第8章

Whenthewarwasover，eventhegovernmentbegantofeelthatsomethingmustbedone，in1817someactswerepassed32abolishingavarietyofsinecureofficesand’regulatingcertainofficesintheCourtofExchequer。’

TheRadicalsconsideredthisasameredelusion，becauseitwasprovidedatthesametimethatpensionsmightbegiventopersonswhohadheldcertaingreatoffices，thechange，however，wasapparentlyofimportanceasremovingthechiefapologyforsinecures，andthesystemwithmodificationsstillremains。ThemarquisofCamden，oneofthetellersoftheExchequer，voluntarilyresignedthefeesandacceptedonlytheregularsalaryof£；2500。

HisactioniscommendedintheBlackBook，33whichexpressesaregretthattheexamplehadnotbeenfollowedbyothergreatsinecurists。

Publicopinionwasbeginningtobefelt。Duringthesubsequentperiodthecryagainstsinecuresbecamemoreemphatic，theBlackBook，publishedoriginallyin1820and1823，andafterwardsreissued，gavealist，sofarasitcouldbeascertained，ofallpensions，andsuppliedamassofinformationforRadicalorators。Theamountofpensionsisstatedatover£；1，000，000，includingsinecureofficeswithover£；350，000annually；34andthelistofoffices(probablyveryinaccurateindetail)givesasingularimpressionofthestrangeramificationsofthesystem。Besidesthedirectpensions，everynewdepartmentofadministrationseemstohavesuggestedthefoundationofofficeswhichtendedtobecomesinecures。Thecryfor’retrenchment’wasjoinedtothecryforreform。35JosephHume，whofirstenteredparliamentin1818，becamearepresentativeoftheUtilitarianRadicalism，andbeganalongcareerofminutecriticismwhichwonforhimthereputationofastupendousbore，buthelpedtokeepasteadypressureuponministers。36SirJamesGraham(1792-1861)wasatthistimeofRadicaltendencies，andfirstmadehimselfconspicuousbydemandingreturnsofpensions。37ThesettlementsofthecivillistsofGeorgeIV，WilliamIV，andVictoria，gaveopportunitiesforimposingnewrestrictionsuponthepensionsystem。Althoughnosinglesweepingmeasurewaspassed，thewholepositionwaschanged。BythetimeoftheReformBill，asinecurehadbecomeananachronism。Thepresumptionwasthatwheneveranopportunityoffered，itwouldbesuppressed。SomeofthesinecureofficesintheCourtofChancery，the’KeeperoftheHanaper，’the’Chaffwax，’

andsoforth，wereabolishedbyanactpassedbytheparliamentwhichhadjustcarriedtheReformBill，38in1833areformofthesystemofnavaladministrationbySirJamesGrahamgotridofsomecumbrousmachinery；

andGrahamagainwasintrustedin1834withanactunderwhichtheCourtofExchequerwasfinallyreformed，andthe’ClerkofthePells’andthe’tellersoftheExchequer’ceasedtoexist。39Otherofficesseemtohavemeltedawaybydegrees，wheneverachanceoffered。

Manyotheroftheoldabuseshadceasedtorequireanyspecialdenunciationsfrompoliticaltheorists。

Thegeneralprinciplewasestablished，andwhatremainedwastoapplyitindetail。TheprisonsystemwasnolongerinwantofaHowardoraBentham。

AbusesremainedwhichoccupiedtheadmirableMrs。Fry；andmanyseriousdifficultieshadtobesolvedbyalongcourseofexperiment。Butitwasnolongeraquestionwhetheranythingshouldbedoing，butofthemostefficientmeansofbringingaboutanadmittedlydesirableend。Theagitationforthesuppressionoftheslave-tradeagainhadbeensucceededbytheattackuponslavery。Thesystemwasevidentlydoomed，althoughnotfinallyabolishedtillaftertheReformBill；andministerswereonlyconsideringthequestionwhethertheabolitionshouldbesummaryorgradual，orwhatcompensationmightbemadetovestedinterests。Theoldagitationhadbeenremarkable，asIhavesaid，notonlyforitsendbutforthenewkindofmachinerytowhichithadapplied。Popularagitation40hadtakenanewshape。ThecountyassociationsformedinthelastdaysoftheAmericanwarofindependence，andthesocietiesduetotheFrenchrevolutionhadsetaprecedent。Therevolutionarysocietieshadbeensuppressedorhaddiedout，asopposedtothegeneralspiritofthenation，althoughtheyhaddoneagooddealtoarousepoliticalspeculation。IntheperiodofdistresswhichfollowedthewartheRadicalreformershadagainheldpublicmeetings，andhadagainbeenmetbyrepressivemeasures。Theactsof1817

