下载辰思小说免费APP
ThepracticewhichobtainsamongsttheAmericansoffixingthestandardoftheirjudgmentinthemselvesalone，leadsthemtootherhabitsofmind。Astheyperceivethattheysucceedinresolvingwithoutassistanceallthelittledifficultieswhichtheirpracticallifepresents，theyreadilyconcludethateverythingintheworldmaybeexplained，andthatnothinginittranscendsthelimitsoftheunderstanding。Thustheyfalltodenyingwhattheycannotcomprehend;whichleavesthembutlittlefaithforwhateverisextraordinary，andanalmostinsurmountabledistasteforwhateverissupernatural。Asitisontheirowntestimonythattheyareaccustomedtorely，theyliketodiscerntheobjectwhichengagestheirattentionwithextremeclearness;
theythereforestripoffasmuchaspossibleallthatcoversit，theyridthemselvesofwhateverseparatesthemfromit，theyremovewhateverconcealsitfromsight，inordertoviewitmorecloselyandinthebroadlightofday。Thisdispositionofthemindsoonleadsthemtocontemnforms，whichtheyregardasuselessandinconvenientveilsplacedbetweenthemandthetruth。
TheAmericansthenhavenotrequiredtoextracttheirphilosophicalmethodfrombooks;theyhavefounditinthemselves。ThesamethingmayberemarkedinwhathastakenplaceinEurope。ThissamemethodhasonlybeenestablishedandmadepopularinEuropeinproportionastheconditionofsocietyhasbecomemoreequal，andmenhavegrownmorelikeeachother。
Letusconsiderforamomenttheconnectionoftheperiodsinwhichthischangemaybetraced。InthesixteenthcenturytheReformerssubjectedsomeofthedogmasoftheancientfaithtothescrutinyofprivatejudgment;buttheystillwithheldfromitthejudgmentofalltherest。Intheseventeenthcentury，Baconinthenaturalsciences，andDescartesinthestudyofphilosophyinthestrictsenseoftheterm，abolishedrecognizedformulas，destroyedtheempireoftradition，andoverthrewtheauthorityoftheschools。Thephilosophersoftheeighteenthcentury，generalizingatlengththesameprinciple，undertooktosubmittotheprivatejudgmentofeachmanalltheobjectsofhisbelief。
WhodoesnotperceivethatLuther，Descartes，andVoltaireemployedthesamemethod，andthattheydifferedonlyinthegreaterorlessusewhichtheyprofessedshouldbemadeofit？
WhydidtheReformersconfinethemselvessocloselywithinthecircleofreligiousideas？WhydidDescartes，choosingonlytoapplyhismethodtocertainmatters，thoughhehadmadeitfittobeappliedtoall，declarethatmenmightjudgeforthemselvesinmattersphilosophicalbutnotinmatterspolitical？Howhappeneditthatintheeighteenthcenturythosegeneralapplicationswereallatoncedrawnfromthissamemethod，whichDescartesandhispredecessorshadeithernotperceivedorhadrejected？Towhat，lastly，isthefacttobeattributed，thatatthisperiodthemethodwearespeakingofsuddenlyemergedfromtheschools，topenetrateintosocietyandbecomethecommonstandardofintelligence;andthat，afterithadbecomepopularamongtheFrench，ithasbeenostensiblyadoptedorsecretlyfollowedbyallthenationsofEurope？
Thephilosophicalmethodheredesignatedmayhavebeenengenderedinthesixteenthcentury—itmayhavebeenmoreaccuratelydefinedandmoreextensivelyappliedintheseventeenth;butneitherintheonenorintheothercoulditbecommonlyadopted。Politicallaws，theconditionofsociety，andthehabitsofmindwhicharederivedfromthesecauses，wereasyetopposedtoit。Itwasdiscoveredatatimewhenmenwerebeginningtoequalizeandassimilatetheirconditions。Itcouldonlybegenerallyfollowedinageswhenthoseconditionshadatlengthbecomenearlyequal，andmennearlyalike。
