第18章

Allpoliticianssharethesameopinion，whichiswhyweprogresssoslowly。Eachpartyispersuadedthatbymeansofreformsallevilscouldberemedied。ThisconvictionresultsinstrugglessuchashavemadeFrancethemostdividedcountryintheworldandthemostsubjecttoanarchy。

Nooneyetseemstounderstandthatindividualsandtheirmethods，notregulations，makethevalueofapeople。Theefficaciousreformsarenottherevolutionaryreformsbutthetriflingameliorationsofeverydayaccumulatedincourseoftime。Thegreatsocialchanges，likethegreatgeologicalchanges，areeffectedbythedailyadditionofminutecauses。

TheeconomichistoryofGermanyduringthelastfortyyearsprovesinastrikingmannerthetruthofthislaw。

Manyimportanteventswhichseemtodependmoreorlessonhazard——asbattles，forexample——arethemselvessubjecttothislawoftheaccumulationofsmallcauses。Nodoubtthedecisivestruggleissometimesterminatedinadayorless，butmanyminuteefforts，slowlyaccumulated，areessentialtovictory。Wehadapainfulexperienceofthisin1870，andtheRussianshavelearneditmorerecently。BarelyhalfanhourdidAdmiralTogoneedtoannihilatetheRussianfleet，atthebattleofTsushima，whichfinallydecidedthefateofJapan，butthousandsoflittlefactors，smallandremote，determinedthatsuccess。CausesnotlessnumerousengenderedthedefeatoftheRussians——abureaucracyascomplicatedasours，andasirresponsible；

lamentablematerial，althoughpaidforbyitsweightingold；asystemofgraftateverydegreeofthesocialhierarchy，andgeneralindifferencetotheinterestsofthecountry。

Unhappilytheprogressinlittlethingswhichbytheirtotalmakeupthegreatnessofanationisrarelyapparent，producesnoimpressiononthepublic，andcannotservetheinterestsofpoliticiansatelections。Theselattercarenothingforsuchmatters，andpermittheaccumulation，inthecountriessubjecttotheirinfluence，ofthelittlesuccessivedisorganisationswhichfinallyresultingreatdownfalls。

5。SocialDistinctionsinDemocraciesandDemocraticIdeasinVariousCountries。

Whenmenweredividedintocastesanddifferentiatedchieflybybirth，socialdistinctionsweregenerallyacceptedastheconsequencesofanunavoidablenaturallaw。

Assoonastheoldsocialdivisionsweredestroyedthedistinctionsoftheclassesappearedartificial，andforthatreasonceasedtobetolerated。

Thenecessityofequalitybeingtheoretical，wehaveseenamongdemocraticpeoplestherapiddevelopmentofartificialinequalities，permittingtheirpossessorstomakeforthemselvesaplainlyvisiblesupremacy。Neverwasthethirstfortitlesanddecorationssogeneralasto—day。

Inreallydemocraticcountries，suchastheUnitedStates，titlesanddecorationsdonotexertmuchinfluence，andfortunealonecreatesdistinctions。ItisonlybyexceptionthatweseewealthyyoungAmericangirlsallyingthemselvestotheoldnamesoftheEuropeanaristocracy。Theyaretheninstinctivelyemployingtheonlymeanswhichwillpermitayoungracetoacquireapastthatwillestablishitsmoralframework。

ButinageneralfashionthearistocracythatweseespringingupinAmericaisbynomeansfoundedontitlesanddecorations。

Purelyfinancial，itdoesnotprovokemuchjealousy，becauseeveryonehopesonedaytoformpartofit。

When，inhisbookondemocracyinAmerica，Toquevillespokeofthegeneralaspirationtowardsequalityhedidnotrealisethattheprophesiedequalitywouldendintheclassificationofmenfoundedexclusivelyonthenumberofdollarspossessedbythem。

NootherexistsintheUnitedStates，anditwilldoubtlessonedaybethesameinEurope。

AtpresentwecannotpossiblyregardFranceasademocraticcountrysaveonpaper，andherewefeelthenecessity，alreadyreferredto，ofexaminingthevariousideaswhichindifferentcountriesareexpressedbytheword``democracy。’’

OftrulydemocraticnationswecanpracticallymentiononlyEnglandandtheUnitedStates。There，democracyoccursindifferentforms，butthesameprinciplesareobserved——notably，aperfecttolerationofallopinions。Religiouspersecutionsareunknown。Realsuperiorityeasilyrevealsitselfinthevariousprofessionswhichanyonecanenteratanyageifhepossessesthenecessarycapacity。Thereisnobarriertoindividualeffort。

