OftheindirecttaxesIcansaynothingdefinite，becauseitisimpossibletocalculate，evenapproximately，the，shareofthemwhichfallsontheruralpopulation，buttheymust，notbeleftoutofaccount。DuringthetenyearsofM。Witte’s，termofofficetherevenueoftheImperialTreasurywasnearly，doubled，andthoughtheincreasewasduepartlytoimprovementsin，thefinancialadministration，wecanhardlybelievethatthe，peasantrydidnotinsomemeasurecontributetoit。Inanycase，itisverydifficult，ifnotimpossible，forthem，underactual，conditions，toimprovetheireconomicposition。Onthatpointall，Russianeconomistsareagreed。Oneofthemostcompetentand，sober-mindedofthem，M。Schwanebach，calculatesthattheheadofa，peasanthousehold，afterdeductingthegrainrequiredtofeedhis，family，hastopayintotheImperialTreasury，accordingtothe，districtinwhichheresides，from25to100percent，ofhis，agriculturalrevenue。Ifthatingeniouscalculationiseven，approximatelycorrect，wemustconcludethatfurtherfinancial，reformsareurgentlyrequired，especiallyinthoseprovinceswhere，thepopulationliveexclusivelybyagriculture。

Heavyastheburdenoftaxationundoubtedlyis，itmightperhapsbe，bornewithoutveryseriousinconvenienceifthepeasantfamilies，couldutiliseproductivelyalltheirtimeandstrength。

Unfortunatelyintheexistingeconomicorganisationagreatdealof，theirtimeandenergyisnecessarilywasted。Theireconomiclife，wasradicallydislocatedbytheEmancipation，andtheyhavenotyet，succeededinreorganisingitaccordingtothenewconditions。

Inthetimeofserfageanestateformed，fromtheeconomicpointof，view，aco-operativeagriculturalassociation，underamanagerwho，possessedunlimitedauthority，andsometimesabusedit，butwhowas，generallyworldly-wiseenoughtounderstandthattheprosperityof，thewholerequiredtheprosperityofthecomponentparts。Bythe，abolitionofserfagetheassociationwasdissolvedandliquidated，andthestrong，compactwholefellintoaheapofindependent，units，withseparateandoftenmutuallyhostileinterests。Someof，thedisadvantagesofthischangeforthepeasantryIhavealready，enumeratedabove。ThemostimportantIhavenowtomention。In，virtueoftheEmancipationLaweachfamilyreceivedanamountof，landwhichtemptedittocontinuefarmingonitsownaccount，but，whichdidnotenableittoearnalivingandpayitsratesand，taxes。Thepeasantthusbecameakindofamphibiouscreature——half，farmerandhalfsomethingelse——cultivatinghisallotmentfora，portionofhisdailybread，andobligedtohavesomeother，occupationwherewithtocovertheinevitabledeficitinhis，domesticbudget。Ifhewasfortunateenoughtofindnearhishome，abitoflandtobeletatareasonablerent，hemightcultivateit，inadditiontohisownandtherebygainalivelihood;butifhehad，notthegoodlucktofindsuchapieceoflandintheimmediate，neighbourhood，hehadtolookforsomesubsidiaryoccupationin，whichtoemployhisleisuretime;andwherewassuchoccupationto，befoundinanordinaryRussianvillage？，Informeryearshemight，haveemployedhimselfperhapsincartingtheproprietor’sgrainto，distantmarketsorstillmoredistantseaports，butthatmeansof，makingalittlemoneyhasbeendestroyedbytheextensionof，railways。Practically，then，heisnowobligedtochoosebetween，twoalternatives：eithertofarmhisallotmentandspendagreat，partoftheyearinidleness，ortoleavethecultivationofhis，allotmenttohiswifeandchildrenandtoseekemployment，elsewhere——oftenatsuchadistancethathisearningshardlycover，theexpensesofthejourney。Ineithercasemuchtimeandenergy，arewasted。

Theevilresultsofthisstateofthingswereintensifiedby，anotherchangewhichwasbroughtaboutbytheEmancipation。Inthe，timeofserfagethepeasantfamilies，asIhavealreadyremarked，wereusuallyverylarge。Theyremainedundivided，partlyfromthe，influenceofpatriarchalconceptions，butchieflybecausethe，proprietors，recognisingtheadvantageoflargeunits，prevented，themfrombreakingup。Assoonastheproprietor’sauthoritywas，removed，theprocessofdisintegrationbeganandspreadrapidly。

Everyonewishedtobeindependent，andinaveryshorttimenearly，everyable-bodiedmarriedpeasanthadahouseofhisown。The，economicconsequencesweredisastrous。Alargeamountofmoneyhad，tobeexpendedinconstructingnewhousesandfarmsteadings;and，theoldhabitofonemalememberremainingathometocultivatethe，landallotmentwiththefemalemembersofthefamilywhilstthe，otherswenttoearnwageselsewherehadtobeabandoned。Many，largefamilies，whichhadbeenprosperousandcomfortable——rich，accordingtopeasantconceptions——dissolvedintothreeorfour，smallones，allonthebrinkofpauperism。

ThelastcauseofpeasantimpoverishmentthatIhavetomentionis，perhapsthemostimportantofall：Imeanthenaturalincreaseof，populationwithoutacorrespondingincreaseinthemeansof，subsistence。SincetheEmancipationin1861thepopulationhas，nearlydoubled，whilsttheamountofCommunallandhasremainedthe，same。Itisnotsurprising，therefore，thatwhentalkingwith，peasantsabouttheiractualcondition，oneconstantlyhearsthe，despairingcry，“Zemlimalo！”(“Thereisnotenoughland“);andone，noticesthatthosewholookalittleaheadaskanxiously：“Whatis，tobecomeofourchildren？，AlreadytheCommunalallotmentistoo，smallforourwants，andthelandoutsideisdoublingandtrebling，inprice！，Whatwillitbeinthefuture？”Atthesametime，nota，fewRussianeconomiststellus——andtheirapprehensionsareshared，byforeignobservers——thatmillionsofpeasantsareindangerof，starvationinthenearfuture。

