第12章

Heargues，justasMillwouldhaveargued，fromgeneralrulesabouthumannature。Selfishandignorantpeoplewill，hethinks，benaturallyinclinedtoplunder。Therefore，iftheyhavepower，theywillplunder。SoMillhadarguedthataselfishclasswouldruleforitsownsinisterinterestsandthereforenotforthehappinessofthegreatestnumber。Theargumentisthesame，anditistheonlylineofargumentwhichispossibletill，ifthatshouldeverhappen，agenuinescienceofpoliticsshallhavebeenconstituted。Theonlyquestioniswhetheritshalltakethepompofapriorispeculationorconcealitselfunderashowof’Baconianinduction。’

Ononepointtheyagree。

BothMillandMacaulayprofessunboundedconfidenceinthevirtueandwisdomofthemiddle，thatis，oftheirownclass。MacaulayhopesforareformbillwhichwillmakethevotesoftheHouseofCommons，theexpressimageoftheopinionofthemiddleordersofBritain。’44Millholdsthatthemiddleclasswillretainthismoralauthority，howeverwidelythefranchisebeextended；whileMacaulayfearsthattheywillbeswampedbyitsextensiontothemasses。ThereformbillwhichtheyjoinedinsupportingwasregardedbytheRadicalsasapaymentonaccount；whiletheWhighopedthatitwouldbeafullandfinaldischarge。TheRadicalheldthatnobarriersagainstdemocracywereneeded；hetookforgrantedthatademocracywouldfinditsnaturalleadersintheeducatedandintelligent。TheWhig，towhomsuchconfidenceappearedtobealtogethermisplaced，hadtofindsomejustificationforthe’checks’and’balances’whichhethoughtessential。

II。WHIGGISM

IhavespokenofMacaulay’sarticlesbecausetheyrepresentthemostpointedconflictbetweentheUtilitarianandtheWhig，Macaulaybelongsproperlytothenextgeneration，butheappearedasthemouthpieceoftheearliergroupofwriterswhoinMill’stimedeliveredthroughtheEdinburghReviewthetrueoraclesoftheWhigfaith。UponthatgroundMillhadassailedtheminhisarticle。

Theircreed，hesaid，wasa’see-saw。’TheWhigswerearistocratsasmuchastheTories。Theyweresimplythe’outs’whohopedtobethe’ins。’Theytrimmedtheirsailstocatchpublicopinion，butwerecarefulnottodriftintothetruepopularcurrents。Theyhadnodesiretolimitthepowerwhichtheyhopedonedaytopossess。Theywouldattackabuses——theslave-tradeorthepenallaws——togaincreditforliberalityandenlightenment，whentheabusesweresuchascouldberemovedwithoutinjuringthepowerofthearistocracy。Theycoulduse’vaguegeneralities’aboutlibertyandsoforth，butonlytoevadedefiniteapplications。Whenanymeasurewasproposedwhichreallythreatenedthepoweroftheprivilegedclasses，theycouldbringoutacontradictorysetoffinephrasesaboutJacobinismanddemocracy。Theirwholeargumentwasashuffleandtheythemselvesmereselfishtrimmers。45TothisJeffreyreplied(inDecember1826)

byacceptingtheposition。46Hepleadedguiltytoaloveof’trimming，’whichmeantaloveoftheBritishConstitution。Theconstitutionwasacompromise——abalanceofopposingforces——andtheonlyquestioncouldbewhethertheywereproperlybalanced。Theanswerwasfairenough。

Millwasimputingmotivestooeasily，andassumingthattheReviewerssawtheabusesinthesamelightashedid，andweretrucklingtopublicrobbersinhopesofsharingtheplunder。Hewasbreakingabutterflyuponawheel。TheEdinburghReviewerswerenotmissionariesofacreed。Theywereasetofbrilliantyoungmen，towhomtheReviewwasatfirstamerepastime，occupyingsuchleisureaswasallowedbytheirprofessionalpursuits。Theywereindeedmenofliberalsympathies，intelligentandindependentenoughtoholdbyapartywhichwasoutofpower。TheyhadreadHumeandVoltaireandRousseau；theyhadsatatthefeetofDugaldStewart；andwereinsympathywithintellectualliberalism。Buttheyweremenwhomeanttobecomejudges，membersofparliament，orevenbishops。

