第6章

IdonotmeanthatthereisanydeficiencyofwealthyindividualsintheUnitedStates;Iknowofnocountry，indeed，wheretheloveofmoneyhastakenstrongerholdontheaffectionsofmen，andwheretheprofoundercontemptisexpressedforthetheoryofthepermanentequalityofproperty。Butwealthcirculateswithinconceivablerapidity，andexperienceshowsthatitisraretofindtwosucceedinggenerationsinthefullenjoymentofit。

Thispicture，whichmayperhapsbethoughttobeovercharged，stillgivesaveryimperfectideaofwhatistakingplaceinthenewStatesoftheWestandSouth—west。AttheendofthelastcenturyafewboldadventurersbegantopenetrateintothevalleysoftheMississippi，andthemassofthepopulationverysoonbegantomoveinthatdirection:communitiesunheardoftillthenwereseentoemergefromthewilds:StateswhosenameswerenotinexistenceafewyearsbeforeclaimedtheirplaceintheAmericanUnion;andintheWesternsettlementswemaybeholddemocracyarrivedatitsutmostextreme。IntheseStates，foundedoff—hand，and，asitwere，bychance，theinhabitantsarebutofyesterday。Scarcelyknowntooneanother，thenearestneighborsareignorantofeachother’shistory。InthispartoftheAmericancontinent，therefore，thepopulationhasnotexperiencedtheinfluenceofgreatnamesandgreatwealth，noreventhatofthenaturalaristocracyofknowledgeandvirtue。Nonearetheretowieldthatrespectablepowerwhichmenwillinglygranttotheremembranceofalifespentindoinggoodbeforetheireyes。ThenewStatesoftheWestarealreadyinhabited，butsocietyhasnoexistenceamongthem。*e[Footnotee:Thismayhavebeentruein1832，butisnotsoin1874，whengreatcitieslikeChicagoandSanFranciscohavesprungupintheWesternStates。ButasyettheWesternStatesexertnopowerfulinfluenceonAmericansociety。—Translator’sNote。]

ItisnotonlythefortunesofmenwhichareequalinAmerica;eventheirrequirementspartakeinsomedegreeofthesameuniformity。Idonotbelievethatthereisacountryintheworldwhere，inproportiontothepopulation，therearesofewuninstructedandatthesametimesofewlearnedindividuals。

Primaryinstructioniswithinthereachofeverybody;superiorinstructionisscarcelytobeobtainedbyany。Thisisnotsurprising;itisinfactthenecessaryconsequenceofwhatwehaveadvancedabove。AlmostalltheAmericansareineasycircumstances，andcanthereforeobtainthefirstelementsofhumanknowledge。

InAmericatherearecomparativelyfewwhoarerichenoughtolivewithoutaprofession。Everyprofessionrequiresanapprenticeship，whichlimitsthetimeofinstructiontotheearlyyearsoflife。Atfifteentheyenterupontheircalling，andthustheireducationendsattheagewhenoursbegins。Whateverisdoneafterwardsiswithaviewtosomespecialandlucrativeobject;ascienceistakenupasamatterofbusiness，andtheonlybranchofitwhichisattendedtoissuchasadmitsofanimmediatepracticalapplication。InAmericamostoftherichmenwereformerlypoor;mostofthosewhonowenjoyleisurewereabsorbedinbusinessduringtheiryouth;theconsequenceofwhichis，thatwhentheymighthavehadatasteforstudytheyhadnotimeforit，andwhentimeisattheirdisposaltheyhavenolongertheinclination。

Thereisnoclass，then，inAmerica，inwhichthetasteforintellectualpleasuresistransmittedwithhereditaryfortuneandleisure，andbywhichthelaborsoftheintellectareheldinhonor。Accordinglythereisanequalwantofthedesireandthepowerofapplicationtotheseobjects。

AmiddlestandardisfixedinAmericaforhumanknowledge。

Allapproachasneartoitastheycan;someastheyrise，othersastheydescend。Ofcourse，animmensemultitudeofpersonsaretobefoundwhoentertainthesamenumberofideasonreligion，history，science，politicaleconomy，legislation，andgovernment。

