第7章

Thisfactaloneshowstheextentofthedifferenceswhichexistbetweenthetwonations。

PublicSpiritOfTheTownshipsOfNewEnglandHowthetownshipofNewEnglandwinstheaffectionsofitsinhabitants—DifficultyofcreatinglocalpublicspiritinEurope—TherightsanddutiesoftheAmericantownshipfavorabletoit—CharacteristicsofhomeintheUnitedStates—ManifestationsofpublicspiritinNewEngland—Itshappyeffects。

InAmerica，notonlydomunicipalbodiesexist，buttheyarekeptaliveandsupportedbypublicspirit。ThetownshipofNewEnglandpossessestwoadvantageswhichinfalliblysecuretheattentiveinterestofmankind，namely，independenceandauthority。Itssphereisindeedsmallandlimited，butwithinthatsphereitsactionisunrestrained;anditsindependencegivestoitarealimportancewhichitsextentandpopulationmaynotalwaysensure。

Itistoberememberedthattheaffectionsofmengenerallylieonthesideofauthority。Patriotismisnotdurableinaconquerednation。TheNewEnglanderisattachedtohistownship，notonlybecausehewasborninit，butbecauseitconstitutesasocialbodyofwhichheisamember，andwhosegovernmentclaimsanddeservestheexerciseofhissagacity。InEuropetheabsenceoflocalpublicspiritisafrequentsubjectofregrettothosewhoareinpower;everyoneagreesthatthereisnosurerguaranteeoforderandtranquility，andyetnothingismoredifficulttocreate。Ifthemunicipalbodiesweremadepowerfulandindependent，theauthoritiesofthenationmightbedisunitedandthepeaceofthecountryendangered。Yet，withoutpowerandindependence，atownmaycontaingoodsubjects，butitcanhavenoactivecitizens。AnotherimportantfactisthatthetownshipofNewEnglandissoconstitutedastoexcitethewarmestofhumanaffections，withoutarousingtheambitiouspassionsoftheheartofman。Theofficersofthecountryarenotelected，andtheirauthorityisverylimited。EventheStateisonlyasecond—ratecommunity，whosetranquilandobscureadministrationoffersnoinducementsufficienttodrawmenawayfromthecircleoftheirinterestsintotheturmoilofpublicaffairs。Thefederalgovernmentconferspowerandhonoronthemenwhoconductit;buttheseindividualscanneverbeverynumerous。ThehighstationofthePresidencycanonlybereachedatanadvancedperiodoflife，andtheotherfederalfunctionariesaregenerallymenwhohavebeenfavoredbyfortune，ordistinguishedinsomeothercareer。Suchcannotbethepermanentaimoftheambitious。

Butthetownshipservesasacentreforthedesireofpublicesteem，thewantofexcitinginterests，andthetasteforauthorityandpopularity，inthemidstoftheordinaryrelationsoflife;andthepassionswhichcommonlyembroilsocietychangetheircharacterwhentheyfindaventsonearthedomestichearthandthefamilycircle。

IntheAmericanStatespowerhasbeendisseminatedwithadmirableskillforthepurposeofinterestingthegreatestpossiblenumberofpersonsinthecommonweal。Independentlyoftheelectorswhoarefromtimetotimecalledintoaction，thebodypoliticisdividedintoinnumerablefunctionariesandofficers，whoall，intheirseveralspheres，representthesamepowerfulwholeinwhosenametheyact。Thelocaladministrationthusaffordsanunfailingsourceofprofitandinteresttoavastnumberofindividuals。

TheAmericansystem，whichdividesthelocalauthorityamongsomanycitizens，doesnotscrupletomultiplythefunctionsofthetownofficers。ForintheUnitedStatesitisbelieved，andwithtruth，thatpatriotismisakindofdevotionwhichisstrengthenedbyritualobservance。Inthismannertheactivityofthetownshipiscontinuallyperceptible;itisdailymanifestedinthefulfilmentofadutyortheexerciseofaright，andaconstantthoughgentlemotionisthuskeptupinsocietywhichanimateswithoutdisturbingit。