Nothingintheirsocialatmospherehadstimulatedthedeepresentmentagainstsocialinjusticewhichmakesthefanaticortheenthusiast。WemaytakeastheirinterpretertheWhigphilosopherJamesMackintosh(1765-1832)，amanofwidereading，bothinhistoryandphilosophy，aneloquentorator，andaveryablewriter。Mackintosh，saidColeridge，47isthe’kingofthemenoftalent’；bywhichwasintimatedthat，asamanoftalent，hewasnot，likesomepeople，amanofgenius。Mackintosh，thatis，wasamantoacceptplausibleformulaeandtomakethemmoreplausible；notamantopiercetotheheartofthings，orrevealfruitfulgermsofthought。

Hisintellectwasjudicial；giventocompromises，affectingajudiciousviamedia，andendeavouringtoreconcileantagonistictendencies。Thoroughgoingorone-sidedthinkers，andMillinparticular，regardedhimwithexcessiveantipathyasatypicalrepresentativeoftheoppositeintellectualtendencies。

Mackintosh’spoliticalattitudeisinstructive。AttheoutbreakoftheFrenchrevolutionhewasastrugglingyoungScot，seekinghisfortuneinLondon，justturningfrommedicinetothebar，andsupportinghimselfpartlybyjournalism。HebecamesecretarytotheSocietyofthe’FriendsofthePeople，’theWhigrivaloftherevolutionaryclubs，andinApril1791sprangintofamebyhisVindiciaeGallicae。TheWhigshadnotyetlostthefervourwithwhichtheyhadwelcomedthedownfalloftheBastille。

Burke’sReflections，theworkofagreatthinkerinastateofirritationborderinguponfrenzy，hadsoundedthenoteofalarm。Therevolution，asBurkemaintained，wasinfacttheavatarofadiabolicpower。Itmeantanattackupontheveryorganicprinciplesofsociety。Itthereforeimpliedacompletebreachofhistoricalcontinuity，andawaragainstthereverencefor’prescription’andtraditionwhichisessentialtoallhealthydevelopment。

Tohisextremeopponentsthesametheoryaffordedthejustificationoftherevolution。Itmeantthateveryinstitutionwastobethrownintothecrucible，andanewworldtoarisegovernedonlybyreason。TheviewveryablydefendedbyMackintoshwasopposedtoboth。HelooksupontheFrenchrevolutionasamorecompleteapplicationoftheprinciplesofLockeandtheEnglishWhigsof1688。Therevolutionistsare，asheurges，48applyingtheprincipleswhichhadbeenworkedoutbythe’philosophersofEurope’duringtheprecedingcentury。Theywerenot，asBurkeurged，rejectingexperiencefortheory。Therelationbetweentheirdoctrineandpoliticsisanalogoustotherelationbetweengeometryandmechanics。49WearenowinthepositionofapeoplewhoshouldbefamiliarwithNewton，butinshipbuildingbestillonalevelwiththeEsquimaux。The’rightsofman’appeartohimtomean，not，asBurkeandBenthamonceagreed，asetof’anarchicalfallacies，’butasetoffundamentalmoralprinciples；

andthedeclarationofthemamostwiseand’auspicious’commencementofthe’regeneratinglabours’ofthenewlegislators。TheFrenchrevolutionrepresentedwhatSomerswouldnowapproveifhehadouradvantages。50AthoroughgoingchangehadbecomenecessaryinFrance。Thechurch，army，andlawwerenow’incorrigible。’51Burkehadseen，intheconfiscationofchurchproperty，anattempttoabolishChristianity。ToMackintoshitseemedtobeareformjustifiableinprinciple，which，thoughtooroughlycarriedout，wouldreduce’aservileandimperiouspriesthoodtohumbleutility。’52Apoorpriesthood，indeed，mightinclinetopopularsuperstition。Wecouldconsoleourselvesbyreflectingthatthepowerofthechurch，asacorporation，wasbroken，andthattolerationandphilosophywouldrestrainfanaticism。53Theassignatswerestill’almostatpar。’54Thesaleofthenationalpropertywouldnearlyextinguishthedebt。Francehad’renouncedforevertheideaofconquest，’55andhadnotemptationstowar，excepthercolonies，theircommercialinutilityandpoliticalmischievousnesshadbeenso’unanimouslydemonstrated，’thattheFrenchempiremustsoonbedeliveredfrom’thiscumbrousanddestructiveappendage，’Anarmedpeople，moreover，couldneverbeusedlikeamercenaryarmytosuppressliberty，therewasnodangerofmilitarydespotism，andFrancewouldhereafterseekforapureglorybycultivatingtheartsofpeaceandextendingthehappinessofmankind。56