and181941imposedsevererestrictionsupontherightofpublicmeeting。Theold’countymeeting，’whichcontinuedtobecommonuntilthereformperiod，andwassummonedbythelord-lieutenantorthesheriffonarequisitionfromthefreeholders，hadakindofconstitutionalcharacter，thoughIdonotknowitshistoryindetail。42Theextravagantlyrepressivemeasureswereananachronism，orcouldonlybeenforcedduringthepressureofanintenseexcitement。Inonewayorother，publicmeetingsweresoonbeingheldasfrequentlyasever。ThetrialofQueenCarolinegaveopportunityfornumerousgatherings，andstatesmenbegantofindthattheymustuseinsteadofsuppressingthem。Canning43appearstohavebeenthefirstministertomakefrequentuseofspeechesaddressedtopublicmeetings；andmeetingstowhichsuchappealswereaddressedsoonbegantousetheirauthoritytodemandpledgesfromthespeakers。44Representationwastobeunderstoodmoreandmoreasdelegation。Meanwhiletheeffectofpublicmeetingswasenormouslyincreasedwhenageneralorganisationwasintroduced。ThegreatprecedentwastheCatholicAssociation，foundedin1823byO’ConnellandSheil。ThepeculiarcircumstancesoftheIrishpeopleandtheirpriestsgaveaready-mademachineryfortheagitationwhichtriumphedin1829。ThePoliticalUnionfoundedbyAttwoodatBirminghaminthesameyearadoptedthemethod，andledtothetriumphof1832。Politicalcombinationhenceforthtookadifferentshape，andintheordinaryphrase，’publicopinion’becamedefinitelytheultimateandsupremeauthority。

Thisenormouschangeandthecorrespondingdevelopmentofthepowerofthepress，whichaffectedtomouldand，atanyrate，expressedpublicopinion，entirelyfellinwithUtilitarianprinciples。Theirpartinbringingaboutthechangewasofnospecialimportanceexceptinsofarastheymoreorlessinspiredthepopularorators。Theywere，however，readytotakeadvantageofit。TheyhadtheWestminsterReviewtotakeaplacebesidetheEdinburghandQuarterlyReviews，whichhadraisedperiodicalwritingtoafarhigherpositionthanithadeveroccupied，andtowhichleadingpoliticiansandleadingauthorsonbothsideshadbecomeregularcontributors，theoldcontemptforjournalismwasrapidlyvanishing。In1825Canningexpresseshisregretforhavinggivensomeinformationtoapaperofwhichanillusehadbeenmade。Hehadpreviouslyabstainedfromallcommunicationwith’thesegentry，’andwasnowresolvedtohavedonewithhocgenusomneforgoodandall。45In1839wefindhisformercolleague，LordLyndhurst，seekinganalliancewithBarnes，theeditoroftheTimes，aseagerlyasthoughBarneshadbeentheheadofaparliamentaryparty。46

Thenewspapershadprobablydonemorethantheschoolstospreadhabitsofreadingthroughthecountry，Yetthestronginterestwhich，wasgrowingupineducationalmatterswascharacteristic。Brougham’sphrase，’theschoolmasterisabroad’(29thJanuary1821)，becameapopularproverb，andrejoicedtheworthyBentham。47IhavealreadydescribedthesharetakenbytheUtilitariansinthegreatBellandLancastercontroversy，Parliamenthadasyetdonelittle。AbillbroughtinbyWhitbreadhadbeenpassedin1807bytheHouseofCommons，enablingparishestoformschoolsontheScottishmodel，butaccordingtoRomilly，48itwaspassedinthewell-groundedconfidencethatitwouldbethrownoutbythepeers。AcommitteeuponeducationwasobtainedbyBroughamafterthepeace，whichreportedin1818，andwhichledtoacommissionuponschoolendowments。Broughamintroducedaneducationbillin1820butnothingcameofit。ThebeginningofanyparticipationbygovernmentinnationaleducationwasnottotakeplacetillaftertheReformBill。Meanwhile，however，thefoundationoftheLondonUniversityuponunsectarianprincipleswasencouragingtheUtilitarians；andtherewereothersymptomsofthegrowthofenlightenment。GeorgeBirkbeck(1776-1841)