TheAmericanattacheshimselftohishomeasthemountaineerclingstohishills，becausethecharacteristicfeaturesofhiscountryaretheremoredistinctlymarkedthanelsewhere。TheexistenceofthetownshipsofNewEnglandisingeneralahappyone。Theirgovernmentissuitedtotheirtastes，andchosenbythemselves。InthemidstoftheprofoundpeaceandgeneralcomfortwhichreigninAmericathecommotionsofmunicipaldiscordareunfrequent。Theconductoflocalbusinessiseasy。

Thepoliticaleducationofthepeoplehaslongbeencomplete;sayratherthatitwascompletewhenthepeoplefirstsetfootuponthesoil。InNewEnglandnotraditionexistsofadistinctionofranks;noportionofthecommunityistemptedtooppresstheremainder;andtheabuseswhichmayinjureisolatedindividualsareforgotteninthegeneralcontentmentwhichprevails。Ifthegovernmentisdefective（anditwouldnodoubtbeeasytopointoutitsdeficiencies），thefactthatitreallyemanatesfromthoseitgoverns，andthatitacts，eitherillorwell，caststheprotectingspellofaparentalprideoveritsfaults。Notermofcomparisondisturbsthesatisfactionofthecitizen:Englandformerlygovernedthemassofthecolonies，butthepeoplewasalwayssovereigninthetownshipwhereitsruleisnotonlyanancientbutaprimitivestate。

ThenativeofNewEnglandisattachedtohistownshipbecauseitisindependentandfree:hisco—operationinitsaffairsensureshisattachmenttoitsinterest;thewell—beingitaffordshimsecureshisaffection;anditswelfareistheaimofhisambitionandofhisfutureexertions:hetakesapartineveryoccurrenceintheplace;hepractisestheartofgovernmentinthesmallspherewithinhisreach;heaccustomshimselftothoseformswhichcanaloneensurethesteadyprogressofliberty;heimbibestheirspirit;heacquiresatastefororder，comprehendstheunionorthebalanceofpowers，andcollectsclearpracticalnotionsonthenatureofhisdutiesandtheextentofhisrights。

TheCountiesOfNewEnglandThedivisionofthecountriesinAmericahasconsiderableanalogywiththatofthearrondissementsofFrance。Thelimitsofthecountiesarearbitrarilylaiddown，andthevariousdistrictswhichtheycontainhavenonecessaryconnection，nocommontraditionornaturalsympathy;theirobjectissimplytofacilitatetheadministrationofjustice。

Theextentofthetownshipwastoosmalltocontainasystemofjudicialinstitutions;eachcountyhas，however，acourtofjustice，*fasherifftoexecuteitsdecrees，andaprisonforcriminals。Therearecertainwantswhicharefeltalikebyallthetownshipsofacounty;itisthereforenaturalthattheyshouldbesatisfiedbyacentralauthority。IntheStateofMassachusettsthisauthorityisvestedinthehandsofseveralmagistrates，whoareappointedbytheGovernoroftheState，withtheadvice*gofhiscouncil。*hTheofficersofthecountyhaveonlyalimitedandoccasionalauthority，whichisapplicabletocertainpredeterminedcases。TheStateandthetownshipspossessallthepowerrequisitetoconductpublicbusiness。Thebudgetofthecountyisdrawnupbyitsofficers，andisvotedbythelegislature，butthereisnoassemblywhichdirectlyorindirectlyrepresentsthecounty。Ithas，therefore，properlyspeaking，nopoliticalexistence。

[Footnotef:SeetheActofFebruary14，1821，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。551。]

[Footnoteg:SeetheActofFebruary20，1819，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。ii。p。494。]

[Footnoteh:ThecounciloftheGovernorisanelectivebody。]