NowonderthatMackintosh，withtheseviews，thoughtthatthehistoryofthefalloftheBastillewould’kindleinunbornmillionstheholyenthusiasmoffreedom’；57orthat，intheearlydisorders，hesawtemporaryaberrationsofmobs，destinedtobespeedilysuppressedbythetrueleadersoftherevolution。

Mackintoshsaw，Itakeit，aboutasfarasmostphilosophers，thatis，aboutasfaraspeoplewhoarenotphilosophers。HeobservesmuchthatBurkeoughttohaveremembered，andkeepsfairlytothephilosophicalprinciplewhichheannouncesofattributingtherevolutiontogeneralcauses，andnottotheschemesofindividuals。58Whenassignatsbecamewastepaper，whentheguillotinegottowork，whenthereligionofreasonwasbeingsetupagainstChristianity，whentheFrenchwereconqueringEurope，whenamilitarydespotismwasarising，when，inshort，itbecamequiteclearthattheFrenchrevolutionmeantsomethingverydifferentfromaphilosophicalapplicationoftheprinciplesofLockeandAdamSmith，MackintoshbegantoseethatBurkehadnotsofarmissedthemark。Burke，beforedying，receivedhispenitentopponentatBeaconsfield；andin1800Mackintoshtooktheopportunityofpubliclydeclaringthathe’abhorred，abjured，andforeverrenouncedtheFrenchrevolution，withitssanguinaryhistory，itsabominableprinciples，anditseverexecrableleaders。’Hehopedto’wipeoffthedisgraceofhavingbeenoncebetrayedintothatabominableconspiracyagainstGodandman。’59InhisfamousdefenceofPeltier(1803)，hedenouncedtherevolutioninapassagewhichmighthavebeenadoptedfromBurke’sLettersonaRegicidePeace。60

InaremarkablelettertoWindham61of1806，MackintoshgiveshisestimateofBurke，andtakessomecredittohimselfforhavingdiscovered，eveninthetimeofhisyouthfulerrors，theconsistencyofBurke’sprinciples，asfoundeduponanabhorrenceof’abstractpolitics。’62Politics，henowthought，mustbemadescientificbyrecognisingwithBurkethesupremeimportanceofprescriptionandhistoriccontinuity，andbyadmittingthatthephilosophershadnotyetconstructedasciencebearingtopracticalpoliticsthesamerelationasgeometrytomechanics。HeappliedhistheorytothequestionofparliamentaryreformintheEdinburghReview。63Hereheacceptsthedoctrine，criticizedbyJamesMill，thataproperrepresentativesystemmustbejudged，not，asMillmaintained，solelybytheidentityofitsinterestwiththatofthecommunityatlarge，butbyitsfitnesstogivepowertodifferentclasses。Itfollowsthatthelandowners，theprofessionalclasses，andthepopulaceshouldallberepresented。AndhediscoversthatthevarietyoftheEnglishsystemwascalculatedtosecurethisend。Thoughitwasonlyinafewconstituenciesthatthepoorestclasshadavoice，theirvoteinsuchplacesrepresentedthesameclasselsewhere。

ItwasaswellthatthereshouldbesomeextremeRadicalstospeakforthepoorest。Buthethinksthatanyuniformsuffragewouldbebad，andthatuniversalsuffragewouldbethemostmischievousofallsystems。64Thatwouldmeantheswampingofoneclassbyall——a’tyrannymoreoppressive，perhaps，thananyothertyranny。Ifoneclassaloneweretoberepresented，itshouldbethefavouritemiddleclass，whichhasthe’largestshareofsenseandvirtue，’andismostconnectedininterestwithotherclasses。65Alegitimateaimofthelegislatoris，therefore，topreventanexcessofdemocracy。WithMackintoshitseemsessentialnotsimplytosuppress’sinisterinterests，’buttosaveboththearistocracyandthemiddleclassfrombeingcrushedbythelowerclasses。Theoppositionisvital；anditisplainthattheargumentforthearistocracy，thatis，forasystemdevelopedfromallmannerofhistoricalaccidentsandnotevolvedoutofanysimplelogicalprinciples，mustbedefendeduponempiricalgrounds。