Insuchcountriesmenbelievethemselvesequalbecauseallhavetheideathattheyarefreetoattainthesameposition。Theworkmanknowshecanbecomeforeman，andthenengineer。Forcedtobeginonthelowerrungsoftheladderinsteadofhighupthescale，asinFrance，theengineerdoesnotregardhimselfasmadeofdifferentstufftotherestofmankind。Itisthesameinallprofessions。Thisiswhytheclasshatred，sointenseinEurope，issolittledevelopedinEnglandandAmerica。

InFrancethedemocracyispracticallynon—existentsaveinspeeches。Asystemofcompetitionsandexaminations，whichmustbeworkedthroughinyouth，firmlyclosesthedoorupontheliberalprofessions，andcreatesinimicalandseparateclasses。

TheLatindemocraciesarethereforepurelytheoretical。TheabsolutismoftheStatehasreplacedmonarchicalabsolutism，butitisnolesssevere。Thearistocracyoffortunehasreplacedthatofbirth，anditsprivilegesarenolessconsiderable。

Monarchiesanddemocraciesdifferfarmoreinformthaninsubstance。Itisonlythevariablementalityofmenthatvariestheireffects。Allthediscussionsastovarioussystemsofgovernmentarereallyofnointerest，forthesehavenospecialvirtueofthemselves。Theirvaluewillalwaysdependonthatofthepeoplegoverned。Apeopleeffectsgreatandrapidprogresswhenitdiscoversthatitisthesumofthepersonaleffortsofeachindividualandnotthesystemofgovernmentthatdeterminestherankofanationintheworld。

CHAPTERIII

THENEWFORMSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEF

1。TheConflictbetweenCapitalandLabour。

Whileourlegislatorsarereformingandlegislatingathazard，thenaturalevolutionoftheworldisslowlypursuingitscourse。

Newinterestsarise，theeconomiccompetitionbetweennationandnationincreasesinseverity，theworking—classesarebestirringthemselves，andonallsidesweseethebirthofformidableproblemswhichtheharanguesofthepoliticianswillneverresolve。

Amongthesenewproblemsoneofthemostcomplicatedwillbetheproblemoftheconflictbetweenlabourandcapital。ItisbecomingacuteeveninsuchacountryoftraditionasEngland。

Workingmenareceasingtorespectthecollectivecontractswhichformerlyconstitutedtheircharter，strikesaredeclaredforinsignificantmotives，andunemploymentandpauperismareattainingdisquietingproportions。

InAmericathesestrikeswouldfinallyhaveaffectedallindustriesbutthattheveryexcessoftheevilcreatedaremedy。

Duringthelasttenyearstheindustrialleadershaveorganisedgreatemployers’federations，whichhavebecomepowerfulenoughtoforcetheworkerstosubmittoarbitration。

ThelabourquestioniscomplicatedinFrancebytheinterventionofnumerousforeignworkers，whichthestagnationofourpopulationhasrenderednecessary。[13]ThisstagnationwillalsomakeitdifficultforFrancetocontendwithherrivals，whosesoilwillsoonnolongerbeabletonourishitsinhabitants，who，followingoneoftheoldestlawsofhistory，willnecessarilyinvadethelessdenselypeopledcountries。

[13]PopulationoftheGreatPowers：——

1789。1906。

Russia……28，000，000129，000，000

Germany……28，000，00057，000，000

Austria……18，000，00044，000，000

England……12，000，00040，000，000

France……26，000，00039，000，000

TheseconflictsbetweentheworkersandemployersofthesamenationwillberenderedstillmoreacutebytheincreasingeconomicstrugglebetweentheAsiatics，whoseneedsaresmall，andwhocanthereforeproducemanufacturedarticlesatverylowprices，andtheEuropeans，whoseneedsaremany。Fortwenty—fiveyearsIhavelaidstressuponthispoint。GeneralHamilton，ex—

militaryattachetotheJapanesearmy，whoforesawtheJapanesevictorieslongbeforetheoutbreakofhostilities，writesasfollowsinanessaytranslatedbyGeneralLanglois：——

``TheChinaman，suchasIhaveseenhiminManchuria，iscapableofdestroyingthepresenttypeofworkerofthewhiteraces。Hewilldrivehimoffthefaceoftheearth。TheSocialists，whopreachequalitytothelabourer，arefarfromthinkingwhatwouldbethepracticalresultofcarryingouttheirtheories。Isit，then，thedestinyofthewhiteracestodisappearinthelongrun？Inmyhumbleopinionthisdestinydependsupononesinglefactor：Shallweorshallwenothavethegoodsensetocloseourearstospeecheswhichpresentwarandpreparationforwarasauselessevil？