Mustwe，then，acceptforRussiatheMalthusdoctrinethat，populationincreasesmorerapidlythanthemeansofsubsistence，andthatstarvationcanbeavoidedonlybyplague，pestilence，war，andotherdestructiveforces？，Ithinknot。Itisquitetruethat，iftheamountoflandactuallypossessedbythepeasantryandthe，presentsystemofcultivatingitremainedunchanged，semi-

starvationwouldbetheinevitableresultwithinacomparatively，shortspaceoftime;butthedangercanbeaverted，andtheproper，remediesarenotfartoseek。IfRussiaissufferingfromover-

population，itmustbeherownfault，forsheis，withthe，exceptionofNorwayandSweden，themostthinlypopulatedcountry，inEurope，andshehasmorethanhershareoffertilesoiland，mineralresources。

Aglanceatthemapshowingthedensityofpopulationinthe，variousprovincessuggestsanobviousremedy，andIamhappytosay，itisalreadybeingapplied。Thepopulationofthecongested，districtsofthecentreisgraduallyspreadingout，likeadropof，oilonasheetofsoftpaper，towardsthemorethinlypopulated，regionsofthesouthandeast。Inthiswaythevastregion，containingmillionsandmillionsofacreswhichliestothenorth，oftheBlackSea，theCaucasus，theCaspian，andCentralAsiais，yearlybecomingmoredenselypeopled，andagricultureissteadily，encroachingonthepastoralarea。Breedersofsheepandcattle，whoformerlylivedandthroveinthewesternportionofthatgreat，expanse，arebeingpushedeastwardsbytherapidincreaseinthe，valueofland，andtheirplaceisbeingtakenbyenterprising，tillersofthesoil。Furthernorthanotherstreamofemigrationis，flowingintoCentralSiberia。Itdoesnotflowsorapidly，because，inthatpartoftheEmpire，unlikethebare，fertilesteppesofthe，south，thelandhastobeclearedbeforetheseedcanbesown，and，thepioneercolonistshavetoworkhardforayearortwobefore，theygetanyreturnfortheirlabour;buttheGovernmentand，privatesocietiescometotheirassistance，andforthelasttwenty，yearstheirnumbershavebeensteadilyincreasing。Duringtheten，years1886-96theannualcontingentrosefrom25，000to200，000，andthetotalnumberamountedtonearly800，000。Forthe，subsequentperiodIhavenotbeenabletoobtaintheofficial，statistics，butafriendwhohasaccesstotheofficialsourcesof，informationonthissubjectassuresmethatduringthelasttwelve，yearsaboutfourmillionsofpeasantsfromEuropeanRussiahave，beensuccessfullysettledinSiberia。

EvenintheEuropeanportionoftheEmpiremillionsofacreswhich，areatpresentunproductivemightbeutilised。Anyonewhohas，travelledbyrailfromBerlintoSt。Petersburgmusthavenoticed，howthelandscapesuddenlychangesitscharacterassoonashehas，crossedthefrontier。Leavingaprosperousagriculturalcountry，hetraversesformanywearyhoursaregioninwhichthereishardly，asignofhumanhabitation，thoughthesoilandclimateofthat，regionresemblescloselythesoilandclimateofEastPrussia。The，differenceliesintheamountoflabourandcapitalexpended。

AccordingtoofficialstatisticstheareaofEuropeanRussia，contains，roughlyspeaking，406millionsofdessyatins，ofwhich78

millions，or19percent。areclassifiedasneudobniya，unfitfor，cultivation;157millions，or39percent。asforest;106

millions，or26percent。asarableland;and65millions，or16

percent。aspasturage。Thusthearableandpasturelandcompose，only42percent。orconsiderablylessthanhalfthearea。

Ofthelandclassedasunfitforcultivation——19percent。ofthe，whole——alargeportion，includingtheperenniallyfrozentundriof，thefarnorth，musteverremainunproductive，butinlatitudeswith，amilderclimatethiscategoryoflandisforthemostpart，ordinarymorassorswamp，whichcanbetransformedintopasturage，orevenintoarableland，bydrainageatamoderatecost。Asa，proofofthisstatementImaycitethedrainingofthegreatPinsk，swamps，whichwasbegunbytheGovernmentin1872。Ifwemaytrust，anofficialreportoftheprogressoftheworksin1897，anareaof，2，855，000dessyatins(morethansevenandahalfmillionacres)had，beendrainedatanaveragecostofaboutthreeshillingsanacre，andthepriceoflandhadrisenfromfourtotwenty-eightroubles，perdessyatin。

Reclamationofmarshesmightbeundertakenelsewhereonamuchmore，moderatescale。Theobservanttravelleronthehighwaysandbyways，ofthenorthernprovincesmusthavenoticedonthebanksofalmost，everystreammanyacresofmarshylandproducingmerelyreedsor，coarserankgrassthatnowell-brought-upanimalwouldlookat。

Withalittleelementaryknowledgeofengineeringandthe，expenditureofamoderateamountofmanuallabourthesemarshes，mightbeconvertedintoexcellentpastureorevenintohighly，productivekitchen-gardens;butthepeasantshavenotyetlearned，totakeadvantageofsuchopportunities，andthereformers，who，dealonlyinlargeprojectsandscientificpanaceasforthecureof，impoverishment，considersuchtriflesasunworthyoftheir，attention。TheScotchproverbthatifthepenniesbewelllooked，after，thepoundswilllookafterthemselves，containsabitof，homelywisdomtotallyunknowntotheRussianeducatedclasses。