AtwofoldtendencymaybediscernedintheAmericanconstitutions，whichimpelsthelegislatortocentralizethelegislativeandtodispersetheexecutivepower。ThetownshipofNewEnglandhasinitselfanindestructibleelementofindependence;andthisdistinctexistencecouldonlybefictitiouslyintroducedintothecounty，whereitsutilityhasnotbeenfelt。Butallthetownshipsunitedhavebutonerepresentation，whichistheState，thecentreofthenationalauthority:beyondtheactionofthetownshipandthatofthenation，nothingcanbesaidtoexistbuttheinfluenceofindividualexertion。

AdministrationInNewEnglandAdministrationnotperceivedinAmerica—Why？—TheEuropeansbelievethatlibertyispromotedbydeprivingthesocialauthorityofsomeofitsrights;theAmericans，bydividingitsexercise—Almostalltheadministrationconfinedtothetownship，anddividedamongstthetown—officers—Notraceofanadministrativebodytobeperceived，eitherinthetownshiporaboveit—Thereasonofthis—HowithappensthattheadministrationoftheStateisuniform—Whoisempoweredtoenforcetheobedienceofthetownshipandthecountytothelaw—

Theintroductionofjudicialpowerintotheadministration—

Consequenceoftheextensionoftheelectiveprincipletoallfunctionaries—TheJusticeofthePeaceinNewEngland—Bywhomappointed—Countyofficer:ensurestheadministrationofthetownships—CourtofSessions—Itsaction—Rightofinspectionandindictmentdisseminatedliketheotheradministrativefunctions—Informersencouragedbythedivisionoffines。

NothingismorestrikingtoanEuropeantravellerintheUnitedStatesthantheabsenceofwhatwetermtheGovernment，ortheAdministration。WrittenlawsexistinAmerica，andoneseesthattheyaredailyexecuted;butalthougheverythingisinmotion，thehandwhichgivestheimpulsetothesocialmachinecannowherebediscovered。Nevertheless，asallpeoplesareobligedtohaverecoursetocertaingrammaticalforms，whicharethefoundationofhumanlanguage，inordertoexpresstheirthoughts;soallcommunitiesareobligedtosecuretheirexistencebysubmittingtoacertaindoseofauthority，withoutwhichtheyfallapreytoanarchy。Thisauthoritymaybedistributedinseveralways，butitmustalwaysexistsomewhere。

Therearetwomethodsofdiminishingtheforceofauthorityinanation:Thefirstistoweakenthesupremepowerinitsveryprinciple，byforbiddingorpreventingsocietyfromactinginitsowndefenceundercertaincircumstances。ToweakenauthorityinthismanneriswhatisgenerallytermedinEuropetolaythefoundationsoffreedom。Thesecondmannerofdiminishingtheinfluenceofauthoritydoesnotconsistinstrippingsocietyofanyofitsrights，norinparalyzingitsefforts，butindistributingtheexerciseofitsprivilegesinvarioushands，andinmultiplyingfunctionaries，toeachofwhomthedegreeofpowernecessaryforhimtoperformhisdutyisentrusted。Theremaybenationswhomthisdistributionofsocialpowersmightleadtoanarchy;butinitselfitisnotanarchical。Theactionofauthorityisindeedthusrenderedlessirresistibleandlessperilous，butitisnottotallysuppressed。

TherevolutionoftheUnitedStateswastheresultofamatureanddignifiedtasteforfreedom，andnotofavagueorill—definedcravingforindependence。Itcontractednoalliancewiththeturbulentpassionsofanarchy;butitscoursewasmarked，onthecontrary，byanattachmenttowhateverwaslawfulandorderly。

