第9章

6。Bentham’sWorks，x，p。574。

7。Brougham’sSpeeches(1838)，ii。287-486。

8。AninterestingsummaryoftheprogressoflawreformsandofBentham’sshareinthemisgiveninSirR。K。Wilson’sHistoryofModernEnglishLaw(1875)。

9。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。

10。InCambridgePrymewasthefirstprofessorin1828，buthadonlythetitlewithoutendowment。

Theprofessorshipasonlysalariedin1863。

11。Ricardo’sWorks(1888)，p。407。

12。PrintedinPorter’sProgressoftheNationandelsewhere。

13。SeesixthvolumeofHistoryofPricesbyTookeandNewmarch，andprivatelyprintedMinutesofPoliticalEconomyClub(1882)。

14。Speeches，3vols。

8vo，1831。

15。Ibid。，ii，465-530。

16。Ibid。，ii，477。

17。Bentham’sWorks，ii，459。WemayrememberhowJ。S。Millinhisboyhoodwasabashedbecausehecouldnotexplaintohisfathertheforceofthedistinction。

18。Speeches，ii，246，332。

19。Ibid。，i，102-108(Currency-Pamphletof1810)。

20。Ibid。，ii，397。

21。Speeches，iii，257。

22。Ricardoindeedmadeareservationastothenecessityofcounterbalancingbyamoderatedutythespecialburthensuponagriculture。

23。IntheHistoryofTrades-UnionismbySidneyandBeatriceWebb(1894)，pp。88-98。ThehistoryofPlace’sagitationisfullygiveninMrGrahamWallas’sLife，chap。viii。

24。Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。217。

25。Firstpublishedin1807-8。

26。Letteriii。

27。Ibid。，vi。

28。SydneySmithputveryingeniouslytheadvantagesofwhathecalledthe’lottery’system：ofgiving，thatis，afewgreatprizes，insteadofequalisingtheincomesoftheclergy。

Thingslooksodifferentfromoppositepointsofviews。

29。ChurchofEnglandism，ii，199。

30。SeeespeciallyhisreviewofSouthey’sBookoftheChurch。

31。Romilly’sMemoirs，iii，33。

32。57GeorgeIII，caps。

60-67。

33。Editionof1828，p。24。

34。Ibid。，p。10。

35。AMrGrayproposedatacountymeetingin1816thatthecryof’retrenchmentandreform’shouldberaisedineverycorneroftheisland(HenryJephson’Platform，p。378)。Idonotknowwhetherthiswasthefirstappearanceoftheformula。

36。HumehadbeenintroducedtoPlacebyJamesMill，whothoughthimworth’nursing’。Placefoundhimatfirst’dullandselfish’，but’nursedhim’sowellby1836hehadbecomethe’manofmen。’——Wallas’sFrancisPlace，p。181，182。

37。Torren’sLifeofGraham，i，250-72，wherehisgreatspeechof14thMay1830isgiven。

38。2and3WilliamIV，cap。

111(passed15August1832)。

39。4and5WilliamIV，cap。

15。

40。ThePlatform，itsOriginandProgress，byHenryJephson(1892)，givesaveryinterestinghistoricalaccountoftheprocess。

41。57GeorgeIII，cap。19

and60GeorgeIII，cap。6。

42。SeeJephson’sPlatform，pp。167-70。

43。SeeJephson’sPlatform，i，348，455，517。

44。SeeIbid。，ii，129-40

forsomeinterestingpassagesastothis。

45。OfficialCorrespondence(1887)，308。

46。Greville’sGeorgeIV，andWilliamIV，iii，155，167-69，171。

47。Bentham’sWorks，x，571。

48。Romilly’sMemoirs，ii，67，222。

Chapter3：PoliticalTheoryI。MillonGovernmentInowturntothegeneralpoliticaltheoryofwhichMillwastheauthoritativeexponent，theEncyclopaediaarticleupon’Government’(1820)givesthepithoftheirdoctrine，itwas，asProfessorBain1thinks，an’impellingandaguidingforce’