Afterthemorasses，swamps，andmarshescometheforests，constituting39percent。ofthewholearea，andthequestion，naturallyariseswhethersomeportionsofthemmightnotbe，advantageouslytransformedintopasturageorarableland。Inthe，southandeasttheyhavebeendiminishedtosuchanextentasto，affecttheclimateinjuriously，sothattheareaofthemshouldbe，increasedratherthanlessened;butinthenorthernprovincesthe，vastexpansesofforest，coveringmillionsofacres，mightperhaps，becurtailedwithadvantage。Theproprietorsprefer，however，to，keepthemintheirpresentconditionbecausetheygiveamodest，revenuewithoutanyexpenditureofcapital。

Thereinliesthegreatobstacletoland-reclamationinRussia：it，requiresanoutlayofcapital，andcapitalisextremelyscarcein，theEmpireoftheTsars。Untilitbecomesmoreplentiful，thearea，ofarablelandandpasturageisnotlikelytobelargelyincreased，andothermeansofcheckingtheimpoverishmentofthepeasantry，mustbeadopted。

Alessexpensivemeansissuggestedbythestatisticsofforeign，trade。Intheprecedingchapterwehaveseenthatfrom1860to，1900theaverageannualexportofgrainrosesteadilyfromunder1

1/2millionstoover6millionsoftons。Itisevident，therefore，thatinthefoodsupply，sofarfromtherebeingadeficiency，therehasbeenalargeandconstantlyincreasingsurplus。Ifthe，peasantryhavebeenonshortrations，itisnotbecausethe，quantityoffoodproducedhasfallenshortoftherequirementsof，thepopulation，butbecauseithasbeenunequallydistributed。The，truthisthatthelargelandedproprietorsproducemoreandthe，peasantslessthantheyconsume，andithasnaturallyoccurredto，manypeoplethatthepresentstateofthingsmightbeimprovedifa，portionofthearablelandpassed，withoutanysocialistic，revolutionarymeasures，fromtheoneclasstotheother。This，operationbeganspontaneouslysoonaftertheEmancipation。Well-

to-dopeasantswhohadsavedalittlemoneyboughtfromthe，proprietorsbitsoflandneartheirvillagesandcultivatedthemin，additiontotheirallotments。Atfirstthisextensionofpeasant，landwasconfinedwithinverynarrowlimits，becausethepeasants，hadverylittlecapitalattheirdisposal，butin1882the，GovernmentcametotheiraidbycreatingthePeasantLandBank，the，objectofwhichwastoadvancemoneytopurchasersofthepeasant，classonthesecurityofthelandpurchased，attherateof71/2

percent。includingsinkingfund。*，Fromthatmomentthepurchases，increasedrapidly。Theyweremadebyindividualpeasants，byrural，Communes，and，mostofall，bysmallvoluntaryassociations，composedofthree，four，ormoremembers。Inthecourseoftwenty，years(1883-1903)theBankmade47，791advances，andinthisway，werepurchasedabouteighteenmillionacres。Thissoundsavery，bigacquisition，butitwillnotdomuchtorelievethepressureon，thepeasantryasawhole，becauseitaddsonlyabout6percent。to，theamounttheyalreadypossessedinvirtueoftheEmancipation，Law。

*Thisarrangementextinguishesthedebtin341/2years;an，additional1percent，extinguishesitin241/2years。Byrecent，legislationotherarrangementsarepermitted。

Nearlyallofthislandpurchasedbythepeasantrycomesdirectly，orindirectlyfromtheNoblesse，andmuchmorewilldoubtlesspass，fromtheoneclasstotheotheriftheGovernmentcontinuesto，encouragetheoperation;butalreadysymptomsofachangeofpolicy，areapparent。Inthehigherofficialregionsitiswhisperedthat，theexistingpolicyisobjectionablefromthepoliticalpointof，view，andonesometimeshearsthequestionasked：Isitrightand，desirablethattheNoblesse，whohaveeverdonetheirdutyin，servingfaithfullytheTsarandFatherland，andwhohaveeverbeen，therepresentativesofcivilisationandcultureinRussiancountry，life，shouldbegraduallyexpropriatedinfavourofotherandless，cultivatedsocialclasses？，Notafewinfluentialpersonagesareof，opinionthatsuchachangeisunjustandundesirable，andthey，arguethatitisnotadvantageoustothepeasantsthemselves，becausethepriceoflandhasrisenmuchmorethantherents。It，isnotatalluncommon，forexample，tofindthatlandcanbe，rentedatfiveroublesperdessyatin，whereasitcannotbebought，under200roubles。Inthatcasethepeasantcanenjoytheuseof，thelandatthemoderaterateof21/2percent。ofthecapital，value，whereasbypurchasingthelandwiththeassistanceofthe，bankhewouldhavetopay，withoutsinkingfund，morethandouble，thatrate。Themuzhik，however，preferstobeowneroftheland，evenataconsiderablesacrifice。Whenhecanbeinducedtogive，hisreasons，theyareusuallyformulatedthus：“WithmyownlandI

candoasIlike;ifIhirelandfromtheneighbouringproprietor，whoknowswhether，attheendoftheterm，hemaynotraisethe，rentorrefusetorenewthecontractatanyprice？”

EveniftheGovernmentshouldcontinuetoencouragethepurchaseof，landbythepeasantry，theprocessistooslowtomeetallthe，requirementsofthesituation。Someadditionalexpedientmustbe，found，andwenaturallylookforitintheexperienceofolder，countrieswithadenserpopulation。