``Ibelievetheworkersmustchoose。Giventhepresentconstitutionoftheworld，theymustcultivateintheirchildrenthemilitaryideal，andacceptgracefullythecostandtroublewhichmilitarismentails，ortheywillbeletinforacruelstruggleforlifewitharivalworkerofwhosesuccessthereisnottheslightestdoubt。ThereisonlyonemeansofrefusingAsiaticstherighttoemigrate，tolowerwagesbycompetition，andtoliveinourmidst，andthatisthesword。IfAmericansandEuropeansforgetthattheirprivilegedpositionisheldonlybyforceofarms，Asiawillsoonhavetakenherrevenge。’’

WeknowthatinAmericatheinvasionofChineseandJapanese，owingtothecompetitionbetweenthemandtheworkersofwhiterace，hasbecomeanationalcalamity。InEuropetheinvasioniscommencing，buthasnotasyetgonefar。ButalreadyChineseemigrantshaveformedimportantcoloniesincertaincentres——

London，Cardiff，Liverpool，&c。Theyhaveprovokedseveralriotsbyworkingforlowwages。Theirappearancehasalwaysloweredsalaries。

Buttheseproblemsbelongtothefuture，andthoseofthepresentaresodisquietingthatitisuselessatthemomenttooccupyourselveswithothers。

2。TheEvolutionoftheWorking—ClassesandtheSyndicalistMovement。

Themostimportantdemocraticproblemofthedaywillperhapsresultfromtherecentdevelopmentoftheworking—classengenderedbytheSyndicalistorTradesUnionmovement。

TheaggregationofsimilarinterestsknownasSyndicalismhasrapidlyassumedsuchenormousdevelopmentsinallcountriesthatitmaybecalledworld—wide。CertaincorporationshavebudgetscomparabletothoseofsmallStates。SomeGermanleagueshavebeencitedashavingsavedoverthreemillionssterlinginsubscriptions。

Theextensionofthelabourmovementinallcountriesshowsthatitisnot，likeSocialism，adreamofUtopiantheorists，buttheresultofeconomicnecessities。Initsaim，itsmeansofaction，anditstendencies，SyndicalismpresentsnokinshipwithSocialism。HavingsufficientlyexplaineditinmyPoliticalPsychology，itwillsufficeheretorecallinafewwordsthedifferencebetweenthetwodoctrines。

Socialismwouldobtainpossessionofallindustries，andhavethemmanagedbytheState，whichwoulddistributetheproductsequallybetweenthecitizens。Syndicalism，ontheotherhand，wouldentirelyeliminatetheactionoftheState，anddividesocietyintosmallprofessionalgroupswhichwouldbeself—governing。

AlthoughdespisedbytheSyndicalistsandviolentlyattackedbythem，theSocialistsaretryingtoignoretheconflict，butitisrapidlybecomingtooobvioustobeconcealed。ThepoliticalinfluencewhichtheSocialistsstillpossesswillsoonescapethem。

IfSyndicalismiseverywhereincreasingattheexpenseofSocialism，itis，Irepeat，becausethiscorporativemovement，althougharenewalofthepast，synthetisescertainneedsbornofthespecialisationofmodernindustry。

Weseeitsmanifestationsunderagreatvarietyofcircumstances。

InFranceitssuccesshasnotasyetbeenasgreataselsewhere。

Havingtakentherevolutionaryformalreadymentioned，ithasfallen，atleastforthetimebeing，intothehandsoftheanarchists，whocareaslittleforSyndicalismasforanysortoforganisation，andaresimplyusingthenewdoctrineinanattempttodestroymodernsociety。Socialists，Syndicalists，andanarchists，althoughdirectedbyentirelydifferentconceptions，arethuscollaboratinginthesameeventualaim——theviolentsuppressionoftherulingclassesandthepillageoftheirwealth。

TheSyndicalistdoctrinedoesnotinanywayderivefromtheprinciplesofRevolution。OnmanypointsitisentirelyincontradictionwiththeRevolution。SyndicalismrepresentsratherareturntocertainformsofcollectiveorganisationsimilartotheguildsorcorporationsproscribedbytheRevolution。ItthusconstitutesoneofthosefederationswhichtheRevolutioncondemned。ItentirelyrejectstheStatecentralisationwhichtheRevolutionestablished。

