第13章

TheWhigsrepresenttheviewimpliedinMacaulay’sattackuponMill——theviewofcultivatedmenofsense，withtheireyesopentomanydifficultiesoverlookedbyzealots，butfartooscepticalanddespondenttorouseanyenthusiasmoracceptanydogmasabsolutely。BythetimeoftheReformBillthedangerwasobviouslyonthesideofdoggedobstructionism，andthenthe’middleparty’asJeffreycallsit，inclinedtowardstheRadicalsideandbeggedthemtojoinitsranksandabandontheattempttorealiseextremeviews。Theycouldalsotakecreditasmoderatemendoforhavingallalongbeenintheright。

Buttobothextremes，asJeffreypatheticallycomplains，theyappearedtobemeretrimmers。71

TheUtilitarianheldtheWhigtobea’trimmer’；theWhigthoughttheUtilitarianafanatic；theyagreedinholdingthattheTorywassimplystupid。Andyet，whenwelookattheTorycreed，weshallfindthatbothWhigandUtilitarianoverlookedsomeveryvitalproblems。TheToriesofcourserepresenttheadvocatesofstronggovernment；and，astheiropponentsheld，hadnotheories——

onlyprejudices。ThefirstarticleofthecreedofanEldonoraSidmouthwas，’IbelieveinGeorgeIII’；——notadoctrinecapableofphilosophicaljustification。SuchToryismmeantthecontentoftherichandpowerfulwiththesystembywhichtheirpowerandwealthwereguaranteed。TheirinstinctshadbeensharpenedbytheFrenchrevolution；andtheysawinanychangetheremovalofoneofthesafeguardsagainstafreshoutburstofthenetherfires。Thegreatbulkofallpoliticalopinionisaninstinct，notaphilosophy；andtheobstructiveToriesrepresentedlittlemorethanclassprejudiceandthedreadofagreatconvulsion。YetintelligentTorieswerebeingdriventofindsomereasonsfortheircreed，whichtheUtilitariansmighthaveconsideredmorecarefully。

III。CONSERVATISM

Afamousmanoflettersrepresentscertaintendenciesmoreclearlythantheaveragepolitician。RobertSouthey(1777-1843)，the’ultraservilesack-guzzler，’asBenthampleasantlycallshimin1823，72wasprobablythebestabusedman，onhisownsideatleast，amongMill’scontemporaries。HewasattackedbyMillhimself，andsavagelydenouncedbyByronandHazlitt。HewasnotonlyaconspicuouswriterintheQuarterlyReview，but，ashisenemiesthought，arenegadeboughtbypensions。Itis，Ihope，needlesstodefendhimagainstthischarge。Hewassimplyanimpatientmanofgenerousinstinctsandnoreflectivepower，whohadinhisyouthcaughttherevolutionaryfever，and，ashegrewup，developedthepatrioticfever。

LaterviewsaregivenintheColloquiesontheProgressandProspectsofSociety(1829)，chieflyknowntomodernreadersbyoneofMacaulay’sessays。SoutheywasasassailableasMill。Hispoliticaleconomyisameremuddle；hispoliticalviewsareobviouslydistortedbyaccidentalprejudices；andthewholebookisdesultoryanddisjointed。InadialoguewiththeghostofSirThomasMore，hetakestheopportunityofintroducingdescriptionsofscenery，literarydigressions，andquaintillustrationsfromhisvaststoresofreadingtotheconfusionofalldefinitearrangement。Southeyisintheawkwardpositionofadogmatistdefendingacompromise。AnAnglicanclaiminginfallibilityisnecessarilyinconsistent。Hisviewoftoleration，forexample，isoddlyobscure。Hewouldapparentlyliketopersecuteinfidels；73andyethewishestodenouncetheCatholicchurchforitspersecutingprinciples。HeseemstodatethemainsocialevilstothechangeswhichbeganattheReformation，andyethelooksbacktotheperiodwhichsucceededtheReformationasrepresentingtheidealstateoftheBritishpolity。Hissympathywiththeliteratureofthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturiespredisposedhimtothisposition，Hewouldhavebeenmoreintelligibleifhehadbeenmoredistinctlyreactionary。Forallthat，hisviewsshowthepresenceofaleavenwhichwasmateriallytoaffectthelaterdevelopmentofEnglishopinions。ThatJacobinismmeantanarchy，andthatanarchyledirresistiblytomilitarydespotismwerepropositionswhichtohim，astosomanyothers，seemedtobeestablishedbytheFrenchrevolution。What，then，wasthecauseoftheanarchy?SirThomasMorecomesfromthegravetotellusthis，becausehehadwitnessedthepastsymptomsoftheprocess。Thetransitionfromtheoldfeudalsystemtothemodernindustrialorganisationhadinhisdaybecomeunmistakablydeveloped。Infeudaltimes，everymanhadhisdefiniteplaceinsociety；hewasamemberofalittlegroup；supported，ifcontrolledanddisciplined，byanelaboratesystemofspiritualauthority。