InthemoredenselypopulatedcountriesofWesternEuropeasafety-

valvefortheinordinateincreaseoftheruralpopulationhasbeen，providedbythedevelopmentofmanufacturingindustry。Highwages，andtheattractionsoftownlifedrawtheruralpopulationtothe，industrialcentres，andthemovementhasincreasedtosuchan，extentthatalreadycomplaintsareheardoftheruraldistricts，becomingdepopulated。InRussiaasimilarmovementistakingplace，onasmallerscale。Duringthelastfortyyears，underthe，fosteringinfluenceofaprotectivetariff，themanufacturing，industryhasmadegiganticstrides，asweshallseeinafuture，chapter，andithasalreadyabsorbedabouttwomillionsofthe，redundanthandsinthevillages;butitcannotkeeppacewiththe，rapidincreasingsurplus。Twomillionsarelessthantwopercent。

ofthepopulation。Thegreatmassofthepeoplehasalwaysbeen，andmustlongcontinuetobe，purelyagricultural;anditisto，theirfieldsthattheymustlookforthemeansofsubsistence。If，thefieldsdonotsupplyenoughfortheirsupportunderthe，existingprimitivemethodsofcultivation，bettermethodsmustbe，adopted。Touseafavouritesemi-scientificphrase，Russiahasnow，reachedthepointinhereconomicdevelopmentatwhichshemust，abandonhertraditionalextensivesystemofagricultureandadopta，moreintensivesystem。Sofarallcompetentauthoritiesare，agreed。Buthowisthetransition，whichrequirestechnical，knowledge，aspiritofenterprise，anenormouscapital，andadozen，otherthingswhichthepeasantrydonotatpresentpossess，tobe，effected？，Herebeginthewell-markeddifferencesofopinion。

Hithertothemomentousproblemhasbeendealtwithchieflybythe，theoristsanddoctrinaireswhodelightinradicalsolutionsby，meansofpanaceas，andwhohavelittletastefordetailedlocal，investigationandgradualimprovement。Idonotrefertotheso-

called“SavioursoftheFatherland“(SpasiteliOtetchestva)，well-

meaningcranksandvisionarieswhodiscoveringeniousdevicesfor，makingtheirnativecountryatonceprosperousandhappy。Ispeak，ofthegreatmajorityofreasonable，educatedmenwhodevotesome，attentiontotheproblem。Theirfavouritemethodofdealingwith，itisthis：Theintensivesystemofagriculturerequiresscientific，knowledgeandahigherlevelofintellectualculture。Whathasto，bedone，therefore，istocreateagriculturalcollegessupplied，withallthenewestappliancesofagronomicresearchandtoeducate，thepeasantrytosuchanextentthattheymaybeabletousethe，meanswhichsciencerecommends。

FormanyyearsthisdoctrineprevailedinthePress，amongthe，readingpublic，andevenintheofficialworld。TheGovernmentwas，accordinglyurgedtoimproveandmultiplytheagronomiccolleges，andtheschoolsofallgradesanddescriptions。Learned，dissertationswerepublishedonthechemicalconstitutionofthe，varioussoils，theactionoftheatmosphereonthedifferent，ingredients，thenecessityofmakingcarefulmeteorological，observations，andnumerousothertopicsofasimilarkind;and，would-bereformerswhohadnotasteforsuchhighlytechnical，researchescouldconsolethemselveswiththeideathattheywere，advancingthevitalinterestsofthecountrybydiscussingthe，relativemeritsofCommunalandpersonalland-tenure——deciding，generallyinfavouroftheformerasmoreinaccordancewiththe，peculiaritiesofRussian，ascontrastedwithWestEuropean，principlesofeconomicandsocialdevelopment。

Whilemuchvaluabletimeandenergywerethusbeingexpendedto，littlepurpose，ontheassumptionthattheoldsystemmightbeleft，untoucheduntilthepreparationsforaradicalsolutionhadbeen，completed，disagreeablefactswhichcouldnotbeentirely，overlookedgraduallyproducedininfluentialquartersthe，convictionthatthequestionwasmuchmoreurgentthanwascommonly，supposed。AsensitivechordintheheartoftheGovernmentwas，struckbythesteadilyincreasingarrearsoftaxation，and，spasmodicattemptshavesincebeenmadetocuretheevil。

Inthelocaladministration，too，theurgencyofthequestionhas，cometoberecognised，andmeasuresarenowbeingtakenbythe，Zemstvotohelpthepeasantryinmakinggraduallythetransitionto，thathighersystemofagriculturewhichistheonlymeansof，permanentlysavingthemfromstarvation。Forthispurpose，inmany，districtswell-trainedspecialistshavebeenappointedtostudythe，localconditionsandtorecommendtothevillagerssuchsimple，improvementsasarewithintheirmeans。Theseimprovementsmaybe，classifiedunderthefollowingheads：

(1)Increaseofthecerealcropsbybetterseedandimproved，implements。

(2)Changeintherotationofcropsbytheintroductionofcertain，grassesandrootswhichimprovethesoilandsupplyfoodforlive，stock。

(3)Improvementandincreaseoflivestock，soastogetmore，labour-power，moremanure，moredairy-produce，andmoremeat。

(4)Increasedcultivationofvegetablesandfruit。

WiththeseobjectsinviewtheZemstvoisestablishingdepotsin，whichimprovedimplementsandbetterseedaresoldatmoderate，prices，andthepaymentsaremadeininstallments，sothateventhe，poorermembersofthecommunitycantakeadvantageofthe，facilitiesoffered。Bullsandstallionsarekeptatcentralpoints，forthepurposeofimprovingthebreedofcattleandhorses，and，thegoodresultsarealreadyvisible。Elementaryinstructionin，farmingandgardeningisbeingintroducedintotheprimaryschools。

