第17章

Itcannotbedeniedthattheunrestrainedlibertyofassociationforpoliticalpurposesistheprivilegewhichapeopleislongestinlearninghowtoexercise。Ifitdoesnotthrowthenationintoanarchy，itperpetuallyaugmentsthechancesofthatcalamity。Ononepoint，however，thisperilouslibertyoffersasecurityagainstdangersofanotherkind;incountrieswhereassociationsarefree，secretsocietiesareunknown。InAmericatherearenumerousfactions，butnoconspiracies。

DifferentwaysinwhichtherightofassociationisunderstoodinEuropeandintheUnitedStates—Differentusewhichismadeofit。

Themostnaturalprivilegeofman，nexttotherightofactingforhimself，isthatofcombininghisexertionswiththoseofhisfellow—creatures，andofactingincommonwiththem。Iamthereforeledtoconcludethattherightofassociationisalmostasinalienableastherightofpersonalliberty。Nolegislatorcanattackitwithoutimpairingtheveryfoundationsofsociety。

Nevertheless，ifthelibertyofassociationisafruitfulsourceofadvantagesandprosperitytosomenations，itmaybepervertedorcarriedtoexcessbyothers，andtheelementoflifemaybechangedintoanelementofdestruction。Acomparisonofthedifferentmethodswhichassociationspursueinthosecountriesinwhichtheyaremanagedwithdiscretion，aswellasinthosewherelibertydegeneratesintolicense，mayperhapsbethoughtusefulbothtogovernmentsandtoparties。

ThegreaterpartofEuropeanslookuponanassociationasaweaponwhichistobehastilyfashioned，andimmediatelytriedintheconflict。Asocietyisformedfordiscussion，buttheideaofimpendingactionprevailsinthemindsofthosewhoconstituteit:itis，infact，anarmy;andthetimegiventoparleyservestoreckonupthestrengthandtoanimatethecourageofthehost，afterwhichtheydirecttheirmarchagainsttheenemy。Resourceswhichliewithintheboundsofthelawmaysuggestthemselvestothepersonswhocomposeitasmeans，butneverastheonlymeans，ofsuccess。

Such，however，isnotthemannerinwhichtherightofassociationisunderstoodintheUnitedStates。InAmericathecitizenswhoformtheminorityassociate，inorder，inthefirstplace，toshowtheirnumericalstrength，andsotodiminishthemoralauthorityofthemajority;and，inthesecondplace，tostimulatecompetition，andtodiscoverthoseargumentswhicharemostfittedtoactuponthemajority;fortheyalwaysentertainhopesofdrawingovertheiropponentstotheirownside，andofafterwardsdisposingofthesupremepowerintheirname。

PoliticalassociationsintheUnitedStatesarethereforepeaceableintheirintentions，andstrictlylegalinthemeanswhichtheyemploy;andtheyassertwithperfecttruththattheyonlyaimatsuccessbylawfulexpedients。

ThedifferencewhichexistsbetweentheAmericansandourselvesdependsonseveralcauses。InEuropetherearenumerouspartiessodiametricallyopposedtothemajoritythattheycanneverhopetoacquireitssupport，andatthesametimetheythinkthattheyaresufficientlystronginthemselvestostruggleandtodefendtheircause。Whenapartyofthiskindformsanassociation，itsobjectis，nottoconquer，buttofight。InAmericatheindividualswhoholdopinionsverymuchopposedtothoseofthemajorityarenosortofimpedimenttoitspower，andallotherpartieshopetowinitovertotheirownprinciplesintheend。Theexerciseoftherightofassociationbecomesdangerousinproportiontotheimpossibilitywhichexcludesgreatpartiesfromacquiringthemajority。InacountryliketheUnitedStates，inwhichthedifferencesofopinionaremeredifferencesofhue，therightofassociationmayremainunrestrainedwithoutevilconsequences。TheinexperienceofmanyoftheEuropeannationsintheenjoymentoflibertyleadsthemonlytolookuponthelibertyofassociationasarightofattackingtheGovernment。Thefirstnotionwhichpresentsitselftoaparty，aswellastoanindividual，whenithasacquiredaconsciousnessofitsownstrength，isthatofviolence:thenotionofpersuasionarisesatalaterperiodandisonlyderivedfromexperience。TheEnglish，whoaredividedintopartieswhichdiffermostessentiallyfromeachother，rarelyabusetherightofassociation，becausetheyhavelongbeenaccustomedtoexerciseit。InFrancethepassionforwarissointensethatthereisnoundertakingsomad，orsoinjurioustothewelfareoftheState，thatamandoesnotconsiderhimselfhonoredindefendingit，attheriskofhislife。