ThegiftsofintellectproceeddirectlyfromGod，andmancannotpreventtheirunequaldistribution。Butinconsequenceofthestateofthingswhichwehavehererepresentedithappensthat，althoughthecapacitiesofmenarewidelydifferent，astheCreatorhasdoubtlessintendedtheyshouldbe，theyaresubmittedtothesamemethodoftreatment。

InAmericathearistocraticelementhasalwaysbeenfeeblefromitsbirth;andifatthepresentdayitisnotactuallydestroyed，itisatanyratesocompletelydisabledthatwecanscarcelyassigntoitanydegreeofinfluenceinthecourseofaffairs。Thedemocraticprinciple，onthecontrary，hasgainedsomuchstrengthbytime，byevents，andbylegislation，astohavebecomenotonlypredominantbutall—powerful。Thereisnofamilyorcorporateauthority，anditisraretofindeventheinfluenceofindividualcharacterenjoyanydurability。

America，then，exhibitsinhersocialstateamostextraordinaryphenomenon。Menarethereseenonagreaterequalityinpointoffortuneandintellect，or，inotherwords，moreequalintheirstrength，thaninanyothercountryoftheworld，orinanyageofwhichhistoryhaspreservedtheremembrance。

PoliticalConsequencesOfTheSocialConditionOfTheAnglo—

AmericansThepoliticalconsequencesofsuchasocialconditionasthisareeasilydeducible。Itisimpossibletobelievethatequalitywillnoteventuallyfinditswayintothepoliticalworldasitdoeseverywhereelse。Toconceiveofmenremainingforeverunequalupononesinglepoint，yetequalonallothers，isimpossible;theymustcomeintheendtobeequaluponall。

NowIknowofonlytwomethodsofestablishingequalityinthepoliticalworld;everycitizenmustbeputinpossessionofhisrights，orrightsmustbegrantedtonoone。FornationswhicharearrivedatthesamestageofsocialexistenceastheAnglo—Americans，itisthereforeverydifficulttodiscoveramediumbetweenthesovereigntyofallandtheabsolutepowerofoneman:anditwouldbevaintodenythatthesocialconditionwhichIhavebeendescribingisequallyliabletoeachoftheseconsequences。

Thereis，infact，amanlyandlawfulpassionforequalitywhichexcitesmentowishalltobepowerfulandhonored。Thispassiontendstoelevatethehumbletotherankofthegreat;butthereexistsalsointhehumanheartadepravedtasteforequality，whichimpelstheweaktoattempttolowerthepowerfultotheirownlevel，andreducesmentopreferequalityinslaverytoinequalitywithfreedom。Notthatthosenationswhosesocialconditionisdemocraticnaturallydespiseliberty;onthecontrary，theyhaveaninstinctiveloveofit。Butlibertyisnotthechiefandconstantobjectoftheirdesires;equalityistheiridol:theymakerapidandsuddeneffortstoobtainliberty，andiftheymisstheiraimresignthemselvestotheirdisappointment;butnothingcansatisfythemexceptequality，andratherthanloseittheyresolvetoperish。

Ontheotherhand，inaStatewherethecitizensarenearlyonanequality，itbecomesdifficultforthemtopreservetheirindependenceagainsttheaggressionsofpower。Nooneamongthembeingstrongenoughtoengageinthestrugglewithadvantage，nothingbutageneralcombinationcanprotecttheirliberty。Andsuchaunionisnotalwaystobefound。

Fromthesamesocialposition，then，nationsmayderiveoneortheotheroftwogreatpoliticalresults;theseresultsareextremelydifferentfromeachother，buttheymaybothproceedfromthesamecause。

TheAnglo—Americansarethefirstnationswho，havingbeenexposedtothisformidablealternative，havebeenhappyenoughtoescapethedominionofabsolutepower。Theyhavebeenallowedbytheircircumstances，theirorigin，theirintelligence，andespeciallybytheirmoralfeeling，toestablishandmaintainthesovereigntyofthepeople。

ChapterIV:ThePrincipleOfTheSovereigntyOfThePeopleInAmericaChapterSummaryItpredominatesoverthewholeofsocietyinAmerica—

ApplicationmadeofthisprinciplebytheAmericansevenbeforetheirRevolution—DevelopmentgiventoitbythatRevolution—