inthemovementwhichculminatedintheReformBill，theyoungerUtilitariansregardedit，saysJ。S。Mill，as’amasterpieceofpoliticalwisdom’；2whileMacaulay3tauntsthemforholdingittobe’perfectandunanswerable。’ThisfamousarticleisaterseandenergeticsummaryofthedoctrineimpliedinBentham’sWorks，butthereobscuredunderelaborationofminutedetails。Itisrathersingular，indeed，thatsovigorousamanifestoofUtilitariandogmashouldhavebeenacceptedbyMacveyNapier——asoundWhig——forapublicationwhichprofessedscientificimpartiality。Ithas，however，inthehighestdegree，themeritsofclearnessandcondensationdesirableinapopularexposition。Thereticenceappropriatetotheplaceexcusestheomissionofcertainimplicitconclusions。Millhastogiveacompletetheoryofpoliticsinthirty-two8vopages。Hehasscantyroomforqualifyingstatementorhistoricalillustration，Hespeaksasfromthechairofaprofessorlayingdowntheelementaryprinciplesofademonstratedscience。4

Millstartsfromthesacredprinciple，theendofgovernment，astheendofallconduct，mustbetheincreaseofhumanhappiness，theprovinceofgovernmentislimitedbyanotherconsideration。Ithastodealwithoneclassofhappiness，thatis，withthepainsandpleasures’whichmenderivefromoneanother，’Bya’lawofnature’labourisrequisiteforprocuringthemeansofhappiness，Now，if’nature’producedallthatanymandesired，therewouldbenoneedofgovernment，fortherewouldbenoconflictofinterest，But，asthematerialproducedisfinite，andcanbeappropriatedbyindividuals，itbecomesnecessarytoinsuretoeverymanhispropershare，What，then，isaman’spropershare?Thatwhichhehimselfproduces；for，ifyougivetoonemanmorethantheproduceofhislabour，youmusttakeawaytheproduceofanotherman’slabour。Thegreatesthappiness，therefore，isproducedby’assuringtoeverymanthegreatestpossiblequantityoftheproduceofhisownlabour。’Howcanthisbedone?Willnotthestrongesttaketheshareoftheweakest?Hecanbepreventedinoneandapparentlyonlyinoneway。Menmustuniteanddelegatetoafewthepowernecessaryforprotectingall。’Thisisgovernment。’5

Theproblemisnowsimple。

Governmentisessentiallyanassociationofmenfortheprotectionofproperty。

Itisadelegationofthepowersnecessaryforthatpurposetotheguardians，and’allthedifficultquestionsofgovernmentrelatetothemeans’ofpreventingtheguardiansfromthemselvesbecomingplunderers。

Howisthistobeaccomplished?

Thepowerofprotection，saysMill。followingtheoldtheory，maybeintrustedtothewholecommunity，toafew，ortoone；thatis，wemayhaveademocracy，anaristocracy，oramonarchy。Ademocracy，ordirectgovernmentofallbyall，isfortheordinaryreasonspronouncedimpracticable。Buttheobjectionstotheothersystemsareconclusive。Theneedofgovernment，hehasshown，dependsupon’thelawofhumannature’6that’aman，ifable，willtakefromothersanythingwhichtheyhaveandhedesires。’Theveryprinciplewhichmakesgovernmentnecessary，therefore，willpromptagovernmenttodefeatitsownproperend。Mill’sdoctrineissofaridenticalwiththedoctrineofHobbes；menarenaturallyinastateofwar，andgovernmentimpliesatacitcontractbywhichmenconferuponasovereignthepowernecessaryforkeepingthepeace。Buthere，thoughadmittingtheforceofHobbes’sargument，hedivergesfromitsconclusion。Ifademocracybeimpossible，andanaristocracyormonarchynecessarilyoppressive，itmightseem，headmits，asitactuallyseemedtoHobbesandtotheFrencheconomists，thatthefewertheoppressorsthebetter，andthatthereforeanabsolutemonarchyisthebest。Experience，hethinks，is’onthesurface’ambiguous。EasterndespotsandRomanemperorshavebeentheworstscourgestomankind；yettheDanespreferredadespottoanaristocracy，andareas’wellgovernedasanypeopleinEurope。’InGreece，democracy，inspiteofitsdefects，producedthemostbrilliantresults。7Hence，heargues，wemustgo’beyondthesurface，’and’penetratetothespringswithin。’Theresultofthesearchisdiscouraging。Thehopeofgluttingtherulersisillusory。