ButperhapsthemostpowerfulofthecauseswhichtendtomitigatetheexcessesofpoliticalassociationintheUnitedStatesisUniversalSuffrage。Incountriesinwhichuniversalsuffrageexiststhemajorityisneverdoubtful，becauseneitherpartycanpretendtorepresentthatportionofthecommunitywhichhasnotvoted。Theassociationswhichareformedareaware，aswellasthenationatlarge，thattheydonotrepresentthemajority:thisis，indeed，aconditioninseparablefromtheirexistence;foriftheydidrepresentthepreponderatingpower，theywouldchangethelawinsteadofsolicitingitsreform。TheconsequenceofthisisthatthemoralinfluenceoftheGovernmentwhichtheyattackisverymuchincreased，andtheirownpowerisverymuchenfeebled。

InEuropetherearefewassociationswhichdonotaffecttorepresentthemajority，orwhichdonotbelievethattheyrepresentit。Thisconvictionorthispretensiontendstoaugmenttheirforceamazingly，andcontributesnolesstolegalizetheirmeasures。Violencemayseemtobeexcusableindefenceofthecauseofoppressedright。Thusitis，inthevastlabyrinthofhumanlaws，thatextremelibertysometimescorrectstheabusesoflicense，andthatextremedemocracyobviatesthedangersofdemocraticgovernment。InEurope，associationsconsiderthemselves，insomedegree，asthelegislativeandexecutivecouncilsofthepeople，whichisunabletospeakforitself。InAmerica，wheretheyonlyrepresentaminorityofthenation，theyargueandtheypetition。

ThemeanswhichtheassociationsofEuropeemployareinaccordancewiththeendwhichtheyproposetoobtain。Astheprincipalaimofthesebodiesistoact，andnottodebate，tofightratherthantopersuade，theyarenaturallyledtoadoptaformoforganizationwhichdiffersfromtheordinarycustomsofcivilbodies，andwhichassumesthehabitsandthemaximsofmilitarylife。Theycentralizethedirectionoftheirresourcesasmuchaspossible，andtheyintrustthepowerofthewholepartytoaverysmallnumberofleaders。

Themembersoftheseassociationsrespondtoawatchword，likesoldiersonduty;theyprofessthedoctrineofpassiveobedience;sayrather，thatinunitingtogethertheyatonceabjuretheexerciseoftheirownjudgmentandfreewill;andthetyrannicalcontrolwhichthesesocietiesexerciseisoftenfarmoreinsupportablethantheauthoritypossessedoversocietybytheGovernmentwhichtheyattack。Theirmoralforceismuchdiminishedbytheseexcesses，andtheylosethepowerfulinterestwhichisalwaysexcitedbyastrugglebetweenoppressorsandtheoppressed。Themanwhoingivencasesconsentstoobeyhisfellowswithservility，andwhosubmitshisactivityandevenhisopinionstotheircontrol，canhavenoclaimtorankasafreecitizen。

TheAmericanshavealsoestablishedcertainformsofgovernmentwhichareappliedtotheirassociations，buttheseareinvariablyborrowedfromtheformsoftheciviladministration。

Theindependenceofeachindividualisformallyrecognized;thetendencyofthemembersoftheassociationpoints，asitdoesinthebodyofthecommunity，towardsthesameend，buttheyarenotobligedtofollowthesametrack。Nooneabjurestheexerciseofhisreasonandhisfreewill;buteveryoneexertsthatreasonandthatwillforthebenefitofacommonundertaking。

ChapterXIII:GovernmentOfTheDemocracyInAmerica—PartI

Iamwellawareofthedifficultieswhichattendthispartofmysubject，butalthougheveryexpressionwhichIamabouttomakeuseofmayclash，uponsomeonepoint，withthefeelingsofthedifferentpartieswhichdividemycountry，Ishallspeakmyopinionwiththemostperfectopenness。