Gradualandirresistibleextensionoftheelectivequalification。

ThePrincipleOfTheSovereigntyOfThePeopleInAmericaWheneverthepoliticallawsoftheUnitedStatesaretobediscussed，itiswiththedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeoplethatwemustbegin。Theprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople，whichistobefound，moreorless，atthebottomofalmostallhumaninstitutions，generallyremainsconcealedfromview。Itisobeyedwithoutbeingrecognized，orifforamomentitbebroughttolight，itishastilycastbackintothegloomofthesanctuary。"Thewillofthenation"isoneofthoseexpressionswhichhavebeenmostprofuselyabusedbythewilyandthedespoticofeveryage。Totheeyesofsomeithasbeenrepresentedbythevenalsuffragesofafewofthesatellitesofpower;toothersbythevotesofatimidoraninterestedminority;andsomehaveevendiscovereditinthesilenceofapeople，onthesuppositionthatthefactofsubmissionestablishedtherightofcommand。

InAmericatheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeopleisnoteitherbarrenorconcealed，asitiswithsomeothernations;

itisrecognizedbythecustomsandproclaimedbythelaws;itspreadsfreely，andarriveswithoutimpedimentatitsmostremoteconsequences。Iftherebeacountryintheworldwherethedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeoplecanbefairlyappreciated，whereitcanbestudiedinitsapplicationtotheaffairsofsociety，andwhereitsdangersanditsadvantagesmaybeforeseen，thatcountryisassuredlyAmerica。

Ihavealreadyobservedthat，fromtheirorigin，thesovereigntyofthepeoplewasthefundamentalprincipleofthegreaternumberofBritishcoloniesinAmerica。Itwasfar，however，fromthenexercisingasmuchinfluenceonthegovernmentofsocietyasitnowdoes。Twoobstacles，theoneexternal，theotherinternal，checkeditsinvasiveprogress。Itcouldnotostensiblydiscloseitselfinthelawsofcolonieswhichwerestillconstrainedtoobeythemother—country:itwasthereforeobligedtospreadsecretly，andtogaingroundintheprovincialassemblies，andespeciallyinthetownships。

Americansocietywasnotyetpreparedtoadoptitwithallitsconsequences。TheintelligenceofNewEngland，andthewealthofthecountrytothesouthoftheHudson（asIhaveshownintheprecedingchapter），longexercisedasortofaristocraticinfluence，whichtendedtoretaintheexerciseofsocialauthorityinthehandsofafew。Thepublicfunctionarieswerenotuniversallyelected，andthecitizenswerenotallofthemelectors。Theelectoralfranchisewaseverywhereplacedwithincertainlimits，andmadedependentonacertainqualification，whichwasexceedinglylowintheNorthandmoreconsiderableintheSouth。

TheAmericanrevolutionbrokeout，andthedoctrineofthesovereigntyofthepeople，whichhadbeennurturedinthetownshipsandmunicipalities，tookpossessionoftheState:everyclasswasenlistedinitscause;battleswerefought，andvictoriesobtainedforit，untilitbecamethelawoflaws。

Anolessrapidchangewaseffectedintheinteriorofsociety，wherethelawofdescentcompletedtheabolitionoflocalinfluences。

Attheverytimewhenthisconsequenceofthelawsandoftherevolutionwasapparenttoeveryeye，victorywasirrevocablypronouncedinfavorofthedemocraticcause。Allpowerwas，infact，initshands，andresistancewasnolongerpossible。Thehigherorderssubmittedwithoutamurmurandwithoutastruggletoanevilwhichwasthenceforthinevitable。Theordinaryfateoffallingpowersawaitedthem;eachoftheirseveralmembersfollowedhisowninterests;andasitwasimpossibletowringthepowerfromthehandsofapeoplewhichtheydidnotdetestsufficientlytobrave，theironlyaimwastosecureitsgood—willatanyprice。Themostdemocraticlawswereconsequentlyvotedbytheverymenwhoseintereststheyimpaired;andthus，althoughthehigherclassesdidnotexcitethepassionsofthepeopleagainsttheirorder，theyacceleratedthetriumphofthenewstateofthings;sothatbyasingularchangethedemocraticimpulsewasfoundtobemostirresistibleintheveryStateswherethearistocracyhadthefirmesthold。TheStateofMaryland，whichhadbeenfoundedbymenofrank，wasthefirsttoproclaimuniversalsuffrage，andtointroducethemostdemocraticformsintotheconductofitsgovernment。