ItwasneverassumedintheUnitedStatesthatthecitizenofafreecountryhasarighttodowhateverhepleases;onthecontrary，socialobligationswerethereimposeduponhimmorevariousthananywhereelse。Noideawaseverentertainedofattackingtheprinciplesorofcontestingtherightsofsociety;

buttheexerciseofitsauthoritywasdivided，totheendthattheofficemightbepowerfulandtheofficerinsignificant，andthatthecommunityshouldbeatonceregulatedandfree。InnocountryintheworlddoesthelawholdsoabsolutealanguageasinAmerica，andinnocountryistherightofapplyingitvestedinsomanyhands。TheadministrativepowerintheUnitedStatespresentsnothingeithercentralorhierarchicalinitsconstitution，whichaccountsforitspassing，unperceived。Thepowerexists，butitsrepresentativeisnottobeperceived。

WehavealreadyseenthattheindependenttownshipsofNewEnglandprotecttheirownprivateinterests;andthemunicipalmagistratesarethepersonstowhomtheexecutionofthelawsoftheStateismostfrequentlyentrusted。*iBesidesthegenerallaws，theStatesometimespassesgeneralpoliceregulations;butmorecommonlythetownshipsandtownofficers，conjointlywithjusticesofthepeace，regulatetheminordetailsofsociallife，accordingtothenecessitiesofthedifferentlocalities，andpromulgatesuchenactmentsasconcernthehealthofthecommunity，andthepeaceaswellasmoralityofthecitizens。*jLastly，thesemunicipalmagistratesprovide，oftheirownaccordandwithoutanydelegatedpowers，forthoseunforeseenemergencieswhichfrequentlyoccurinsociety。*k[Footnotei:See"TheTown—Officer，"especiallyatthewordsSelectmen，Assessors，Collectors，Schools，SurveyorsofHighways。

Itakeoneexampleinathousand:theStateprohibitstravellingontheSunday;thetything—men，whoaretown—officers，arespeciallychargedtokeepwatchandtoexecutethelaw。SeetheLawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。410。

TheselectmendrawupthelistsofelectorsfortheelectionoftheGovernor，andtransmittheresultoftheballottotheSecretaryoftheState。SeeActofFebruary24，1796:Id。，vol。

i。p。488。]

[Footnotej:Thus，forinstance，theselectmenauthorizetheconstructionofdrains，pointoutthepropersitesforslaughter—

housesandothertradeswhichareanuisancetotheneighborhood。

SeetheActofJune7，1785:Id。，vol。i。p。193。]

[Footnotek:Theselectmentakemeasuresforthesecurityofthepublicincaseofcontagiousdiseases，conjointlywiththejusticesofthepeace。SeeActofJune22，1797，vol。i。p。

539。]

ItresultsfromwhatwehavesaidthatintheStateofMassachusettstheadministrativeauthorityisalmostentirelyrestrictedtothetownship，*lbutthatitisdistributedamongagreatnumberofindividuals。IntheFrenchcommunethereisproperlybutoneofficialfunctionary，namely，theMaire;andinNewEnglandwehaveseenthattherearenineteen。Thesenineteenfunctionariesdonotingeneraldependupononeanother。Thelawcarefullyprescribesacircleofactiontoeachofthesemagistrates;andwithinthatcircletheyhaveanentirerighttoperformtheirfunctionsindependentlyofanyotherauthority。

Abovethetownshipscarcelyanytraceofaseriesofofficialdignitariesistobefound。Itsometimeshappensthatthecountyofficersalteradecisionofthetownshipsortownmagistrates，*mbutingeneraltheauthoritiesofthecountyhavenorighttointerferewiththeauthoritiesofthetownship，*nexceptinsuchmattersasconcernthecounty。

[Footnotel:Isayalmost，fortherearevariouscircumstancesintheannalsofatownshipwhichareregulatedbythejusticeofthepeaceinhisindividualcapacity，orbythejusticesofthepeaceassembledinthechieftownofthecounty;thuslicensesaregrantedbythejustices。SeetheActofFebruary28，1787，vol。i。p。297。]