InEuropeweareatalosshowtojudgethetruecharacterandthemorepermanentpropensitiesofdemocracy，becauseinEuropetwoconflictingprinciplesexist，andwedonotknowwhattoattributetotheprinciplesthemselves，andwhattorefertothepassionswhichtheybringintocollision。Such，however，isnotthecaseinAmerica;therethepeoplereignswithoutanyobstacle，andithasnoperilstodreadandnoinjuriestoavenge。InAmerica，democracyisswayedbyitsownfreepropensities;itscourseisnaturalanditsactivityisunrestrained;theUnitedStatesconsequentlyaffordthemostfavorableopportunityofstudyingitsrealcharacter。AndtonopeoplecanthisinquirybemorevitallyinterestingthantotheFrenchnation，whichisblindlydrivenonwardsbyadailyandirresistibleimpulsetowardsastateofthingswhichmayproveeitherdespoticorrepublican，butwhichwillassuredlybedemocratic。

UniversalSuffrageIhavealreadyobservedthatuniversalsuffragehasbeenadoptedinalltheStatesoftheUnion;itconsequentlyoccursamongstdifferentpopulationswhichoccupyverydifferentpositionsinthescaleofsociety。Ihavehadopportunitiesofobservingitseffectsindifferentlocalities，andamongstracesofmenwhoarenearlystrangerstoeachotherbytheirlanguage，theirreligion，andtheirmanneroflife;inLouisianaaswellasinNewEngland，inGeorgiaandinCanada。IhaveremarkedthatUniversalSuffrageisfarfromproducinginAmericaeitherallthegoodoralltheevilconsequenceswhichareassignedtoitinEurope，andthatitseffectsdifferverywidelyfromthosewhichareusuallyattributedtoit。

ChoiceOfThePeople，AndInstinctivePreferencesOfTheAmericanDemocracyIntheUnitedStatesthemostablemenarerarelyplacedattheheadofaffairs—Reasonofthispeculiarity—TheenvywhichprevailsinthelowerordersofFranceagainstthehigherclassesisnotaFrench，butapurelydemocraticsentiment—ForwhatreasonthemostdistinguishedmeninAmericafrequentlysecludethemselvesfrompublicaffairs。

ManypeopleinEuropeareapttobelievewithoutsayingit，ortosaywithoutbelievingit，thatoneofthegreatadvantagesofuniversalsuffrageis，thatitentruststhedirectionofpublicaffairstomenwhoareworthyofthepublicconfidence。

Theyadmitthatthepeopleisunabletogovernforitself，buttheyaverthatitisalwayssincerelydisposedtopromotethewelfareoftheState，andthatitinstinctivelydesignatesthosepersonswhoareanimatedbythesamegoodwishes，andwhoarethemostfittowieldthesupremeauthority。IconfessthattheobservationsImadeinAmericabynomeanscoincidewiththeseopinions。OnmyarrivalintheUnitedStatesIwassurprisedtofindsomuchdistinguishedtalentamongthesubjects，andsolittleamongtheheadsoftheGovernment。Itisawell—authenticatedfact，thatatthepresentdaythemostablemenintheUnitedStatesareveryrarelyplacedattheheadofaffairs;anditmustbeacknowledgedthatsuchhasbeentheresultinproportionasdemocracyhasoutsteppedallitsformerlimits。TheraceofAmericanstatesmenhasevidentlydwindledmostremarkablyinthecourseofthelastfiftyyears。

Severalcausesmaybeassignedtothisphenomenon。Itisimpossible，notwithstandingthemoststrenuousexertions，toraisetheintelligenceofthepeopleaboveacertainlevel。

Whatevermaybethefacilitiesofacquiringinformation，whatevermaybetheprofusionofeasymethodsandofcheapscience，thehumanmindcanneverbeinstructedandeducatedwithoutdevotingaconsiderablespaceoftimetothoseobjects。