Whenanationmodifiestheelectivequalification，itmayeasilybeforeseenthatsoonerorlaterthatqualificationwillbeentirelyabolished。Thereisnomoreinvariableruleinthehistoryofsociety:thefurtherelectoralrightsareextended，thegreateristheneedofextendingthem;foraftereachconcessionthestrengthofthedemocracyincreases，anditsdemandsincreasewithitsstrength。Theambitionofthosewhoarebelowtheappointedrateisirritatedinexactproportiontothegreatnumberofthosewhoareaboveit。Theexceptionatlastbecomestherule，concessionfollowsconcession，andnostopcanbemadeshortofuniversalsuffrage。

Atthepresentdaytheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeoplehasacquired，intheUnitedStates，allthepracticaldevelopmentwhichtheimaginationcanconceive。Itisunencumberedbythosefictionswhichhavebeenthrownoveritinothercountries，anditappearsineverypossibleformaccordingtotheexigencyoftheoccasion。Sometimesthelawsaremadebythepeopleinabody，asatAthens;andsometimesitsrepresentatives，chosenbyuniversalsuffrage，transactbusinessinitsname，andalmostunderitsimmediatecontrol。

Insomecountriesapowerexistswhich，thoughitisinadegreeforeigntothesocialbody，directsit，andforcesittopursueacertaintrack。Inotherstherulingforceisdivided，beingpartlywithinandpartlywithouttheranksofthepeople。

ButnothingofthekindistobeseenintheUnitedStates;theresocietygovernsitselfforitself。Allpowercentresinitsbosom;andscarcelyanindividualistobemeetwithwhowouldventuretoconceive，or，stillless，toexpress，theideaofseekingitelsewhere。Thenationparticipatesinthemakingofitslawsbythechoiceofitslegislators，andintheexecutionofthembythechoiceoftheagentsoftheexecutivegovernment;

itmayalmostbesaidtogovernitself，sofeebleandsorestrictedisthesharelefttotheadministration，solittledotheauthoritiesforgettheirpopularoriginandthepowerfromwhichtheyemanate。*a[Footnotea:SeeAppendix，H。]

ChapterV:NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStates—

PartI

NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStatesBeforeThatOfTheUnionAtLargeItisproposedtoexamineinthefollowingchapterwhatistheformofgovernmentestablishedinAmericaontheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople;whatareitsresources，itshindrances，itsadvantages，anditsdangers。ThefirstdifficultywhichpresentsitselfarisesfromthecomplexnatureoftheconstitutionoftheUnitedStates，whichconsistsoftwodistinctsocialstructures，connectedand，asitwere，encasedonewithintheother;twogovernments，completelyseparateandalmostindependent，theonefulfillingtheordinarydutiesandrespondingtothedailyandindefinitecallsofacommunity，theothercircumscribedwithincertainlimits，andonlyexercisinganexceptionalauthorityoverthegeneralinterestsofthecountry。

Inshort，therearetwenty—foursmallsovereignnations，whoseagglomerationconstitutesthebodyoftheUnion。ToexaminetheUnionbeforewehavestudiedtheStateswouldbetoadoptamethodfilledwithobstacles。TheformoftheFederalGovernmentoftheUnitedStateswasthelastwhichwasadopted;anditisinfactnothingmorethanamodificationorasummaryofthoserepublicanprincipleswhichwerecurrentinthewholecommunitybeforeitexisted，andindependentlyofitsexistence。Moreover，theFederalGovernmentis，asIhavejustobserved，theexception;theGovernmentoftheStatesistherule。Theauthorwhoshouldattempttoexhibitthepictureasawholebeforehehadexplaineditsdetailswouldnecessarilyfallintoobscurityandrepetition。