InsomedistrictstheexertionsoftheZemstvoaresupplementedby，smallagriculturalsocieties，mutualcreditassociations，and，villagebanks，andthesearetosomeextentassistedbytheCentral，Government。Butthebeneficentactioninthisdirectionisnotall，official。Manyproprietorsdeservegreatpraiseforthegood，influencewhichtheyexerciseonthepeasantsoftheir，neighbourhoodandtheassistancetheygivethem;anditmustbe，admittedthattheirpatienceisoftensorelytried，forthe，peasantshavetheobstinacyofignorance，andpossessother，qualitieswhicharenotsympathetic。Iknowoneexcellent，proprietorwhobeganhiscivilisingeffortsbygivingtotheMirof，thenearestvillageanironploughasamodelandafinepedigree，ramasaproducer，andwhofound，onreturningfromatourabroad，thatduringhisabsencetheploughhadbeensoldforvodka，andthe，pedigreeramhadbeeneatenbeforeithadtimetoproduceany，descendants！，Inspiteofthishecontinueshisefforts，andnot，altogetherwithoutsuccess。

Itneedhardlybesaidthattheprogressofthepeasantryisnotso，rapidascouldbewished。Themuzhikisnaturallyconservative，andiseverinclinedtoregardnoveltieswithsuspicion。Evenwhen，heishalfconvincedoftheutilityofsomechange，hehasstillto，thinkaboutitforalongtimeandtalkitoveragainandagain，withhisfriendsandneighbours，andthispreparatorystageof，progressmaylastforyears。Unlesshehappenstobeamanof，unusualintelligenceandenergy，itisonlywhenheseeswithhis，owneyesthatsomehumbleindividualofhisownconditioninlife，hasactuallygainedbyabandoningtheoldroutineandtakingtonew，courses，thathemakesuphismindtotaketheplungehimself。

Still，heisbeginningtojogon。Epursimuove！，Aspiritof，progressisbeginningtomoveonthefaceofthelong-stagnant，waters，andprogressoncebegunisprettysuretocontinuewith，increasingrapidity。Withstarvationhoveringintherear，even，themostconservativearenotlikelytostoporturnback。

CHAPTERXXXII

THEZEMSTVOANDTHELOCALSELF-GOVERNMENT

NecessityofReorganisingtheProvincialAdministration——Zemstvo，Createdin1864——MyFirstAcquaintancewiththeInstitution——

DistrictandProvincialAssemblies——TheLeadingMembers——Great，ExpectationsCreatedbytheInstitution——TheseExpectationsNot，Realised——SuspicionsandHostilityoftheBureaucracy——Zemstvo，BroughtMoreUnderControloftheCentralisedAdministration——What，ItHasReallyDone——WhyItHasNotDoneMore——RapidIncreaseof，theRates——HowFartheExpenditureIsJudicious——Whythe，ImpoverishmentofthePeasantryWasNeglected——Unpractical，PedanticSpirit——EvilConsequences——ChineseandRussianFormalism——

LocalSelf-GovernmentofRussiaContrastedwithThatofEngland——

ZemstvoBetterthanItsPredecessors——ItsFuture。

Aftertheemancipationoftheserfsthereformmosturgently，requiredwastheimprovementoftheprovincialadministration。In，thetimeofserfagetheEmperorNicholas，referringtothelanded，proprietors，usedtosayinajoculartonethathehadinhis，Empire50，000mostzealousandefficienthereditarypolice-masters。

BytheEmancipationLawtheauthorityofthesehereditarypolice-

masterswasforeverabolished，anditbecameurgentlynecessaryto，putsomethingelseinitsplace。Peasantself-governmentwas，accordinglyorganisedonthebasisoftheruralCommune;butit，fellfarshortofmeetingtherequirementsofthesituation。Its，largestunitwastheVolost，whichcomprisesmerelyafew，contiguousCommunes，anditsactionisconfinedexclusivelytothe，peasantry。Evidentlyitwasnecessarytocreatealarger，administrativeunit，inwhichtheinterestsofallclassesofthe，populationcouldbeattendedto，andforthispurposeAlexanderII。

inNovember，1859，morethanayearbeforetheEmancipationEdict，instructedaspecialCommissiontoprepareaprojectforgivingto，theinefficient，dislocatedprovincialadministrationgreaterunity，andindependence。Theprojectwasdulyprepared，andafterbeing，discussedintheCouncilofStateitreceivedtheImperialsanction，inJanuary，1864。Itwassupposedtogive，inthewordsofan，explanatorymemorandumattachedtoit，“asfaraspossiblea，completeandlogicaldevelopmenttotheprincipleoflocalself-

government。”，ThuswascreatedtheZemstvo，*whichhasrecently，attractedconsiderableattentioninWesternEurope，andwhichis，destined，perhaps，toplayagreatpoliticalpartinthefuture。