TheReformationwastheperiodatwhichthe’masterlessman’madehisappearance。

Theconversionofpasturesintoarableland，thegrowthofcommerceandofpauperism，weremarksofthecomingchange。Itproceededquietlyforsomegenerations；butthedevelopmentofthemodernmanufacturingsystemrepresentstheoperationofthesameprocessonafarlargerscale，andwithfargreaterintensity。Theresultmaybedescribedbysayingthatwehaveinsteadofalegitimatedevelopmentadegenerationofsociety。

Avastpopulacehasgrownupoutsideoftheoldorder，itisindependentindeed，butattheheavypriceofbeingratheraninorganicmassthanaconstituentpartofthebodypolitic。Itis，briefly，tothegrowthofahuge’proletariate’outsidethechurch，andhostiletothestate，thatSoutheyattributesallsocialevils。

Theviewhasbecomefamiliarenoughinvariousshapes；andinthereproacheswhichSoutheybringsagainstthemanufacturingsystemwehaveananticipationofotherfamiliarlamentations。

Ourmanufacturingwealthisa’wen，’a’fungousexcrescencefromthebodypolitic’；74itisnomoreaproofofrealprosperitythanthesizeofadropsicalpatientisaproofofhealth；75themanufacturerworshipsmammoninsteadofMoloch；76andwringshisfortunefromthedegradationofhislabourersashiswarlikeancestorswrungwealthfromtheirslaves；heconfineschildreninataintedatmosphere，physicalandmoral，frommorningtillnight，andacelebratedminister(Pitt)boastsofthisveryevil；77hetreatshisfellow-creaturesasmachines，78andwealth，thoughaccumulated，isnotdiffused；thegreatcapitalists，’likepikesinafishpond，’devourtheweakerfish。79Competitionisnotdirectedtoprovidingthebestgoods，butthecheapest；80everymanoppresseshisneighbour；thelandlordrackshistenant，thefarmergrindsthelabourer；allthelittlecentresofpermanentlifearebrokenup；notonemaninathousandisburiedwithhisfathers，andthenaturaltiesanddomesticaffectionsareprematurelydissolved。81

Here，too，istobefoundthesourceoftheinfidelopinionswhichcallforsuppression。Londonisahotbedofcorruption；82acentreofwealth；andyet，inspiteofpoor-laws，aplacewherewretchesaredyingofstarvation，andwhichcouldcollectamobcapableofproducingthemostappallingcatastrophes。

Insuchaplace，menbecomeunbelieverslikesavages，becauseremovedfromallhumanisinginfluences，andbooksellerscancarryonatradeinblasphemy。

Infidelityisbredin’thefilthandcorruptionoflargetownsandmanufacturingdistricts。’83Thedisappearanceofclericalinfluencehasledto’amassofignorance，vice，andwretchednesswhichnogenerousheartcancontemplatewithoutgrief。’84Itisnotsurprisingthat，inSouthey’sopinion，itisdoubtfulwhetherthebulkofthepeoplehasgainedorlostinthelastthousandyears。85Macaulaytakesallthisasmeresentimentalismandpreferenceofapicturesqueoutsidetosolidcomfort。ButwhateverSouthey’serrorsoffact，theyshowatleastadeeperinsightthanhisopponentintosomesocialevils。Hisproposedremediesexplainhisdiagnosisoftheevil。Inthefirstplace，itisnotsurprising，thoughitsurprisedMacaulay，thathehadmanysympathieswiththesocialist，RobertOwen。HesawOwenin1816，86andwasmuchimpressedbyhisviews。IntheColloquies，87Oweniscalledthe’happiest，mostbeneficent，andmostpracticalofallenthusiasts’；