ThegreatpoliticalprincipleswhichgovernAmericansocietyatthisdayundoubtedlytooktheiroriginandtheirgrowthintheState。ItisthereforenecessarytobecomeacquaintedwiththeStateinordertopossessacluetotheremainder。TheStateswhichatpresentcomposetheAmericanUnionallpresentthesamefeatures，asfarasregardstheexternalaspectoftheirinstitutions。Theirpoliticaloradministrativeexistenceiscentredinthreefocusesofaction，whichmaynotinaptlybecomparedtothedifferentnervouscentreswhichconveymotiontothehumanbody。Thetownshipisthelowestinorder，thenthecounty，andlastlytheState;andIproposetodevotethefollowingchaptertotheexaminationofthesethreedivisions。

TheAmericanSystemOfTownshipsAndMunicipalBodiesWhytheAuthorbeginstheexaminationofthepoliticalinstitutionswiththetownship—Itsexistenceinallnations—

Difficultyofestablishingandpreservingmunicipalindependence—Itsimportance—WhytheAuthorhasselectedthetownshipsystemofNewEnglandasthemaintopicofhisdiscussion。

ItisnotundesignedlythatIbeginthissubjectwiththeTownship。Thevillageortownshipistheonlyassociationwhichissoperfectlynaturalthatwhereveranumberofmenarecollecteditseemstoconstituteitself。

Thetown，ortithing，asthesmallestdivisionofacommunity，mustnecessarilyexistinallnations，whatevertheirlawsandcustomsmaybe:ifmanmakesmonarchiesandestablishesrepublics，thefirstassociationofmankindseemsconstitutedbythehandofGod。Butalthoughtheexistenceofthetownshipiscoevalwiththatofman，itslibertiesarenotthelessrarelyrespectedandeasilydestroyed。Anationisalwaysabletoestablishgreatpoliticalassemblies，becauseithabituallycontainsacertainnumberofindividualsfittedbytheirtalents，ifnotbytheirhabits，forthedirectionofaffairs。Thetownshipis，onthecontrary，composedofcoarsermaterials，whicharelesseasilyfashionedbythelegislator。Thedifficultieswhichattendtheconsolidationofitsindependenceratheraugmentthandiminishwiththeincreasingenlightenmentofthepeople。Ahighlycivilizedcommunityspurnstheattemptsofalocalindependence，isdisgustedatitsnumerousblunders，andisapttodespairofsuccessbeforetheexperimentiscompleted。

Again，noimmunitiesaresoillprotectedfromtheencroachmentsofthesupremepowerasthoseofmunicipalbodiesingeneral:

theyareunabletostruggle，single—handed，againstastrongoranenterprisinggovernment，andtheycannotdefendtheircausewithsuccessunlessitbeidentifiedwiththecustomsofthenationandsupportedbypublicopinion。Thusuntiltheindependenceoftownshipsisamalgamatedwiththemannersofapeopleitiseasilydestroyed，anditisonlyafteralongexistenceinthelawsthatitcanbethusamalgamated。Municipalfreedomisnotthefruitofhumandevice;itisrarelycreated;

butitis，asitwere，secretlyandspontaneouslyengenderedinthemidstofasemi—barbarousstateofsociety。Theconstantactionofthelawsandthenationalhabits，peculiarcircumstances，andabovealltime，mayconsolidateit;butthereiscertainlynonationonthecontinentofEuropewhichhasexperienceditsadvantages。Neverthelesslocalassembliesofcitizensconstitutethestrengthoffreenations。Town—meetingsaretolibertywhatprimaryschoolsaretoscience;theybringitwithinthepeople’sreach，theyteachmenhowtouseandhowtoenjoyit。Anationmayestablishasystemoffreegovernment，butwithoutthespiritofmunicipalinstitutionsitcannothavethespiritofliberty。Thetransientpassionsandtheinterestsofanhour，orthechanceofcircumstances，mayhavecreatedtheexternalformsofindependence;butthedespotictendencywhichhasbeenrepelledwill，soonerorlater，inevitablyreappearonthesurface。