*ThetermZemstvoisderivedfromthewordZemlya，meaningland，andmightbetranslated，ifabarbarismwerepermissible，byLand-

domontheanalogyofKingdom，Dukedom，etc。

Mypersonalacquaintancewiththisinterestinginstitutiondates，from1870。VerysoonaftermyarrivalatNovgorodinthatyear，I

madetheacquaintanceofagentlemanwhowasdescribedtomeas，“thepresidentoftheprovincialZemstvo-bureau，“andfindinghim，amiableandcommunicative，Isuggestedthathemightgivemesome，informationregardingtheinstitutionofwhichhewasthechief，localrepresentative。Withtheutmostreadinessheproposedtobe，myMentor，introducedmetohiscolleagues，andinvitedmetocome，andseehimathisofficeasoftenasIfeltinclined。Ofthis，invitationImadeabundantuse。Atfirstmyvisitswerediscreetly，fewandshort，butwhenIfoundthatmynewfriendandhis，colleaguesreallywishedtoinstructmeinallthedetailsof，Zemstvoadministration，andhadarrangedaspecialtableinthe，president’sroomformyconvenience，Ibecamearegularattendant，andspentdailyseveralhoursinthebureau，studyingthecurrent，affairs，andnotingdowntheinterestingbitsofstatisticaland，otherinformationwhichcamebeforethemembers，asifIhadbeen，oneoftheirnumber。Whentheywenttoinspectthehospital，the，lunaticasylum，theseminaryforthepreparationofvillage，schoolmasters，oranyotherZemstvoinstitution，theyinvariably，invitedmetoaccompanythem，andmadenoattempttoconcealfrom，methedefectswhichtheyhappenedtodiscover。

Imentionallthisbecauseitillustratesthereadinessofmost，Russianstoaffordeverypossiblefacilitytoaforeignerwho，wishesseriouslytostudytheircountry。Theybelievethatthey，havelongbeenmisunderstoodandsystematicallycalumniatedby，foreigners，andtheyareextremelydesirousthattheprevalent，misconceptionsregardingtheircountryshouldberemoved。Itmust，besaidtotheirhonourthattheyhavelittleornoneofthatfalse，patriotismwhichseekstoconcealnationaldefects;andinjudging，themselvesandtheirinstitutionstheyareinclinedtobeover-

severeratherthanundulylenient。InthetimeofNicholasI。

thosewhodesiredtostandwellwiththeGovernmentproclaimed，loudlythattheylivedinthehappiestandbest-governedcountryof，theworld，butthisshallowofficialoptimismhaslongsincegone，outoffashion。DuringalltheyearswhichIspentinRussiaI

foundeverywheretheutmostreadinesstoassistmeinmy，investigations，andveryrarelynoticedthathabitof“throwing，dustintheeyesofforeigners，“ofwhichsomewritershavespoken，somuch。

TheZemstvoisakindoflocaladministrationwhichsupplementsthe，actionoftheruralCommunes，andtakescognizanceofthosehigher，publicwantswhichindividualCommunescannotpossiblysatisfy。

Itsprincipaldutiesaretokeeptheroadsandbridgesinproper，repair，toprovidemeansofconveyancefortheruralpoliceand，otherofficials，tolookafterprimaryeducationandsanitary，affairs，towatchthestateofthecropsandtakemeasuresagainst，approachingfamine，and，inshort，toundertake，withincertain，clearlydefinedlimits，whateverseemslikelytoincreasethe，materialandmoralwell-beingofthepopulation。Informthe，institutionisParliamentary——thatistosay，itconsistsofan，assemblyofdeputieswhichmeetsregularlyonceayear，andofa，permanentexecutivebureauelectedbytheAssemblyfromamongits，members。IftheAssemblyberegardedasalocalParliament，the，bureaucorrespondstotheCabinet。Inaccordancewiththisanalogy，myfriendthepresidentwassometimesjocularlytermedthePrime，Minister。Onceeverythreeyearsthedeputiesareelectedin，certainfixedproportionsbythelandedproprietors，therural，Communes，andthemunicipalcorporations。Everyprovince，(guberniya)andeachofthedistricts(uyezdi)intowhichthe，provinceissubdividedhassuchanassemblyandsuchabureau。

NotlongaftermyarrivalinNovgorodIhadtheopportunityof，beingpresentataDistrictAssembly。Intheball-roomofthe，“ClubdelaNoblesse“Ifoundthirtyorfortymenseatedrounda，longtablecoveredwithgreencloth。Beforeeachmemberlaysheets，ofpaperforthepurposeoftakingnotes，andbeforethepresident——

theMarshalofNoblesseforthedistrict——stoodasmallhand-bell，whichherangvigorouslyatthecommencementoftheproceedingsand，onalltheoccasionswhenhewishedtoobtainsilence。Tothe，rightandleftofthepresidentsatthemembersoftheexecutive，bureau(uprava)，armedwithpilesofwrittenandprinteddocuments，fromwhichtheyreadlongandtediousextracts，tillthemajority，oftheaudiencetooktoyawningandoneortwoofthemembers，positivelywenttosleep。Atthecloseofeachofthesereports，thepresidentranghisbell——presumablyforthepurposeof，awakeningthesleepers——andinquiredwhetheranyonehadremarksto，makeonwhathadjustbeenread。Generallysomeonehadremarksto，make，andnotunfrequentlyadiscussionensued。Whenanydecided，differenceofopinionappearedavotewastakenbyhandingrounda，sheetofpaper，orbythesimplermethodofrequestingtheAyesto，standupandtheNoestositstill。

Whatsurprisedmemostinthisassemblywasthatitwascomposed，partlyofnoblesandpartlyofpeasants——thelatterbeingdecidedly，inthemajority——andthatnotraceofantagonismseemedtoexist，betweenthetwoclasses。Landedproprietorsandtheirci-devant，serfs，emancipatedonlytenyearsbefore，evidentlymetforthe，momentonafootingofequality。Thediscussionswerecarriedon，chieflybythenobles，butonmorethanoneoccasionpeasant，membersrosetospeak，andtheirremarks，alwaysclear，practical，andtothepoint，wereinvariablylistenedtowithrespectful，attention。Insteadofthatviolentantagonismwhichmighthave，beenexpected，consideringtheconstitutionoftheAssembly，there，wastoomuchunanimity——afactindicatingplainlythatthemajority，ofthemembersdidnottakeaverydeepinterestinthematters，presentedtothem。