anaccountisgivenofoneoftheearliestco-operativeschemes，88andSoutheybelievesinthepossibilityoftheplan。Hemakes，however，onesignificantremark。Owen，hethinks，couldnotsucceedwithoutenlistinginhissupportsomesectarianzeal。AsOwenhappenedtoobjecttoallreligioussects，thisdefectcouldnotberemedied。

Southey，infact，heldthattheabsenceofreligiousdisciplinewasattherootofthewholeevil。

Religion，hedeclares，muchtothescornofMacaulay，’isthebasisuponwhichcivilgovernmentrests。’89Theremust，asheinfers，beanestablishedreligion，andthestatewhichneglectsthisdutyispreparingitsownruin。’Nothing，’hedeclares，’inabstractsciencecanbemorecertainthanthesepropositions，’thoughtheyaredeniedby’ourprofessorsoftheartsbabblativeandscribblative’——thatis，byBenthamitesandWhigs。Forhere，infact，wecometotheirreconcilabledifference。Governmentisnottobeameremachineryforsuppressingviolence，butanallyofthechurchinspreadingsoundreligionandmorality。Therulers，insteadofmerelyreflectingthepopularwill，shouldleadanddirectallagenciesforsuppressingviceandmisery。Southey，ashissontakespainstoshow，90thoughhewasforupholdingauthoritybythemoststringentmeasures，wasconvincedthattheonewaytomakegovernmentstrongwastoimprovetheconditionofthepeople。Heproposedmanymeasuresofreform；nationaleducationontheprinciples，ofcourse，ofDr。Bell；state-aidedcolonisationandthecultivationofwastelandsathome；ProtestantsisterhoodstoreproducethegoodeffectsoftheoldorderwhichheregrettedandyethadtocondemnonAnglicanprinciples。TheEnglishchurchshouldhavemadeuseoftheWesleyansasthechurchofRomehadusedtheFranciscansandDominicans；

andhisLifeofWesleywaspromptedbyhisfondbeliefthatthismightyetbedone。Government，hesaid，oughttobe’paternal’；91andhisleadingaspirationshavebeenadoptedbySocialistsontheonehand，andtheconvertstoCatholicismontheother。

Forhisphilosophy，SoutheywasinthehabitofreferringtoColeridge；andColeridge’sConstitutionofChurchandStateisperhapsthebookinwhichColeridgecomesnearesttobringinganargumenttoaconclusion。Thoughmarkedbyhisusualcomplexitiesofstyle，hisparenthesesandirrelevantallusionsandglancesatwidemetaphysicaldiscussions，hesucceedsinlayingdownasufficientsketchofhisposition。Thebookwasoriginallypublishedin1830，andreferstotheCatholicemancipationofthepreviousyear。UnlikeSouthey，heapprovesofthemeasure，onlyregrettingtheabsenceofcertainsafeguards；andhisgeneralpurposemaybesaidtobetogivesuchatheoryoftherelationsofchurchandstateasmayjustifyanestablishmentuponloftiergroundsthanthoseofthecommonplaceTory。

Hismethod，asheexplains，istofindthetrue’idea’ofaconstitutionandanationalchurch。The’idea，’heexplains，doesnotmeantheconsciousaimofthepersonswhofoundedornowconstitutethebodiesinquestion。An’idea’isthesubjectivecounterpartofanobjectivelaw。92Itcorrespondstothevitalforcewhichmouldsthestructureofthesocialorganism，althoughitmayneverhavebeendistinctlyformulatedbyanyoneoftheactors。Inthissense，therefore，weshouldhavetoproceedbyahistoricalmethod。Weshouldstudytheconstitutionaswestudythephysiologyofaphysicalbody；93andheworksouttheanalogyatsomelength。Sofar，ColeridgeisexpressingthecharacteristicviewthatNatureingeneralistoberegardedasanevolution；onlythatevolutionistobeunderstoodinthesenseofShellingnotinthesenseofeitherDarwin。Ofcourse，whenColeridgeprofessestofindthe’idea’ofthechurchandstate，whathereallyfindsisnottheideasomuchashisideaoftheidea——whichmaybeaverydifferentthing。Histheoryof’evolution’iscompatiblewithassumingthatevolutionsareillegitimatewheneverhehappenstodislikethem。