Thegreaterorthelesserpossibilityofsubsistingwithoutlaboristhereforethenecessaryboundaryofintellectualimprovement。Thisboundaryismoreremoteinsomecountriesandmorerestrictedinothers;butitmustexistsomewhereaslongasthepeopleisconstrainedtoworkinordertoprocurethemeansofphysicalsubsistence，thatistosay，aslongasitretainsitspopularcharacter。ItisthereforequiteasdifficulttoimagineaStateinwhichallthecitizensshouldbeverywellinformedasaStateinwhichtheyshouldallbewealthy;thesetwodifficultiesmaybelookeduponascorrelative。Itmayveryreadilybeadmittedthatthemassofthecitizensaresincerelydisposedtopromotethewelfareoftheircountry;naymore，itmayevenbeallowedthatthelowerclassesarelessapttobeswayedbyconsiderationsofpersonalinterestthanthehigherorders:butitisalwaysmoreorlessimpossibleforthemtodiscernthebestmeansofattainingtheendwhichtheydesirewithsincerity。Longandpatientobservation，joinedtoamultitudeofdifferentnotions，isrequiredtoformajustestimateofthecharacterofasingleindividual;andcanitbesupposedthatthevulgarhavethepowerofsucceedinginaninquirywhichmisleadsthepenetrationofgeniusitself？Thepeoplehasneitherthetimenorthemeanswhichareessentialtotheprosecutionofaninvestigationofthiskind:itsconclusionsarehastilyformedfromasuperficialinspectionofthemoreprominentfeaturesofaquestion。Henceitoftenassentstotheclamorofamountebankwhoknowsthesecretofstimulatingitstastes，whileitstruestfriendsfrequentlyfailintheirexertions。

Moreover，thedemocracyisnotonlydeficientinthatsoundnessofjudgmentwhichisnecessarytoselectmenreallydeservingofitsconfidence，butithasneitherthedesirenortheinclinationtofindthemout。Itcannotbedeniedthatdemocraticinstitutionshaveaverystrongtendencytopromotethefeelingofenvyinthehumanheart;notsomuchbecausetheyaffordtoeveryonethemeansofrisingtothelevelofanyofhisfellow—citizens，asbecausethosemeansperpetuallydisappointthepersonswhoemploythem。Democraticinstitutionsawakenandfosterapassionforequalitywhichtheycanneverentirelysatisfy。Thiscompleteequalityeludesthegraspofthepeopleattheverymomentatwhichitthinkstoholditfast，and"flies，"asPascalsays，"witheternalflight";thepeopleisexcitedinthepursuitofanadvantage，whichismorepreciousbecauseitisnotsufficientlyremotetobeunknown，orsufficientlyneartobeenjoyed。Thelowerordersareagitatedbythechanceofsuccess，theyareirritatedbyitsuncertainty;andtheypassfromtheenthusiasmofpursuittotheexhaustionofill—success，andlastlytotheacrimonyofdisappointment。

Whatevertranscendstheirownlimitsappearstobeanobstacletotheirdesires，andthereisnokindofsuperiority，howeverlegitimateitmaybe，whichisnotirksomeintheirsight。

IthasbeensupposedthatthesecretinstinctwhichleadsthelowerorderstoremovetheirsuperiorsasmuchaspossiblefromthedirectionofpublicaffairsispeculiartoFrance。

This，however，isanerror;thepropensitytowhichIalludeisnotinherentinanyparticularnation，butindemocraticinstitutionsingeneral;andalthoughitmayhavebeenheightenedbypeculiarpoliticalcircumstances，itowesitsorigintoahighercause。

IntheUnitedStatesthepeopleisnotdisposedtohatethesuperiorclassesofsociety;butitisnotveryfavorablyinclinedtowardsthem，anditcarefullyexcludesthemfromtheexerciseofauthority。Itdoesnotentertainanydreadofdistinguishedtalents，butitisrarelycaptivatedbythem;anditawardsitsapprobationverysparinglytosuchashaverisenwithoutthepopularsupport。

Whilstthenaturalpropensitiesofdemocracyinducethepeopletorejectthemostdistinguishedcitizensasitsrulers，theseindividualsarenolessapttoretirefromapoliticalcareerinwhichitisalmostimpossibletoretaintheirindependence，ortoadvancewithoutdegradingthemselves。ThisopinionhasbeenverycandidlysetforthbyChancellorKent，whosays，inspeakingwithgreateulogiumsofthatpartoftheConstitutionwhichempowerstheExecutivetonominatethejudges:

"Itisindeedprobablethatthemenwhoarebestfittedtodischargethedutiesofthishighofficewouldhavetoomuchreserveintheirmanners，andtoomuchausterityintheirprinciples，forthemtobereturnedbythemajorityatanelectionwhereuniversalsuffrageisadopted。"SuchweretheopinionswhichwereprintedwithoutcontradictioninAmericaintheyear1830！

Iholdittobesufficientlydemonstratedthatuniversalsuffrageisbynomeansaguaranteeofthewisdomofthepopularchoice，andthat，whateveritsadvantagesmaybe，thisisnotoneofthem。

CausesWhichMayPartlyCorrectTheseTendenciesOfTheDemocracyContraryeffectsproducedonpeoplesaswellasonindividualsbygreatdangers—WhysomanydistinguishedmenstoodattheheadofaffairsinAmericafiftyyearsago—Influencewhichtheintelligenceandthemannersofthepeopleexerciseuponitschoice—ExampleofNewEngland—StatesoftheSouthwest—

Influenceofcertainlawsuponthechoiceofthepeople—

Electionbyanelectedbody—ItseffectsuponthecompositionoftheSenate。

WhenaStateisthreatenedbyseriousdangers，thepeoplefrequentlysucceedsinselectingthecitizenswhoarethemostabletosaveit。Ithasbeenobservedthatmanrarelyretainshiscustomarylevelinpresenceofverycriticalcircumstances;

herisesaboveorhesinksbelowhisusualcondition，andthesamethingoccursinnationsatlarge。Extremeperilssometimesquenchtheenergyofapeopleinsteadofstimulatingit;theyexcitewithoutdirectingitspassions，andinsteadofclearingtheyconfuseitspowersofperception。TheJewsdelugedthesmokingruinsoftheirtemplewiththecarnageoftheremnantoftheirhost。Butitismorecommon，bothinthecaseofnationsandinthatofindividuals，tofindextraordinaryvirtuesarisingfromtheveryimminenceofthedanger。Greatcharactersarethenthrownintorelief，asedificeswhichareconcealedbythegloomofnightareilluminatedbytheglareofaconflagration。Atthosedangeroustimesgeniusnolongerabstainsfrompresentingitselfinthearena;andthepeople，alarmedbytheperilsofitssituation，buriesitsenviouspassionsinashortoblivion。Greatnamesmaythenbedrawnfromtheballoting—box。

IhavealreadyobservedthattheAmericanstatesmenofthepresentdayareveryinferiortothosewhostoodattheheadofaffairsfiftyyearsago。Thisisasmuchaconsequenceofthecircumstancesasofthelawsofthecountry。WhenAmericawasstrugglinginthehighcauseofindependencetothrowofftheyokeofanothercountry，andwhenitwasabouttousheranewnationintotheworld，thespiritsofitsinhabitantswererousedtotheheightwhichtheirgreateffortsrequired。Inthisgeneralexcitementthemostdistinguishedmenwerereadytoforestallthewantsofthecommunity，andthepeopleclungtothemforsupport，andplacedthematitshead。Buteventsofthismagnitudearerare，anditisfromaninspectionoftheordinarycourseofaffairsthatourjudgmentmustbeformed。

Ifpassingoccurrencessometimesactaschecksuponthepassionsofdemocracy，theintelligenceandthemannersofthecommunityexerciseaninfluencewhichisnotlesspowerfulandfarmorepermanent。ThisisextremelyperceptibleintheUnitedStates。

InNewEnglandtheeducationandthelibertiesofthecommunitieswereengenderedbythemoralandreligiousprinciplesoftheirfounders。Wheresocietyhasacquiredasufficientdegreeofstabilitytoenableittoholdcertainmaximsandtoretainfixedhabits，thelowerordersareaccustomedtorespectintellectualsuperiorityandtosubmittoitwithoutcomplaint，althoughtheysetatnaughtallthoseprivilegeswhichwealthandbirthhaveintroducedamongmankind。ThedemocracyinNewEnglandconsequentlymakesamorejudiciouschoicethanitdoeselsewhere。