InordertoexplaintothereaderthegeneralprinciplesonwhichthepoliticalorganizationofthecountiesandtownshipsoftheUnitedStatesrests，IhavethoughtitexpedienttochooseoneoftheStatesofNewEnglandasanexample，toexaminethemechanismofitsconstitution，andthentocastageneralglanceoverthecountry。ThetownshipandthecountyarenotorganizedinthesamemannerineverypartoftheUnion;itis，however，easytoperceivethatthesameprincipleshaveguidedtheformationofbothofthemthroughouttheUnion。IaminclinedtobelievethattheseprincipleshavebeencarriedfurtherinNewEnglandthanelsewhere，andconsequentlythattheyoffergreaterfacilitiestotheobservationsofastranger。TheinstitutionsofNewEnglandformacompleteandregularwhole;theyhavereceivedthesanctionoftime，theyhavethesupportofthelaws，andthestillstrongersupportofthemannersofthecommunity，overwhichtheyexercisethemostprodigiousinfluence;theyconsequentlydeserveourattentiononeveryaccount。

LimitsOfTheTownshipThetownshipofNewEnglandisadivisionwhichstandsbetweenthecommuneandthecantonofFrance，andwhichcorrespondsingeneraltotheEnglishtithing，ortown。Itsaveragepopulationisfromtwotothreethousand;*asothat，ontheonehand，theinterestsofitsinhabitantsarenotlikelytoconflict，and，ontheother，mencapableofconductingitsaffairsarealwaystobefoundamongitscitizens。

[Footnotea:In1830therewere305townshipsintheStateofMassachusetts，and610，014inhabitants，whichgivesanaverageofabout2，000inhabitantstoeachtownship。]

AuthoritiesOfTheTownshipInNewEnglandThepeoplethesourceofallpowerhereaselsewhere—Managesitsownaffairs—Nocorporation—ThegreaterpartoftheauthorityvestedinthehandsoftheSelectmen—HowtheSelectmenact—Town—meeting—Enumerationofthepublicofficersofthetownship—Obligatoryandremuneratedfunctions。

Inthetownship，aswellaseverywhereelse，thepeopleistheonlysourceofpower;butinnostageofgovernmentdoesthebodyofcitizensexerciseamoreimmediateinfluence。InAmericathepeopleisamasterwhoseexigenciesdemandobediencetotheutmostlimitsofpossibility。

InNewEnglandthemajorityactsbyrepresentativesintheconductofthepublicbusinessoftheState;butifsuchanarrangementbenecessaryingeneralaffairs，inthetownships，wherethelegislativeandadministrativeactionofthegovernmentisinmoreimmediatecontactwiththesubject，thesystemofrepresentationisnotadopted。Thereisnocorporation;butthebodyofelectors，afterhavingdesignateditsmagistrates，directsthemineverythingthatexceedsthesimpleandordinaryexecutivebusinessoftheState。*b[Footnoteb:Thesamerulesarenotapplicabletothegreattowns，whichgenerallyhaveamayor，andacorporationdividedintotwobodies;this，however，isanexceptionwhichrequiresthesanctionofalaw。—SeetheActofFebruary22，1822，forappointingtheauthoritiesofthecityofBoston。Itfrequentlyhappensthatsmalltownsaswellascitiesaresubjecttoapeculiaradministration。In1832，104townshipsintheStateofNewYorkweregovernedinthismanner。—Williams’Register。]

Thisstateofthingsissocontrarytoourideas，andsodifferentfromourcustoms，thatitisnecessaryformetoadducesomeexamplestoexplainitthoroughly。

Thepublicdutiesinthetownshipareextremelynumerousandminutelydivided，asweshallseefurtheron;butthelargerproportionofadministrativepowerisvestedinthehandsofasmallnumberofindividuals，called"theSelectmen。"*cThegenerallawsoftheStateimposeacertainnumberofobligationsontheselectmen，whichtheymayfulfilwithouttheauthorizationofthebodytheyrepresent，butwhichtheycanonlyneglectontheirownresponsibility。ThelawoftheStateobligesthem，forinstance，todrawupthelistofelectorsintheirtownships;andiftheyomitthispartoftheirfunctions，theyareguiltyofamisdemeanor。Inalltheaffairs，however，whicharedeterminedbythetown—meeting，theselectmenaretheorgansofthepopularmandate，asinFrancetheMaireexecutesthedecreeofthemunicipalcouncil。Theyusuallyactupontheirownresponsibility，andmerelyputinpracticeprincipleswhichhavebeenpreviouslyrecognizedbythemajority。Butifanychangeistobeintroducedintheexistingstateofthings，oriftheywishtoundertakeanynewenterprise，theyareobligedtorefertothesourceoftheirpower。If，forinstance，aschoolistobeestablished，theselectmenconvokethewholebodyoftheelectorsonacertaindayatanappointedplace;theyexplaintheurgencyofthecase;theygivetheiropiniononthemeansofsatisfyingit，ontheprobableexpense，andthesitewhichseemstobemostfavorable。Themeetingisconsultedontheseseveralpoints;itadoptstheprinciple，marksoutthesite，votestherate，andconfidestheexecutionofitsresolutiontotheselectmen。