Thereisno’pointofsaturation’8withtheobjectsofdesire，eitherforkingoraristocracy。Itisa’grandgoverninglawofhumannature’

thatwedesiresuchpoweraswillmake’thepersonsandpropertiesofhumanbeingssubservienttoourpleasures。’9Thisdesireisindefinitelygreat。Tothenumberofmenwhomwewouldforceintosubservience，andthedegreeinwhichwewouldmakethemsubservient，wecanassignnolimits。

Moreover，aspainisamorepowerfulinstrumentforsecuringobediencethanpleasure，amanwilldesiretopossess’unlimitedpowerofinflictingpainuponothers。’Willhealsodesire，itmaybeasked，tomakeuseofit?The’chainofinference，’hereplies，inthiscaseiscloseandstrong’toamostunusualdegree。’Amandesirestheactionsofotherstobeincorrespondencewithhisownwishes。’Terror’，willbethe’grandinstrument。’10Itthusfollowsthattheveryprincipleuponwhichgovernmentisfoundedleads，intheabsenceofchecks，’notonlytothatdegreeofplunderwhichleavesthemembers(ofacommunity)……Thebaremeansofsubsistence，buttothatdegreeofcrueltywhichisnecessarytokeepinexistencethemostintenseterror。’AnEnglishgentleman，hesays，isafavourablespecimenofcivilisation，andyetWestIndianslaveryshowsofwhatcrueltyhecouldbeguiltywhenunchecked。Ifequalcrueltyhasnotbeenexhibitedelsewhere，itis，heseemstothink，becausemenwerenot’thesameassheepinrespecttotheirshepherd，’11andmaythereforeresistifdriventoofar。Thedifficultyuponthisshowingistounderstandhowanygovernment，exceptthemostbrutaltyranny，everhasbeen，orevercanbe，possible。

Whatisthecombiningprinciplewhichcanweldtogethersuchamassofhostileandmutuallyrepellentatoms?Howtheycanevenformthenecessarycompactisdifficulttounderstand，andtheviewseemstoclashwithhisownavowedpurpose。ItisMill’saim，asitwasBentham’s，tosecurethegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber；andyetheseemstosetoutbyprovingasa’lawofhumannature’thatnobodycandesirethehappinessofanyoneexcepthimself。HequotesfromMontesquieuthesaying，whichshowsan’acutesenseofthisimportanttruth，’’thateveryonewhohaspowerisledtoabuseit。’12Ratheritwouldseem，accordingtoMill，allpowerimpliesabuseinitsveryessence。Theproblemseemstobehowtomakeuniversalcohesionoutofuniversalrepulsion。

Millhashisremedyforthisdeeplyseatedevil。Heattacks，asBenthamhadalreadydone，theold-fashionedtheory，accordingtowhichtheBritishConstitutionwasanadmirablemixtureofthethree’simpleforms。’Twoofthepowers，heargues，willalwaysagreeto’swallowupthethird。’13’Themonarchyandaristocracyhaveallpossiblemotivesforendeavouringtoobtainunlimitedpoweroverthepersonsandpropertyofthecommunity，’thoughthedemocracy，ashealsosays，haseverypossiblemotiveforpreventingthem。AndinEngland，ashenodoubtmeanthisreaderstounderstand，themonarchyandaristocracyhadtoagreatextentsucceeded。Where，then，arewetolook?Tothe’granddiscoveryofmoderntimes，’namely，therepresentativesystem。Ifthisdoesnotsolvealldifficultiesweshallbeforcedtotheconclusionthatgoodgovernmentisimpossible。Fortunately，however，therepresentativesystemmaybemadeperfectlyeffective。Thisfollowseasily。Itwould，ashehassaid，14bea’contradictioninterms’tosupposethatthecommunityatlargecan’haveaninterestoppositetoitsinterest。’