Syndicalismcaresnothingforthedemocraticprinciplesofliberty，equality，andfraternity。TheSyndicalistsdemandoftheirmembersanabsolutedisciplinewhicheliminatesallliberty。

Notbeingasyetstrongenoughtoexercisemutualtyranny，thesyndicatessofarprofesssentimentsinrespectofoneanotherwhichmightbyastretchbecalledfraternal。Butassoonastheyaresufficientlypowerful，whentheircontraryinterestswillnecessarilyenterintoconflict，asduringtheSyndicalistperiodoftheoldItalianrepublics——FlorenceandSiena，forexample——thepresentfraternitywillspeedilybeforgotten，andequalitywillbereplacedbythedespotismofthemostpowerful。

Suchafutureseemsnearathand。Thenewpowerisincreasingveryrapidly，andfindstheGovernmentspowerlessbeforeit，abletodefendthemselvesonlybyyieldingtoeverydemand——anodiouspolicy，whichmayserveforthemoment，butwhichheavilycompromisesthefuture。

Itwas，however，tothispoorrecoursethattheEnglishGovernmentrecentlyresortedinitsstruggleagainsttheMiners’

Union，whichthreatenedtosuspendtheindustriallifeofEngland。TheUniondemandedaminimumwageforitsmembers，buttheywerenotboundtofurnishaminimumofwork。

Althoughsuchademandwasinadmissible，theGovernmentagreedtoproposetoParliamentalawtosanctionsuchameasure。WemayprofitablyreadtheweightywordspronouncedbyMr。BalfourbeforetheHouseofCommons：——

``Thecountryhasneverinitssolongandvariedhistoryhadtofaceadangerofthisnatureandthisimportance。

``Weareconfrontedwiththestrangeandsinisterspectacleofamereorganisationthreateningtoparalyse——andparalysinginalargemeasure——thecommerceandmanufacturesofacommunitywhichlivesbycommerceandmanufacture。

``Thepowerpossessedbytheminersisinthepresentstateofthelawalmostunlimited。Haveweeverseenthelikeofit？Dideverfeudalbaronexertacomparabletyranny？WasthereeveranAmericantrustwhichservedtherightswhichitholdsfromthelawwithsuchcontemptofthegeneralinterest？Theverydegreeofperfectiontowhichwehavebroughtourlaws，oursocialorganisation，themutualrelationbetweenthevariousprofessionsandindustries，exposesusmorethanourpredecessorsinruderagestothegraveperilwhichatpresentthreatenssociety……Wearewitnessesatthepresentmomentofthefirstmanifestationofthepowerofelementswhich，ifwearenotheedful，willsubmergethewholeofsociety……TheattitudeoftheGovernmentinyieldingtotheinjunctionoftheminersgivessomeappearanceofrealitytothevictoryofthosewhoarepittingthemselvesagainstsociety。’’

3。WhycertainmodernDemocraticGovernmentsaregraduallybeingtransformedintoGovernmentsbyAdministrativeCastes。

Anarchyandthesocialconflictsresultingfromdemocraticideasareto—dayimpellingsomeGovernmentstowardsanunforeseencourseofevolutionwhichwillendbyleavingthemonlyanominalpower。Thisdevelopment，ofwhichIshallbrieflydenotetheeffects，iseffectedspontaneouslyunderthestressofthoseimperiousnecessitieswhicharestillthechiefcontrollingpowerofevents。

TheGovernmentsofdemocraticcountriesto—dayconsistoftherepresentativeselectedbyuniversalsuffrage。Theyvotelaws，andappointanddismissministerschosenfromthemselves，andprovisionallyentrustedwiththeexecutivepower。Theseministersarenaturallyoftenreplaced，sinceavotewilldoit。Thosewhofollowthem，belongingtoadifferentparty，willgovernaccordingtodifferentprinciples。

Itmightatfirstseemthatacountrythuspulledtoandfrobyvariousinfluencescouldhavenocontinuityorstability。ButinspiteofalltheseconditionsofinstabilityademocraticGovernmentlikethatofFranceworkswithfairregularity。Howexplainsuchaphenomenon？

Itsinterpretation，whichisverysimple，resultsfromthefactthattheministerswhohavetheappearanceofgoverningreallygovernthecountryonlytoaverylimitedextent。Strictlylimitedandcircumscribed，theirpowerisexercisedprincipallyinspeecheswhicharehardlynoticedandinafewinorganicmeasures。