ThisassemblywasheldinthemonthofSeptember。Atthebeginning，ofDecembertheAssemblyfortheProvincemet，andduringnearly，threeweeksIwasdailypresentatitsdeliberations。Ingeneral，characterandmodeofprocedureitresembledcloselytheDistrict，Assembly。Itschiefpeculiaritieswerethatitsmemberswere，chosen，notbytheprimaryelectors，butbytheassembliesofthe，tendistrictswhichcomposetheprovince，andthatittook，cognisancemerelyofthosematterswhichconcernedmorethanone，district。Besidesthis，thepeasantdeputieswereveryfewin，number——afactwhichsomewhatsurprisedme，becauseIwasaware，that，accordingtothelaw，thepeasantmembersoftheDistrict，Assemblieswereeligible，likethoseoftheotherclasses。The，explanationisthattheDistrictAssemblieschoosetheirmost，activememberstorepresentthemintheProvincialAssemblies，and，consequentlythechoicegenerallyfallsonlandedproprietors。To，thisarrangementthepeasantsmakenoobjection，forattendanceat，theProvincialAssembliesdemandsaconsiderablepecuniaryoutlay，andpaymenttothedeputiesisexpresslyprohibitedbylaw，Togivethereaderanideaoftheelementscomposingthisassembly，letmeintroducehimtoafewofthemembers。Aconsiderable，sectionofthemmaybedescribedinasinglesentence。Theyare，commonplacemen，whohavespentpartoftheiryouthinthepublic，serviceasofficersinthearmy，orofficialsinthecivil，administration，andhavesinceretiredtotheirestates，wherethey，gainamodestcompetencebyfarming。Someofthemaddtotheir，agriculturalrevenuebyactingasjusticesofthepeace。*，Afew，maybedescribedmoreparticularly。

*Thatisnolongerpossible。Theinstitutionofjusticeselected，andpaidbytheZemstvowasabolishedin1889。

Youseethere，forinstance，thatfine-lookingoldgeneralin，uniform，withtheSt。George’sCrossathisbutton-hole——anorder，givenonlyforbraveryinthefield。ThatisPrinceSuvorof，a，grandsonofthefamousgeneral。Hehasfilledhighpostsinthe，Administrationwithoutevertarnishinghisnamebyadishonestor，dishonourableaction，andhasspentagreatpartofhislifeat，Courtwithoutceasingtobefrank，generous，andtruthful。Though，hehasnointimateknowledgeofcurrentaffairs，andsometimes，giveswayalittletodrowsiness，hissympathiesindisputedpoints，arealwaysontherightside，andwhenhegetstohisfeethe，alwaysspeaksinaclearsoldierlikefashion。

Thetallgauntman，somewhatovermiddleage，whositsalittleto，theleftisPrinceVassiltchikof。Hetoo，hasanhistoricname，buthecherishesaboveallthingspersonalindependence，andhas，consequentlyalwayskeptalooffromtheImperialAdministrationand，theCourt。Theleisurethusacquiredhehasdevotedtostudy，and，hehasproducedseveralvaluableworksonpoliticalandsocial，science。Anenthusiasticbutatthesametimecool-headed，abolitionistatthetimeoftheEmancipation，hehassince，constantlystriventoamelioratetheconditionofthepeasantryby，advocatingthespreadofprimaryeducation，theruralcredit，associationsinthevillage，thepreservationoftheCommunal，institutions，andnumerousimportantreformsinthefinancial，system。Bothofthesegentlemen，itissaid，generouslygaveto，theirpeasantsmorelandthantheywereobligedtogivebythe，EmancipationLaw。IntheAssemblyPrinceVassiltchikofspeaks，frequently，andalwayscommandsattention;andinallimportant，committeesheisleadingmember。Thoughawarmdefenderofthe，Zemstvoinstitutions，hethinksthattheiractivityoughttobe，confinedtoacomparativelynarrowfield，andhetherebydiffers，fromsomeofhiscolleagues，whoarereadytoembarkinhazardous，nottosayfanciful，schemesfordevelopingthenaturalresources，oftheprovince。Hisneighbour，Mr。P——，isoneoftheablest，andmostenergeticmembersoftheAssembly。Heispresidentofthe，executivebureauinoneofthedistricts，wherehehasfoundedmany，primaryschoolsandcreatedseveralruralcreditassociationson，themodelofthosewhichbearthenameofSchultzeDelitschin，Germany。Mr。S——，whositsbesidehim，wasforsomeyearsan，arbiterbetweentheproprietorsandemancipatedserfs，thena，memberoftheProvincialExecutiveBureau，andisnowdirectorofa，bankinSt。Petersburg。

Totherightandleftofthepresident——whoisMarshalofNoblesse，fortheprovince——sitthemembersofthebureau。Thegentlemanwho，readsthelongreportsismyfriend“thePrimeMinister，“whobegan，lifeasacavalryofficer，andafterafewyearsofmilitary，serviceretiredtohisestate;heisanintelligent，able，administrator，andamanofconsiderableliteraryculture。His，colleague，whoassistshiminreadingthereports，isamerchant，anddirectorofthemunicipalbank。Thenextmemberisalsoa，merchant，andinsomerespectsthemostremarkablemanintheroom。

Thoughbornaserf，heisalready，atmiddleage，animportant，personageintheRussiancommercialworld。Rumoursaysthathe，laidthefoundationofhisfortunebyonedaypurchasingacopper，cauldroninavillagethroughwhichhewaspassingonhiswayto，St。Petersburg，wherehehopedtogainalittlemoneybythesale，ofsomecalves。Inthecourseofafewyearsheamassedan，enormousfortune;butcautiouspeoplethinkthatheistoofondof，hazardousspeculations，andprophesythathewillendlifeaspoor，ashebeganit。