[Footnotec:Threeselectmenareappointedinthesmalltownships，andnineinthelargeones。See"TheTown—Officer，"

p。186。SeealsotheprincipallawsoftheStateofMassachusettsrelativetotheselectmen:

ActofFebruary20，1786，vol。i。p。219;February24，1796，vol。i。p。488;March7，1801，vol。ii。p。45;June16，1795，vol。i。p。475;March12，1808，vol。ii。p。186;February28，1787，vol。i。p。302;June22，1797，vol。i。p。539。]

Theselectmenhavealonetherightofcallingatown—meeting，buttheymayberequestedtodoso:iftencitizensaredesirousofsubmittinganewprojecttotheassentofthetownship，theymaydemandageneralconvocationoftheinhabitants;theselectmenareobligedtocomply，buttheyhaveonlytherightofpresidingatthemeeting。*d[Footnoted:SeeLawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。150，ActofMarch25，1786。]

TheselectmenareelectedeveryyearinthemonthofAprilorofMay。Thetown—meetingchoosesatthesametimeanumberofothermunicipalmagistrates，whoareentrustedwithimportantadministrativefunctions。Theassessorsratethetownship;thecollectorsreceivetherate。Aconstableisappointedtokeepthepeace，towatchthestreets，andtoforwardtheexecutionofthelaws;thetown—clerkrecordsallthetownvotes，orders，grants，births，deaths，andmarriages;thetreasurerkeepsthefunds;theoverseerofthepoorperformsthedifficulttaskofsuperintendingtheactionofthepoor—laws;committee—menareappointedtoattendtotheschoolsandtopublicinstruction;andtheroad—surveyors，whotakecareofthegreaterandlesserthoroughfaresofthetownship，completethelistoftheprincipalfunctionaries。Theyare，however，stillfurthersubdivided;andamongstthemunicipalofficersaretobefoundparishcommissioners，whoaudittheexpensesofpublicworship;

differentclassesofinspectors，someofwhomaretodirectthecitizensincaseoffire;tithing—men，listers，haywards，chimney—viewers，fence—viewerstomaintaintheboundsofproperty，timber—measurers，andsealersofweightsandmeasures。

*e[Footnotee:Allthesemagistratesactuallyexist;theirdifferentfunctionsarealldetailedinabookcalled"TheTown—Officer，"byIsaacGoodwin，Worcester，1827;andinthe"CollectionoftheGeneralLawsofMassachusetts，"3vols。，Boston，1823。]

Therearenineteenprincipalofficersinatownship。Everyinhabitantisconstrained，onthepainofbeingfined，toundertakethesedifferentfunctions;which，however，arealmostallpaid，inorderthatthepoorercitizensmaybeabletogiveuptheirtimewithoutloss。IngeneraltheAmericansystemisnottograntafixedsalarytoitsfunctionaries。Everyservicehasitsprice，andtheyareremuneratedinproportiontowhattheyhavedone。

ExistenceOfTheTownshipEveryonethebestjudgeofhisowninterest—Corollaryoftheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeople—ApplicationofthosedoctrinesinthetownshipsofAmerica—ThetownshipofNewEnglandissovereigninallthatconcernsitselfalone:subjecttotheStateinallothermatters—BondofthetownshipandtheState—InFrancetheGovernmentlendsitsagenttotheCommune—