hadstartedsomepopularlecturesuponscienceatGlasgowabout1800，andhavingsettledasaphysicianinLondon，startedthe’Mechanics’Institution，in1824。Broughamwasoneofthefirsttrustees；andtheinstitution，thoughexposedtoagooddealofridicule，managedtotakerootandbecometheparentofothers。In1827wasstartedtheSocietyforTheDiffusionofUsefulKnowledge，ofwhichBroughamwaspresident，andthecommitteeofwhichincludedJamesMill。Inthecourseofitstwentyyears’existenceitpublishedorsanctionedthepublicationbyCharlesKnightofagreatmassofpopularliterature。ThePennyMagazine(1832-1845)issaidtohavehadtwohundredthousandsubscribersattheendofitsfirstyearofexistence，Crudeandsuperficialasweresomeoftheseenterprises，theyclearlymarkedaveryimportantchange。CobbettandtheRadicaloratorsfoundenormousaudiencesreadytolistentotheirdoctrine。ChurchmenandDissenters，ToriesandRadicalswerefindingitnecessarybothtoeducateandtodisseminatetheirprinciplesbywriting；andasnewsocialstratawerebecomingaccessibletosuchinfluences，theiropinionsbegantoexerciseinturnamoredistinctreactionuponpoliticalandecclesiasticalaffairs。

NopartyfeltmoreconfidenceatthetendencyofthisnewintellectualfermentationthantheUtilitarians。

Theyhadadefinite，coherent，logicalcreed。Everystepwhichincreasedthefreedomofdiscussionincreasedtheinfluenceofthetruth。Theirdoctrineswerethetruth，ifnotthewholetruth。Onceallowthemtogetafulcrumandtheywouldmovetheworld。Bitbybittheirprinciplesoflegislation，ofeconomy，ofpoliticswerebeingacceptedinthemostdifferentquarters；

andeventhemoreintelligentoftheiropponentswereapplyingthem，thoughtheapplicationmightbepiecemealandimperfect。Itwasinvainthatanadversaryprotestedthathewasnotboundbylogic，andappealedtoexperienceinsteadoftheory。Lethimjustifyhisactionuponwhatgroundshepleased，hewas，inpointoffact，introducingtheleavenoftruedoctrine，anditmightbetrustedtoworkoutthedesirableresults。

ImustnowdealmoreindetailwiththeUtilitariantheories。Iwillonlyobserveingeneraltermsthattheirtriumphwasnotlikelytobeacceptedwithoutastruggle。Largeclassesregardedthemwithabsoluteabhorrence。Theirsuccess，iftheydidsucceed，wouldmeanthedestructionofreligiousbelief，ofsoundphilosophy，ofthegreatimportantecclesiasticalandpoliticalinstitutions，andprobablygeneralconfiscationofpropertyandtheruinofthefoundationsofsociety。

And，meanwhile，inspiteoftheprogressuponwhichIhavedwelt，thereweretwoproblems，atleast，ofenormousimportance，uponwhichitcouldscarcelybesaidthatanyprogresshadbeenmade。Thechurch，inthefirstplace，wasstillwhereithadbeen。Nochangehadbeenmadeinitsconstitution；

itwasstillthetypicalexampleofcorruptpatronage；andtheobjectofthehatredofallthoroughgoingRadicals。And，inthesecondplace，pauperismhadgrowntoappallingdimensionsduringthewar；andnoeffectualattempthadbeenmadetodealwithit。Behindpauperismthereweregreatsocialquestions，thediscontentandmiseryofgreatmassesofthelabouringpopulation。

Whateverreformsmightbemadeinotherpartsofthenaturalorder，hereweredifficultiesenoughtotaskthewisdomoflegislatorsandspeculatorsuponlegislativeprinciples。

NOTES：

1。LifeofMacaulay，p。114(PopularEdition)

2。Canning’sPoliticalCorrespondence，i。71-76。

3。12thDecember1826。

4。Bentham’sWorks，v。p。370。

5。Romilly’sattemptstoimprovethecriminallawbeganin1808。Forvariousnoticesofhisefforts，seehisLife(3vols。1860：，especiallyvol。ii。243-54，309，321，331，369，371，389-91。RomillywasdeeplyinterestedinDumont’sThé；oriedesPeinesLé；gales(1811)，whichhereadinMS。andtriedtogetreviewedintheQuarterly(ii。258，391；iii。136)。Theremarks(ii。2-3)onthe’stupiddreadofinnovation’andthesavagespiritinfusedintoEnglishmenbythehorrorsoftheFrenchrevolutionandworthnoticeinthisconnection。