HecoincidesrathercuriouslywithJamesMillinassertingthatthe’socialbond’wasoriginallyformedtoprotectproperty，nottoprotectlife。94Hediscoversaccordinglythattheancientraces，Jews，Goths，andKeltsalike，dividedthelandintotwoparts，onetobeinheritedbyseparatefamilies，theothertobesetapartforthenation。Fromthelatterorthe’nationality’springsthechurchestablishment。Thispropertybelongsrightfullyandinalienablytothenationitself。Itisheldbywhathecallsthe’clerisy。’Itsfunctionsare，inthefirstplace，toprovideacareerbywhichthepoorestclassesmayrisetoahigherposition；andsecondly，toprovideforthedevelopmentofallthequalitieswhichdistinguishthecivilisedmanfromthesavage。95Briefly，then，thechurchisthatpartofthenationalorganismwhichisdevotedtoeducatingthepeopletobe，obedient，free，usefulorganisablesubjects，citizens，andpatriots，livingtothebenefitoftheestate，andpreparedtodieforitsdefence。’HenryVIIIwouldhavesurpassedAlfredifhehaddirectedthe’nationalty’toitstruepurposes；thatis，especiallytothemaintenanceofuniversities，ofaparochialclergy，andofschoolsineveryparish。Unluckily，HenryVIII’s’idea’ofanationalchurchwasvague。Ideaswerenothisstrongpoint。ColeridgeappearstobeespeciallytroubledtoworktheprinciplesintoconformitywithhisviewsofCatholicemancipation。Thepeculiarityofthetheoryisthatthechurch，accordingtohim，seemstobesimplyanationalinstitution。Itmightexist，andinfact，didexistbeforeChristianity，asisprovednotonlybytheJewishbutbytheDruidicalchurch。96ThatitshouldbeChristianinEnglandisa’blessedaccident，’or’providentialboon’——or，asheputsit，’mostawfullyagodsend。’Henceitfollowsthataprimaryconditionofitsutilityisthattheclerisyshouldcontributetothesupportoftheotherorgansofthecommunity。Theymustnotbethesubjectsofaforeignpower，nor，ashearguesatlength，subjecttothedesocialisinginfluenceofcelibacy。ItfollowsthattheRomanchurchisunfittedtobeeveranationalchurch，although，ifthatdangerbesufficientlyobviated，nopoliticaldisqualificationsshouldbeimposeduponRomanists。Andthus，too，theChurchCatholicisessentiallyabodywhichhasnorelationstoanyparticularstate。Itisopposedtotheworld，nottothenation，andcanhavenovisibleheador’personalcentreofunity。’97ThechurchwhichmakessuchclaimsistherevelationofAntichrist。

Weneednotinquireintotheprophecies。ItisenoughtosaythattoColeridgeastoSoutheythepreservationofanestablishedchurchseemedtobeanessentialconditionofmoralityandcivilisation。TheydifferedfromtheordinaryTory，whowascontenttodefendanyoftheabusesbythecryofsacrilegeandconfiscation。

Thechurchwastobemadeworthyofitsposition，andrenderedcapableofdischargingitshighfunctionseffectually。Coleridge，itmaybesaid，wouldfullyadmitthatanorganwhichhadceasedtocorrespondtoitsideamustdie。Itcouldnotcontinuetopreserveitselfbymereforceofobstruction，butmustarouse，throwoffitsabuses，andshowitselftobeworthyofitshighclaims。Meanwhile，however，hewasperhapsmoreanxioustoshowtheUtilitariansthatinassailingtheinstitutiononaccountofitsabuses，theywerereallydestroyingthemostessentialguaranteeofprogress。Hesumsup，inacuriouspassage，theproofsofmoderndegradation。98Thewickedeighteenthcenturyisofcourseresponsibleforeverything。