ButaswedescendtowardstheSouth，tothoseStatesinwhichtheconstitutionofsocietyismoremodernandlessstrong，whereinstructionislessgeneral，andwheretheprinciplesofmorality，ofreligion，andoflibertyarelesshappilycombined，weperceivethatthetalentsandthevirtuesofthosewhoareinauthoritybecomemoreandmorerare。

Lastly，whenwearriveatthenewSouth—westernStates，inwhichtheconstitutionofsocietydatesbutfromyesterday，andpresentsanagglomerationofadventurersandspeculators，weareamazedatthepersonswhoareinvestedwithpublicauthority，andweareledtoaskbywhatforce，independentofthelegislationandofthemenwhodirectit，theStatecanbeprotected，andsocietybemadetoflourish。

Therearecertainlawsofademocraticnaturewhichcontribute，nevertheless，tocorrect，insomemeasure，thedangeroustendenciesofdemocracy。OnenteringtheHouseofRepresentativesofWashingtononeisstruckbythevulgardemeanorofthatgreatassembly。Theeyefrequentlydoesnotdiscoveramanofcelebritywithinitswalls。Itsmembersarealmostallobscureindividualswhosenamespresentnoassociationstothemind:theyaremostlyvillagelawyers，menintrade，orevenpersonsbelongingtothelowerclassesofsociety。

Inacountryinwhicheducationisverygeneral，itissaidthattherepresentativesofthepeopledonotalwaysknowhowtowritecorrectly。

Atafewyards’distancefromthisspotisthedooroftheSenate，whichcontainswithinasmallspacealargeproportionofthecelebratedmenofAmerica。Scarcelyanindividualistobeperceivedinitwhodoesnotrecalltheideaofanactiveandillustriouscareer:theSenateiscomposedofeloquentadvocates，distinguishedgenerals，wisemagistrates，andstatesmenofnote，whoselanguagewouldatalltimesdohonortothemostremarkableparliamentarydebatesofEurope。

Whatthenisthecauseofthisstrangecontrast，andwhyarethemostablecitizenstobefoundinoneassemblyratherthanintheother？Whyistheformerbodyremarkableforitsvulgarityanditspovertyoftalent，whilstthelatterseemstoenjoyamonopolyofintelligenceandofsoundjudgment？Bothoftheseassembliesemanatefromthepeople;bothofthemarechosenbyuniversalsuffrage;andnovoicehashithertobeenheardtoassertinAmericathattheSenateishostiletotheinterestsofthepeople。Fromwhatcause，then，doessostartlingadifferencearise？Theonlyreasonwhichappearstomeadequatelytoaccountforitis，thattheHouseofRepresentativesiselectedbythepopulacedirectly，andthattheSenateiselectedbyelectedbodies。ThewholebodyofthecitizensnamesthelegislatureofeachState，andtheFederalConstitutionconvertstheselegislaturesintosomanyelectoralbodies，whichreturnthemembersoftheSenate。Thesenatorsareelectedbyanindirectapplicationofuniversalsuffrage;forthelegislatureswhichnamethemarenotaristocraticorprivilegedbodieswhichexercisetheelectoralfranchiseintheirownright;buttheyarechosenbythetotalityofthecitizens;theyaregenerallyelectedeveryyear，andnewmembersmayconstantlybechosenwhowillemploytheirelectoralrightsinconformitywiththewishesofthepublic。Butthistransmissionofthepopularauthoritythroughanassemblyofchosenmenoperatesanimportantchangeinit，byrefiningitsdiscretionandimprovingtheformswhichitadopts。Menwhoarechoseninthismanneraccuratelyrepresentthemajorityofthenationwhichgovernsthem;buttheyrepresenttheelevatedthoughtswhicharecurrentinthecommunity，thepropensitieswhichpromptitsnobleractions，ratherthanthepettypassionswhichdisturbortheviceswhichdisgraceit。

ThetimemaybealreadyanticipatedatwhichtheAmericanRepublicswillbeobligedtointroducetheplanofelectionbyanelectedbodymorefrequentlyintotheirsystemofrepresentation，ortheywillincurnosmallriskofperishingmiserablyamongsttheshoalsofdemocracy。