[Footnotem:Thuslicensesareonlygrantedtosuchpersonsascanproduceacertificateofgoodconductfromtheselectmen。Iftheselectmenrefusetogivethecertificate，thepartymayappealtothejusticesassembledintheCourtofSessions，andtheymaygrantthelicense。SeeActofMarch12，1808，vol。ii。

p。186。

Thetownshipshavetherighttomakeby—laws，andtoenforcethembyfineswhicharefixedbylaw;buttheseby—lawsmustbeapprovedbytheCourtofSessions。SeeActofMarch23，1786，vol。i。p。254。]

[Footnoten:InMassachusettsthecountymagistratesarefrequentlycalledupontoinvestigatetheactsofthetownmagistrates;butitwillbeshownfurtheronthatthisinvestigationisaconsequence，notoftheiradministrative，butoftheirjudicialpower。]

Themagistratesofthetownship，aswellasthoseofthecounty，areboundtocommunicatetheiractstothecentralgovernmentinaverysmallnumberofpredeterminedcases。*oButthecentralgovernmentisnotrepresentedbyanindividualwhosebusinessitistopublishpoliceregulationsandordinancesenforcingtheexecutionofthelaws;tokeepuparegularcommunicationwiththeofficersofthetownshipandthecounty;

toinspecttheirconduct，todirecttheiractions，ortoreprimandtheirfaults。Thereisnopointwhichservesasacentretotheradiioftheadministration。

[Footnoteo:ThetowncommitteesofschoolsareobligedtomakeanannualreporttotheSecretaryoftheStateontheconditionoftheschool。SeeActofMarch10，1827，vol。iii。p。183。]

ChapterV:NecessityOfExaminingTheConditionOfTheStates—

PartII

What，then，istheuniformplanonwhichthegovernmentisconducted，andhowisthecomplianceofthecountiesandtheirmagistratesorthetownshipsandtheirofficersenforced？IntheStatesofNewEnglandthelegislativeauthorityembracesmoresubjectsthanitdoesinFrance;thelegislatorpenetratestotheverycoreoftheadministration;thelawdescendstothemostminutedetails;thesameenactmentprescribestheprincipleandthemethodofitsapplication，andthusimposesamultitudeofstrictandrigorouslydefinedobligationsonthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheState。Theconsequenceofthisisthatifallthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheadministrationconformtothelaw，societyinallitsbranchesproceedswiththegreatestuniformity:thedifficultyremainsofcompellingthesecondaryfunctionariesoftheadministrationtoconformtothelaw。Itmaybeaffirmedthat，ingeneral，societyhasonlytwomethodsofenforcingtheexecutionofthelawsatitsdisposal:adiscretionarypowermaybeentrustedtoasuperiorfunctionaryofdirectingalltheothers，andofcashieringthemincaseofdisobedience;orthecourtsofjusticemaybeauthorizedtoinflictjudicialpenaltiesontheoffender:butthesetwomethodsarenotalwaysavailable。

Therightofdirectingacivilofficerpresupposesthatofcashieringhimifhedoesnotobeyorders，andofrewardinghimbypromotionifhefulfilshisdutieswithpropriety。Butanelectedmagistratecanneitherbecashierednorpromoted。Allelectivefunctionsareinalienableuntiltheirtermisexpired。

Infact，theelectedmagistratehasnothingeithertoexpectortofearfromhisconstituents;andwhenallpublicofficesarefilledbyballottherecanbenoseriesofofficialdignities，becausethedoublerightofcommandingandofenforcingobediencecanneverbevestedinthesameindividual，andbecausethepowerofissuinganordercanneverbejoinedtothatofinflictingapunishmentorbestowingareward。