Allthesemenbelongtowhatmaybecalledthepartyofprogress，whichanxiouslysupportsallproposalsrecognisedas“liberal，“and，especiallyallmeasureslikelytoimprovetheconditionofthe，peasantry。Theirchiefopponentisthatlittlemanwithclose-

cropped，bullet-shapedheadandsmallpiercingeyes，whomaybe，calledtheLeaderoftheopposition。Hecondemnsmanyofthe，proposedschemes，onthegroundthattheprovinceisalready，overtaxed，andthattheexpenditureoughttobereducedtothe，smallestpossiblefigure。IntheDistrictAssemblyhepreaches，thisdoctrinewithconsiderablesuccess，fortherethepeasantry，formthemajority，andheknowshowtousethatterse，homely，language，interspersedwithproverbs，whichhasfarmoreinfluence，ontherusticmindthanscientificprinciplesandlogical，reasoning;buthere，inProvincialAssembly，hisfollowingcomposes，onlyarespectableminority，andheconfineshimselftoapolicyof，obstruction。

TheZemstvoofNovgorodhadatthattimethereputationofbeing，oneofthemostenlightenedandenergetic，andImustsaythatthe，proceedingswereconductedinabusiness-like，satisfactoryway。

Thereportswerecarefullyconsidered，andeacharticleofthe，annualbudgetwassubmittedtominutescrutinyandcriticism。In，severaloftheprovinceswhichIafterwardsvisitedIfoundthat，affairswereconductedinaverydifferentfashion：quorumswere，formedwithextremedifficulty，andtheproceedings，whentheyat，lastcommenced，weretreatedasmereformalitiesanddespatchedas，speedilyaspossible。ThecharacteroftheAssemblydependsof，courseontheamountofinteresttakeninlocalpublicaffairs。In，somedistrictsthisinterestisconsiderable;inothersitisvery，nearzero。

Thebirthofthisnewinstitutionwashailedwithenthusiasm，and，producedgreatexpectations。Atthattimealargesectionofthe，Russianeducatedclasseshadasimple，convenientcriterionfor，institutionsofallkinds。Theyassumedasaself-evidentaxiom，thattheexcellenceofaninstitutionmustalwaysbeinproportion，toits“liberal“anddemocraticcharacter。Thequestionastohow，faritmightbeappropriatetotheexistingconditionsandtothe，characterofthepeople，andastowhetheritmightnot，though，admirableinitself，betooexpensivefortheworktobeperformed，waslittlethoughtof。Anyorganisationwhichrestedon“the，electiveprinciple，“andprovidedanarenaforfreepublic，discussion，wassuretobewellreceived，andtheseconditionswere，fulfilledbytheZemstvo。

Theexpectationsexcitedwereofvariouskinds。Peoplewhothought，moreofpoliticalthaneconomicprogresssawintheZemstvothe，basisofboundlesspopularliberty。PrinceYassiltchikof，for，example，thoughnaturallyofaphlegmatictemperament，becamefora，momententhusiastic，andpennedthefollowingwords：“Withadaring，unparalleledinthechroniclesoftheworld，wehaveenteredonthe，careerofpubliclife。”，Iflocalself-governmentinEnglandhad，inspiteofitsaristocraticcharacter，createdandpreserved，politicalliberty，ashadbeenprovedbyseverallearnedGermans，whatmightbeexpectedfrominstitutionssomuchmoreliberaland，democratic？，InEnglandtherehadneverbeencountyparliaments，andthelocaladministrationhadalwaysbeeninthehandsofthe，greatland-owners;whilstinRussiaeverydistrictwouldhaveits，electiveassembly，inwhichthepeasantwouldbeonalevelwith，therichestlandedproprietors。Peoplewhowereaccustomedto，thinkofsocialratherthanpoliticalprogressexpectedthatthey，wouldsoonseethecountryprovidedwithgoodroads，safebridges，numerousvillageschools，well-appointedhospitals，andallthe，otherrequisitesofcivilisation。Agriculturewouldbecomemore，scientific，tradeandindustrywouldberapidlydeveloped，andthe，material，intellectual，andmoralconditionofthepeasantrywould，beenormouslyimproved。Thelistlessapathyofprovinciallifeand，thehereditaryindifferencetolocalpublicaffairswerenow，it，wasthought，abouttobedispelled;andinviewofthischange，patrioticmotherstooktheirchildrentotheannualassembliesin，ordertoaccustomthemfromtheirearlyyearstotakeaninterest，inthepublicwelfare。

Itishardlynecessarytosaythattheseinordinateexpectations，werenotrealised。Fromtheverybeginningtherehadbeena，misunderstandingregardingthecharacterandfunctionsofthenew，institutions。Duringtheshortperiodofuniversalenthusiasmfor，reformthegreatofficialshadusedincautiouslysomeofthevague，liberalphrasestheninfashion，buttheyneverseriouslyintended，toconferonthechildwhichtheywerebringingintotheworlda，shareinthegeneralgovernmentofthecountry;andtherapid，evaporationoftheirsentimentalliberalism，whichbeganassoonas，theyundertookpracticalreforms，madethemlessandless，conciliatory。Whenthevigorousyoungchild，therefore，showeda，naturaldesiretogobeyondthehumblefunctionsaccordedtoit，thesternparentsproceededtosnubitandputitintoitsproper，place。Thefirstreprimandwasadministeredpubliclyinthe，capital。TheSt。PetersburgProvincialAssembly，havingshowna，desiretoplayapoliticalpart，waspromptlyclosedbythe，MinisteroftheInterior，andsomeofthememberswereexiledfora，timetotheirhomesinthecountry。