AndhereIhavenoscrupleinconfessingthatIlookuponthispeculiarsystemofelectionastheonlymeansofbringingtheexerciseofpoliticalpowertothelevelofallclassesofthepeople。Thosethinkerswhoregardthisinstitutionastheexclusiveweaponofaparty，andthosewhofear，ontheotherhand，tomakeuseofit，seemtometofallintoasgreatanerrorintheonecaseasintheother。

InfluenceWhichTheAmericanDemocracyHasExercisedOnTheLawsRelatingToElectionsWhenelectionsarerare，theyexposetheStatetoaviolentcrisis—Whentheyarefrequent，theykeepupadegreeoffeverishexcitement—TheAmericanshavepreferredthesecondofthesetwoevils—Mutabilityofthelaws—OpinionsofHamiltonandJeffersononthissubject。

WhenelectionsrecuratlongintervalstheStateisexposedtoviolentagitationeverytimetheytakeplace。Partiesexertthemselvestotheutmostinordertogainaprizewhichissorarelywithintheirreach;andastheevilisalmostirremediableforthecandidateswhofail，theconsequencesoftheirdisappointedambitionmayprovemostdisastrous;if，ontheotherhand，thelegalstrugglecanberepeatedwithinashortspaceoftime，thedefeatedpartiestakepatience。Whenelectionsoccurfrequently，theirrecurrencekeepssocietyinaperpetualstateoffeverishexcitement，andimpartsacontinualinstabilitytopublicaffairs。

Thus，ontheonehandtheStateisexposedtotheperilsofarevolution，ontheothertoperpetualmutability;theformersystemthreatenstheveryexistenceoftheGovernment，thelatterisanobstacletoallsteadyandconsistentpolicy。TheAmericanshavepreferredthesecondoftheseevilstothefirst;

buttheywereledtothisconclusionbytheirinstinctmuchmorethanbytheirreason;foratasteforvarietyisoneofthecharacteristicpassionsofdemocracy。Anextraordinarymutabilityhas，bythismeans，beenintroducedintotheirlegislation。ManyoftheAmericansconsidertheinstabilityoftheirlawsasanecessaryconsequenceofasystemwhosegeneralresultsarebeneficial。ButnooneintheUnitedStatesaffectstodenythefactofthisinstability，ortocontendthatitisnotagreatevil。

Hamilton，afterhavingdemonstratedtheutilityofapowerwhichmightprevent，orwhichmightatleastimpede，thepromulgationofbadlaws，adds:"Itmightperhapsbesaidthatthepowerofpreventingbadlawsincludesthatofpreventinggoodones，andmaybeusedtotheonepurposeaswellastotheother。

Butthisobjectionwillhavelittleweightwiththosewhocanproperlyestimatethemischiefsofthatinconstancyandmutabilityinthelawswhichformthegreatestblemishinthecharacterandgeniusofourgovernments。"（Federalist，No。73。）

AndagaininNo。62ofthesameworkheobserves:"Thefacilityandexcessoflaw—makingseemtobethediseasestowhichourgovernmentsaremostliable……Themischievouseffectsofthemutabilityinthepubliccouncilsarisingfromarapidsuccessionofnewmemberswouldfillavolume:everynewelectionintheStatesisfoundtochangeone—halfoftherepresentatives。Fromthischangeofmenmustproceedachangeofopinionsandofmeasures，whichforfeitstherespectandconfidenceofothernations，poisonstheblessingsoflibertyitself，anddiminishestheattachmentandreverenceofthepeopletowardapoliticalsystemwhichbetrayssomanymarksofinfirmity。"

Jeffersonhimself，thegreatestDemocratwhomthedemocracyofAmericahasyetproduced，pointedoutthesameevils。"Theinstabilityofourlaws，"saidheinalettertoMadison，"isreallyaveryseriousinconvenience。Ithinkthatweoughttohaveobviateditbydecidingthatawholeyearshouldalwaysbeallowedtoelapsebetweenthebringinginofabillandthefinalpassingofit。Itshouldafterwardbediscussedandputtothevotewithoutthepossibilityofmakinganyalterationinit;andifthecircumstancesofthecaserequiredamorespeedydecision，thequestionshouldnotbedecidedbyasimplemajority，butbyamajorityofatleasttwo—thirdsofbothhouses。"