Thecommunitiesthereforeinwhichthesecondaryfunctionariesofthegovernmentareelectedareperforceobligedtomakegreatuseofjudicialpenaltiesasameansofadministration。Thisisnotevidentatfirstsight;forthoseinpowerareapttolookupontheinstitutionofelectivefunctionariesasoneconcession，andthesubjectionoftheelectedmagistratetothejudgesofthelandasanother。Theyareequallyaversetoboththeseinnovations;andastheyaremorepressinglysolicitedtogranttheformerthanthelatter，theyaccedetotheelectionofthemagistrate，andleavehimindependentofthejudicialpower。Nevertheless，thesecondofthesemeasuresistheonlythingthatcanpossiblycounterbalancethefirst;anditwillbefoundthatanelectiveauthoritywhichisnotsubjecttojudicialpowerwill，soonerorlater，eithereludeallcontrolorbedestroyed。Thecourtsofjusticearetheonlypossiblemediumbetweenthecentralpowerandtheadministrativebodies;theyalonecancompeltheelectedfunctionarytoobey，withoutviolatingtherightsoftheelector。

Theextensionofjudicialpowerinthepoliticalworldoughtthereforetobeintheexactratiooftheextensionofelectiveoffices:ifthesetwoinstitutionsdonotgohandinhand，theStatemustfallintoanarchyorintosubjection。

Ithasalwaysbeenremarkedthathabitsoflegalbusinessdonotrendermenapttotheexerciseofadministrativeauthority。

TheAmericanshaveborrowedfromtheEnglish，theirfathers，theideaofaninstitutionwhichisunknownuponthecontinentofEurope:IalludetothatoftheJusticesofthePeace。TheJusticeofthePeaceisasortofmezzoterminebetweenthemagistrateandthemanoftheworld，betweenthecivilofficerandthejudge。Ajusticeofthepeaceisawell—informedcitizen，thoughheisnotnecessarilyversedintheknowledgeofthelaws。

Hisofficesimplyobligeshimtoexecutethepoliceregulationsofsociety;ataskinwhichgoodsenseandintegrityareofmoreavailthanlegalscience。Thejusticeintroducesintotheadministrationacertaintasteforestablishedformsandpublicity，whichrendershimamostunserviceableinstrumentofdespotism;and，ontheotherhand，heisnotblindedbythosesuperstitionswhichrenderlegalofficersunfitmembersofagovernment。TheAmericanshaveadoptedthesystemoftheEnglishjusticesofthepeace，buttheyhavedepriveditofthataristocraticcharacterwhichisdiscernibleinthemother—country。TheGovernorofMassachusetts*pappointsacertainnumberofjusticesofthepeaceineverycounty，whosefunctionslastsevenyears。*qHefurtherdesignatesthreeindividualsfromamongstthewholebodyofjusticeswhoformineachcountywhatiscalledtheCourtofSessions。Thejusticestakeapersonalshareinpublicbusiness;theyaresometimesentrustedwithadministrativefunctionsinconjunctionwithelectedofficers，*rtheysometimesconstituteatribunal，beforewhichthemagistratessummarilyprosecutearefractorycitizen，orthecitizensinformagainsttheabusesofthemagistrate。ButitisintheCourtofSessionsthattheyexercisetheirmostimportantfunctions。Thiscourtmeetstwiceayearinthecountytown;inMassachusettsitisempoweredtoenforcetheobedienceofthegreaternumber*sofpublicofficers。*tItmustbeobserved，thatintheStateofMassachusettstheCourtofSessionsisatthesametimeanadministrativebody，properlysocalled，andapoliticaltribunal。Ithasbeenassertedthatthecountyisapurelyadministrativedivision。TheCourtofSessionspresidesoverthatsmallnumberofaffairswhich，astheyconcernseveraltownships，orallthetownshipsofthecountyincommon，cannotbeentrustedtoanyoneoftheminparticular。*uInallthatconcernscountybusinessthedutiesoftheCourtofSessionsarepurelyadministrative;andifinitsinvestigationsitoccasionallyborrowstheformsofjudicialprocedure，itisonlywithaviewtoitsowninformation，*vorasaguaranteetothecommunityoverwhichitpresides。Butwhentheadministrationofthetownshipisbroughtbeforeit，italwaysactsasajudicialbody，andinsomefewcasesasanofficialassembly。