ThephilosophicalmethodoftheeighteenthcenturyisthennotonlyFrench，butitisdemocratic;andthisexplainswhyitwassoreadilyadmittedthroughoutEurope，whereithascontributedsopowerfullytochangethefaceofsociety。ItisnotbecausetheFrenchhavechangedtheirformeropinions，andalteredtheirformermanners，thattheyhaveconvulsedtheworld;
butbecausetheywerethefirsttogeneralizeandbringtolightaphilosophicalmethod，bytheassistanceofwhichitbecameeasytoattackallthatwasold，andtoopenapathtoallthatwasnew。
Ifitbeaskedwhy，atthepresentday，thissamemethodismorerigorouslyfollowedandmorefrequentlyappliedbytheFrenchthanbytheAmericans，althoughtheprincipleofequalitybenolesscomplete，andofmoreancientdate，amongstthelatterpeople，thefactmaybeattributedtotwocircumstances，whichitisessentialtohaveclearlyunderstoodinthefirstinstance。
ItmustneverbeforgottenthatreligiongavebirthtoAnglo—Americansociety。IntheUnitedStatesreligionisthereforecommingledwithallthehabitsofthenationandallthefeelingsofpatriotism;whenceitderivesapeculiarforce。
Tothispowerfulreasonanotherofnolessintensitymaybeadded:inAmericanreligionhas，asitwere，laiddownitsownlimits。Religiousinstitutionshaveremainedwhollydistinctfrompoliticalinstitutions，sothatformerlawshavebeeneasilychangedwhilstformerbeliefhasremainedunshaken。ChristianityhasthereforeretainedastrongholdonthepublicmindinAmerica;and，Iwouldmoreparticularlyremark，thatitsswayisnotonlythatofaphilosophicaldoctrinewhichhasbeenadopteduponinquiry，butofareligionwhichisbelievedwithoutdiscussion。IntheUnitedStatesChristiansectsareinfinitelydiversifiedandperpetuallymodified;butChristianityitselfisafactsoirresistiblyestablished，thatnooneundertakeseithertoattackortodefendit。TheAmericans，havingadmittedtheprincipaldoctrinesoftheChristianreligionwithoutinquiry，areobligedtoacceptinlikemanneragreatnumberofmoraltruthsoriginatinginitandconnectedwithit。Hencetheactivityofindividualanalysisisrestrainedwithinnarrowlimits，andmanyofthemostimportantofhumanopinionsareremovedfromtherangeofitsinfluence。
ThesecondcircumstancetowhichIhavealludedisthefollowing:thesocialconditionandtheconstitutionoftheAmericansaredemocratic，buttheyhavenothadademocraticrevolution。Theyarriveduponthesoiltheyoccupyinnearlytheconditioninwhichweseethematthepresentday;andthisisofveryconsiderableimportance。
Therearenorevolutionswhichdonotshakeexistingbelief，enervateauthority，andthrowdoubtsovercommonlyreceivedideas。Theeffectofallrevolutionsistherefore，moreorless，tosurrendermentotheirownguidance，andtoopentothemindofeverymanavoidandalmostunlimitedrangeofspeculation。
Whenequalityofconditionssucceedsaprotractedconflictbetweenthedifferentclassesofwhichtheeldersocietywascomposed，envy，hatred，anduncharitableness，pride，andexaggeratedself—confidenceareapttoseizeuponthehumanheart，andplanttheirswaythereforatime。This，independentlyofequalityitself，tendspowerfullytodividemen—toleadthemtomistrustthejudgmentofothers，andtoseekthelightoftruthnowherebutintheirownunderstandings。
Everyonethenattemptstobehisownsufficientguide，andmakesithisboasttoformhisownopinionsonallsubjects。Menarenolongerboundtogetherbyideas，butbyinterests;anditwouldseemasifhumanopinionswerereducedtoasortofintellectualdust，scatteredoneveryside，unabletocollect，unabletocohere。