PublicOfficersUnderTheControlOfTheDemocracyInAmericaSimpleexterioroftheAmericanpublicofficers—Noofficialcostume—Allpublicofficersareremunerated—Politicalconsequencesofthissystem—NopubliccareerexistsinAmerica—Resultofthis。

PublicofficersintheUnitedStatesarecommingledwiththecrowdofcitizens;theyhaveneitherpalaces，norguards，norceremonialcostumes。ThissimpleexteriorofthepersonsinauthorityisconnectednotonlywiththepeculiaritiesoftheAmericancharacter，butwiththefundamentalprinciplesofthatsociety。Intheestimationofthedemocracyagovernmentisnotabenefit，butanecessaryevil。Acertaindegreeofpowermustbegrantedtopublicofficers，fortheywouldbeofnousewithoutit。Buttheostensiblesemblanceofauthorityisbynomeansindispensabletotheconductofaffairs，anditisneedlesslyoffensivetothesusceptibilityofthepublic。Thepublicofficersthemselvesarewellawarethattheyonlyenjoythesuperiorityovertheirfellow—citizenswhichtheyderivefromtheirauthorityuponconditionofputtingthemselvesonalevelwiththewholecommunitybytheirmanners。ApublicofficerintheUnitedStatesisuniformlycivil，accessibletoalltheworld，attentivetoallrequests，andobliginginhisreplies。I

waspleasedbythesecharacteristicsofademocraticgovernment;

andIwasstruckbythemanlyindependenceofthecitizens，whorespecttheofficemorethantheofficer，andwhoarelessattachedtotheemblemsofauthoritythantothemanwhobearsthem。

Iaminclinedtobelievethattheinfluencewhichcostumesreallyexercise，inanagelikethatinwhichwelive，hasbeenagooddealexaggerated。IneverperceivedthatapublicofficerinAmericawasthelessrespectedwhilsthewasinthedischargeofhisdutiesbecausehisownmeritwassetoffbynoadventitioussigns。Ontheotherhand，itisverydoubtfulwhetherapeculiardresscontributestotherespectwhichpubliccharactersoughttohavefortheirownposition，atleastwhentheyarenototherwiseinclinedtorespectit。Whenamagistrate（andinFrancesuchinstancesarenotrare）indulgeshistrivialwitattheexpenseoftheprisoner，orderidesthepredicamentinwhichaculpritisplaced，itwouldbewelltodeprivehimofhisrobesofoffice，toseewhetherhewouldrecallsomeportionofthenaturaldignityofmankindwhenheisreducedtotheapparelofaprivatecitizen。

Ademocracymay，however，allowacertainshowofmagisterialpomp，andclotheitsofficersinsilksandgold，withoutseriouslycompromisingitsprinciples。Privilegesofthiskindaretransitory;theybelongtotheplace，andaredistinctfromtheindividual:butifpublicofficersarenotuniformlyremuneratedbytheState，thepublicchargesmustbeentrustedtomenofopulenceandindependence，whoconstitutethebasisofanaristocracy;andifthepeoplestillretainsitsrightofelection，thatelectioncanonlybemadefromacertainclassofcitizens。Whenademocraticrepublicrendersofficeswhichhadformerlybeenremuneratedgratuitous，itmaysafelybebelievedthattheStateisadvancingtomonarchicalinstitutions;

andwhenamonarchybeginstoremuneratesuchofficersashadhithertobeenunpaid，itisasuresignthatitisapproachingtowardadespoticorarepublicanformofgovernment。Thesubstitutionofpaidforunpaidfunctionariesisofitself，inmyopinion，sufficienttoconstituteaseriousrevolution。

IlookupontheentireabsenceofgratuitousfunctionariesinAmericaasoneofthemostprominentsignsoftheabsolutedominionwhichdemocracyexercisesinthatcountry。Allpublicservices，ofwhatsoevernaturetheymaybe，arepaid;sothateveryonehasnotmerelytheright，butalsothemeansofperformingthem。Although，indemocraticStates，allthecitizensarequalifiedtooccupystationsintheGovernment，allarenottemptedtotryforthem。Thenumberandthecapacitiesofthecandidatesaremoreapttorestrictthechoiceofelectorsthantheconeitionsofthecandidateship。