[Footnotep:WeshallhereafterlearnwhataGovernoris:IshallcontentmyselfwithremarkinginthisplacethatherepresentstheexecutivepowerofthewholeState。]

[Footnoteq:SeetheConstitutionofMassachusetts，chap。II。

sect。1。Section9;chap。III。Section3。]

[Footnoter:Thus，forexample，astrangerarrivesinatownshipfromacountrywhereacontagiousdiseaseprevails，andhefallsill。Twojusticesofthepeacecan，withtheassentoftheselectmen，orderthesheriffofthecountytoremoveandtakecareofhim。—ActofJune22，1797，vol。i。p。540。

Ingeneralthejusticesinterfereinalltheimportantactsoftheadministration，andgivethemasemi—judicialcharacter。]

[Footnotes:Isaythegreaternumber，becausecertainadministrativemisdemeanorsarebroughtbeforeordinarytribunals。If，forinstance，atownshiprefusestomakethenecessaryexpenditureforitsschoolsortonameaschool—committee，itisliabletoaheavyfine。ButthispenaltyispronouncedbytheSupremeJudicialCourtortheCourtofCommonPleas。SeeActofMarch10，1827，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。iii。p。190。Orwhenatownshipneglectstoprovidethenecessarywar—stores。—ActofFebruary21，1822:Id。，vol。ii。

p。570。]

[Footnotet:Intheirindividualcapacitythejusticesofthepeacetakeapartinthebusinessofthecountiesandtownships。]

[Footnoteu:Theseaffairsmaybebroughtunderthefollowingheads:—1。Theerectionofprisonsandcourtsofjustice。2。

Thecountybudget，whichisafterwardsvotedbytheState。3。

Thedistributionofthetaxessovoted。4。Grantsofcertainpatents。5。Thelayingdownandrepairsofthecountryroads。]

[Footnotev:Thus，whenaroadisunderconsideration，almostalldifficultiesaredisposedofbytheaidofthejury。]

ThefirstdifficultyistoprocuretheobedienceofanauthorityasentirelyindependentofthegenerallawsoftheStateasthetownshipis。Wehavestatedthatassessorsareannuallynamedbythetown—meetingstolevythetaxes。Ifatownshipattemptstoevadethepaymentofthetaxesbyneglectingtonameitsassessors，theCourtofSessionscondemnsittoaheavypenalty。*wThefineisleviedoneachoftheinhabitants;

andthesheriffofthecounty，whoistheofficerofjustice，executesthemandate。ThusitisthatintheUnitedStatestheauthorityoftheGovernmentismysteriouslyconcealedundertheformsofajudicialsentence;anditsinfluenceisatthesametimefortifiedbythatirresistiblepowerwithwhichmenhaveinvestedtheformalitiesoflaw。

[Footnotew:SeeActofFebruary20，1786，LawsofMassachusetts，vol。i。p。217。]

Theseproceedingsareeasytofollowandtounderstand。Thedemandsmadeuponatownshipareingeneralplainandaccuratelydefined;theyconsistinasimplefactwithoutanycomplication，orinaprinciplewithoutitsapplicationindetail。*xButthedifficultyincreaseswhenitisnottheobedienceofthetownship，butthatofthetownofficerswhichistobeenforced。

Allthereprehensibleactionsofwhichapublicfunctionarymaybeguiltyarereducibletothefollowingheads:

[Footnotex:Thereisanindirectmethodofenforcingtheobedienceofatownship。Supposethatthefundswhichthelawdemandsforthemaintenanceoftheroadshavenotbeenvoted，thetownsurveyoristhenauthorized，exofficio，tolevythesupplies。Asheispersonallyresponsibletoprivateindividualsforthestateoftheroads，andindictablebeforetheCourtofSessions，heissuretoemploytheextraordinaryrightwhichthelawgiveshimagainstthetownship。ThusbythreateningtheofficertheCourtofSessionsexactscompliancefromthetown。