InAmericathereverseoccurs。

IhavealreadyobservedthattheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeoplegovernsthewholepoliticalsystemoftheAnglo—Americans。Everypageofthisbookwillaffordnewinstancesofthesamedoctrine。Inthenationsbywhichthesovereigntyofthepeopleisrecognizedeveryindividualpossessesanequalshareofpower，andparticipatesalikeinthegovernmentoftheState。Everyindividualis，therefore，supposedtobeaswellinformed，asvirtuous，andasstrongasanyofhisfellow—citizens。Heobeysthegovernment，notbecauseheisinferiortotheauthoritieswhichconductit，orthatheislesscapablethanhisneighborofgoverninghimself，butbecauseheacknowledgestheutilityofanassociationwithhisfellow—men，andbecauseheknowsthatnosuchassociationcanexistwithoutaregulatingforce。Ifhebeasubjectinallthatconcernsthemutualrelationsofcitizens，heisfreeandresponsibletoGodaloneforallthatconcernshimself。Hencearisesthemaximthateveryoneisthebestandthesolejudgeofhisownprivateinterest，andthatsocietyhasnorighttocontrolaman’sactions，unlesstheyareprejudicialtothecommonweal，orunlessthecommonwealdemandshisco—operation。

ThisdoctrineisuniversallyadmittedintheUnitedStates。I

shallhereafterexaminethegeneralinfluencewhichitexercisesontheordinaryactionsoflife;Iamnowspeakingofthenatureofmunicipalbodies。

Thetownship，takenasawhole，andinrelationtothegovernmentofthecountry，maybelookeduponasanindividualtowhomthetheoryIhavejustalludedtoisapplied。MunicipalindependenceisthereforeanaturalconsequenceoftheprincipleofthesovereigntyofthepeopleintheUnitedStates:alltheAmericanrepublicsrecognizeitmoreorless;butcircumstanceshavepeculiarlyfavoreditsgrowthinNewEngland。

InthispartoftheUniontheimpulsionofpoliticalactivitywasgiveninthetownships;anditmayalmostbesaidthateachofthemoriginallyformedanindependentnation。WhentheKingsofEnglandassertedtheirsupremacy，theywerecontentedtoassumethecentralpoweroftheState。ThetownshipsofNewEnglandremainedastheywerebefore;andalthoughtheyarenowsubjecttotheState，theywereatfirstscarcelydependentuponit。Itisimportanttorememberthattheyhavenotbeeninvestedwithprivileges，butthattheyhave，onthecontrary，forfeitedaportionoftheirindependencetotheState。ThetownshipsareonlysubordinatetotheStateinthoseinterestswhichIshalltermsocial，astheyarecommontoallthecitizens。Theyareindependentinallthatconcernsthemselves;andamongsttheinhabitantsofNewEnglandIbelievethatnotamanistobefoundwhowouldacknowledgethattheStatehasanyrighttointerfereintheirlocalinterests。ThetownsofNewEnglandbuyandsell，sueoraresued，augmentordiminishtheirrates，withouttheslightestoppositiononthepartoftheadministrativeauthorityoftheState。

Theyarebound，however，tocomplywiththedemandsofthecommunity。IftheStateisinneedofmoney，atowncanneithergivenorwithholdthesupplies。IftheStateprojectsaroad，thetownshipcannotrefusetoletitcrossitsterritory;ifapoliceregulationismadebytheState，itmustbeenforcedbythetown。Auniformsystemofinstructionisorganizedalloverthecountry，andeverytownisboundtoestablishtheschoolswhichthelawordains。InspeakingoftheadministrationoftheUnitedStatesIshallhaveoccasiontopointoutthemeansbywhichthetownshipsarecompelledtoobeyinthesedifferentcases:Iheremerelyshowtheexistenceoftheobligation。Strictasthisobligationis，thegovernmentoftheStateimposesitinprincipleonly，andinitsperformancethetownshipresumesallitsindependentrights。Thus，taxesarevotedbytheState，buttheyareleviedandcollectedbythetownship;theexistenceofaschoolisobligatory，butthetownshipbuilds，pays，andsuperintendsit。InFrancetheState—collectorreceivesthelocalimposts;inAmericathetown—collectorreceivesthetaxesoftheState。ThustheFrenchGovernmentlendsitsagentstothecommune;inAmericathetownshipistheagentoftheGovernment。