MackintoshwasinIndiaduringtheearlyperiodoftheEdinburghReview。Jeffrey，aseditorforitsfirstquarterofacentury，maybetakenmorefullytorepresentitsspirit。Jeffrey’strenchant，ifnotswaggeringstyle，coveredaverytimid，sensitive，and，insomerespects，averyconservativetemperament。

Hisobjectiontothe’LakePoets’wastheobjectionoftheclassicaltotheromanticschool。Jeffrey’sbrightnessofintellectmayjustifyCarlyle’scomparisonofhimtoVoltaire，——onlyaVoltairequalifiedbydisliketomenwhowere’dreadfullyinearnest。’Jeffreywasaphilosophicalsceptic；

heinterpretedDugaldStewartasmeaningthatmetaphysics，beingallnonsense，wemustmakeshiftwithcommon-sense；andhewroteadissertationupontaste，toprovethattherearenorulesabouttastewhatever。Hewastoogenuineasceptictosacrificepeacetothehopelesssearchfortruth。

OneofthemoststrikingpassagesinhisEssays66isanattackupon’perfectibility。’Heutterlydisbelievesthatprogressinknowledgewillimprovemoralsordiminishwar，orcureanyoftheevilsthatfleshisheirto。Suchamanisnotofthematerialofwhichenthusiasticreformersaremade。Throughoutthewarhewasmoregovernedbyhisfearthanbyhiszeal。Hewasinconstantdreadoffailureabroadandruinathome。TheReviewprovokedtheTories，andinducedthemtostartitsrival，notbyadvocacyofpoliticalprinciples，butbyitsdespairingviewofthewar。67Hewasstilldesiringatthattime(1808)

toavoid’partypolitics’inthenarrowersense。

Thepoliticalviewcorrespondingtothisisgiveninthearticles，someofwhich(thoughtheauthorshipwasnotyetavowed)wereassailedbyMillintheWestminster。Inanearlyarticle68hedefendstheFrenchphilosophersagainsttheimputationofresponsibilityforthereignofterror，theirexcellentandhumanedoctrineshadbeenmisappliedbythe’exasperation’andprecipitationofinexperiencedvoters。HismostcharacteristicarticleisonepublishedinJanuary1810。

ThefailureoftheWalcherenexpeditionhadconfirmedhisdisbeliefinourmilitaryleaders；theriseofEnglishRadicalism，ledbyBurdettintheHouseofCommons，andCobbettinthepress，thewidelyspreaddistressandtheseverityofoppressivemeasures，rousedhiskeenestalarm。69Weare，hedeclared，betweentwoviolentandperniciousfactions——thecourtiersofarbitrarypowerandthedemocrats。IftheWhigleadersdidnotfirstconciliateandthenrestrainthepeople，thestruggleoftheextremepartieswouldsoonsweepawaytheconstitution，themonarchy，andtheWhigaristocracybywhichthatmonarchy’iscontrolled，confirmed，andexaltedaboveallotherformsofpolity。’Democracy，itwasplain，wasincreasingwithdangerousrapidity。Athirdofeveryman’sincomewasbeingtakenbytaxes，andaftertwentyyears’boastfulhostilitywewereleftwithoutasingleally。Consideringallthis，itseemsasthough’thewholesomedaysofEnglandwerenumbered，’andweareonthe’vergeofthemostdreadfulofallcalamities’——acivilwar。

JeffreyhaslearnedfromHumethatallgovernmentisultimatelyfoundeduponopinion。Thegreatthingistomaketheactionofpublicopinionregularandconstituted，thewholemachineryoftheconstitution，hesays，isfortheexpresspurposeof’preventingthekinglypowerfromdashingitselftopiecesagainstthemoreradicalpowerofthepeople。’70Themeritofarepresentativebodyisnottobetestedsimplybythegoodnessofitslegislation，butbyitsdiminishingtheintensityofthestruggleforthesupremepower。

Jeffreyinfactisaboveallpreoccupiedwiththedangerofrevolution，thepopularwillis，infact，supreme；repressionmayforceitintoexplosion；

butbyjudiciousmanagementitmaybetamedandtempered。Thenweneedaboveallthingsthatitshould，ashesaysinhisreplytoMill(December1826)，givetheir’naturalandwholesomeinfluencetowealthandrank。’

ThestabilityoftheEnglishConstitutiondepends，ashesaidin1810，uponthemonarchyandaristocracy，andtheirstabilityontheirbeingthenaturalgrowthofagesandhaving’strucktheirrootsdeepintoeverystratumofthepoliticalsoil。’