SeeActofMarch5，1787，Id。，vol。i。p。305。]

Hemayexecutethelawwithoutenergyorzeal;

Hemayneglecttoexecutethelaw;

Hemaydowhatthelawenjoinshimnottodo。

Thelasttwoviolationsofdutycanalonecomeunderthecognizanceofatribunal;apositiveandappreciablefactistheindispensablefoundationofanactionatlaw。Thus，iftheselectmenomittofulfilthelegalformalitiesusualattownelections，theymaybecondemnedtopayafine;*ybutwhenthepublicofficerperformshisdutywithoutability，andwhenheobeystheletterofthelawwithoutzealorenergy，heisatleastbeyondthereachofjudicialinterference。TheCourtofSessions，evenwhenitisinvestedwithitsofficialpowers，isinthiscaseunabletocompelhimtoamoresatisfactoryobedience。Thefearofremovalistheonlychecktothesequasi—offences;andastheCourtofSessionsdoesnotoriginatethetownauthorities，itcannotremovefunctionarieswhomitdoesnotappoint。Moreover，aperpetualinvestigationwouldbenecessarytoconvicttheofficerofnegligenceorlukewarmness;

andtheCourtofSessionssitsbuttwiceayearandthenonlyjudgessuchoffencesasarebroughtbeforeitsnotice。Theonlysecurityofthatactiveandenlightenedobediencewhichacourtofjusticecannotimposeuponpublicofficersliesinthepossibilityoftheirarbitraryremoval。InFrancethissecurityissoughtforinpowersexercisedbytheheadsoftheadministration;inAmericaitissoughtforintheprincipleofelection。

[Footnotey:LawsofMassachusetts，vol。ii。p。45。]

Thus，torecapitulateinafewwordswhatIhavebeenshowing:IfapublicofficerinNewEnglandcommitsacrimeintheexerciseofhisfunctions，theordinarycourtsofjusticearealwayscalledupontopasssentenceuponhim。Ifhecommitsafaultinhisofficialcapacity，apurelyadministrativetribunalisempoweredtopunishhim;and，iftheaffairisimportantorurgent，thejudgesuppliestheomissionofthefunctionary。*zLastly，ifthesameindividualisguiltyofoneofthoseintangibleoffencesofwhichhumanjusticehasnocognizance，heannuallyappearsbeforeatribunalfromwhichthereisnoappeal，whichcanatoncereducehimtoinsignificanceanddeprivehimofhischarge。Thissystemundoubtedlypossessesgreatadvantages，butitsexecutionisattendedwithapracticaldifficultywhichitisimportanttopointout。

[Footnotez:If，forinstance，atownshippersistsinrefusingtonameitsassessors，theCourtofSessionsnominatesthem;andthemagistratesthusappointedareinvestedwiththesameauthorityaselectedofficers。SeetheActquotedabove，February20，1787。]

Ihavealreadyobservedthattheadministrativetribunal，whichiscalledtheCourtofSessions，hasnorightofinspectionoverthetownofficers。Itcanonlyinterferewhentheconductofamagistrateisspeciallybroughtunderitsnotice;andthisisthedelicatepartofthesystem。TheAmericansofNewEnglandareunacquaintedwiththeofficeofpublicprosecutorintheCourtofSessions，*aanditmayreadilybeperceivedthatitcouldnothavebeenestablishedwithoutdifficulty。Ifanaccusingmagistratehadmerelybeenappointedinthechieftownofeachcounty，andifhehadbeenunassistedbyagentsinthetownships，hewouldnothavebeenbetteracquaintedwithwhatwasgoingoninthecountythanthemembersoftheCourtofSessions。