Thus，thatindependenceofmindwhichequalitysupposestoexist，isneversogreat，noreverappearssoexcessive，asatthetimewhenequalityisbeginningtoestablishitself，andinthecourseofthatpainfullaborbywhichitisestablished。
Thatsortofintellectualfreedomwhichequalitymaygiveought，therefore，tobeverycarefullydistinguishedfromtheanarchywhichrevolutionbrings。Eachofthesetwothingsmustbeseverallyconsidered，inordernottoconceiveexaggeratedhopesorfearsofthefuture。
Ibelievethatthemenwhowillliveunderthenewformsofsocietywillmakefrequentuseoftheirprivatejudgment;butI
amfarfromthinkingthattheywilloftenabuseit。Thisisattributabletoacauseofmoregeneralapplicationtoalldemocraticcountries，andwhich，inthelongrun，mustneedsrestraininthemtheindependenceofindividualspeculationwithinfixed，andsometimesnarrow，limits。Ishallproceedtopointoutthiscauseinthenextchapter。
ChapterII:OfThePrincipalSourceOfBeliefAmongDemocraticNationsAtdifferentperiodsdogmaticalbeliefismoreorlessabundant。Itarisesindifferentways，anditmaychangeitsobjectoritsform;butundernocircumstanceswilldogmaticalbeliefceasetoexist，or，inotherwords，menwillneverceasetoentertainsomeimplicitopinionswithouttryingthembyactualdiscussion。Ifeveryoneundertooktoformhisownopinionsandtoseekfortruthbyisolatedpathsstruckoutbyhimselfalone，itisnottobesupposedthatanyconsiderablenumberofmenwouldeveruniteinanycommonbelief。Butobviouslywithoutsuchcommonbeliefnosocietycanprosper—sayrathernosocietycansubsist;forwithoutideasheldincommon，thereisnocommonaction，andwithoutcommonaction，theremaystillbemen，butthereisnosocialbody。Inorderthatsocietyshouldexist，and，afortiori，thatasocietyshouldprosper，itisrequiredthatallthemindsofthecitizensshouldberalliedandheldtogetherbycertainpredominantideas;andthiscannotbethecase，unlesseachofthemsometimesdrawshisopinionsfromthecommonsource，andconsentstoacceptcertainmattersofbeliefatthehandsofthecommunity。
IfInowconsidermaninhisisolatedcapacity，Ifindthatdogmaticalbeliefisnotlessindispensabletohiminordertolivealone，thanitistoenablehimtoco—operatewithhisfellow—creatures。Ifmanwereforcedtodemonstratetohimselfallthetruthsofwhichhemakesdailyuse，histaskwouldneverend。Hewouldexhausthisstrengthinpreparatoryexercises，withoutadvancingbeyondthem。As，fromtheshortnessofhislife，hehasnotthetime，nor，fromthelimitsofhisintelligence，thecapacity，toaccomplishthis，heisreducedtotakeupontrustanumberoffactsandopinionswhichhehasnothadeitherthetimeorthepowertoverifyhimself，butwhichmenofgreaterabilityhavesoughtout，orwhichtheworldadopts。Onthisgroundworkheraisesforhimselfthestructureofhisownthoughts;norisheledtoproceedinthismannerbychoicesomuchasheisconstrainsdbytheinflexiblelawofhiscondition。
Thereisnophilosopherofsuchgreatpartsintheworld，butthathebelievesamillionofthingsonthefaithofotherpeople，andsupposesagreatmanymoretruthsthanhedemonstrates。Thisisnotonlynecessarybutdesirable。Amanwhoshouldundertaketoinquireintoeverythingforhimself，coulddevotetoeachthingbutlittletimeandattention。Histaskwouldkeephismindinperpetualunrest，whichwouldpreventhimfrompenetratingtothedepthofanytruth，orofgrapplinghismindindissolublytoanyconviction。Hisintellectwouldbeatonceindepe