Butbehindthesuperficialauthorityofministers，withoutforceorduration，theplaythingsofeverydemandofthepolitician，ananonymouspowerissecretlyatworkwhosemightiscontinuallyincreasingtheadministrations。Possessingtraditions，ahierarchy，andcontinuity，theyareapoweragainstwhich，astheministersquicklyrealise，theyareincapableofstruggling。[14]

Responsibilityissodividedintheadministrativemachinethataministermayneverfindhimselfopposedbyanypersonofimportance。Hismomentaryimpulsesarecheckedbyanetworkofregulations，customs，anddecrees，whicharecontinuallyquotedtohim，andwhichheknowssolittlethathedarenotinfringethem。

[14]Theimpotenceofministersintheirowndepartmentshasbeenwelldescribedbyoneofthem，M。Cruppi，inarecentbook。Themostardentwishesoftheministerbeingimmediatelyparalysedbyhisdepartment，hepromptlyceasestostruggleagainstit。

ThisdiminutionofthepowerofdemocraticGovernmentscanonlydevelop。OneofthemostconstantlawsofhistoryisthatofwhichIhavealreadyspoken：Immediatelyanyoneclassbecomespreponderant——nobles，clergy，army，orthepeople——itspeedilytendstoenslaveothers。SuchweretheRomanarmies，whichfinallyappointedandoverthrewtheemperors；suchweretheclergy，againstwhomthekingsofoldcouldhardlystruggle；suchweretheStatesGeneral，whichatthemomentofRevolutionspeedilyabsorbedallthepowersofgovernment，andsupplantedthemonarchy。

Thecasteoffunctionariesisdestinedtofurnishafreshproofofthetruthofthislaw。Preponderantalready，theyarebeginningtospeakloudly，tomakethreats，andeventoindulgeinstrikes，suchasthatofthepostmen，whichwasquicklyfollowedbythatoftheGovernmentrailwayemployees。TheadministrativepowerthusformsalittleStatewithintheState，andifitspresentrateofrevolutioncontinuesitwillsoonconstitutetheonlypowerintheState。UnderaSocialistGovernmenttherewouldbenootherpower。Allourrevolutionswouldthenhaveresultedinstrippingthekingofhispowersandhisthroneinordertobestowthemupontheirresponsible，anonymousanddespoticclassofGovernmentclerks。

Toforeseetheissueofalltheconflictswhichthreatentocloudthefutureisimpossible。Wemuststeerclearofpessimismasofoptimism；allwecansayisthatnecessitywillalwaysfinallybringthingstoanequilibrium。Theworldpursuesitswaywithoutbotheringitselfwithourspeeches，andsoonerorlaterwemanagetoadaptourselvestothevariationsofourenvironment。Thedifficultyistodosowithouttoomuchfriction，andabovealltoresistthechimericalconceptionsofdreamers。Alwayspowerlesstore—organisetheworld，theyhaveoftencontrivedtoupsetit。

Athens，Rome，Florence，andmanyothercitieswhichformerlyshoneinhistory，werevictimsoftheseterribletheorists。Theresultsoftheirinfluencehasalwaysbeenthesame——anarchy，dictatorship，anddecadence。

ButsuchlessonswillnotaffectthenumerousCatilinesofthepresentday。Theydonotyetseethatthemovementsunchainedbytheirambitionsthreatentosubmergethem。AlltheseUtopianshaveawakenedimpossiblehopesinthemindofthecrowd，excitedtheirappetites，andsappedthedykeswhichhavebeenslowlyerectedduringthecenturiestorestrainthem。

Thestruggleoftheblindmultitudesagainsttheelectisoneofthecontinuousfactsofhistory，andthetriumphofpopularsovereigntieswithoutcounterpoisehasalreadymarkedtheendofmorethanonecivilisation。Theelectcreate，theplebsdestroys。Assoonasthefirstlosetheirholdthelatterbeginsitspreciouswork。

Thegreatcivilisationshaveonlyprosperedbydominatingtheirlowerelements。ItisnotonlyinGreecethatanarchy，dictatorship，invasion，and，finally，thelossofindependencehasresultedfromthedespotismofademocracy。Individualtyrannyisalwaysbornofcollectivetyranny。ItendedthefirstcycleofthegreatnessofRome；theBarbariansachievedthesecond。

CONCLUSIONS

Theprincipalrevolutionsofhistoryhavebeenstudiedinthisvolume。Butwehavedealtmoreespeciallywiththemostimportantofall——thatwhichformorethantwentyyearsoverwhelmedallEurope，andwhoseechoesarestilltobeheard。

TheFrenchRevolutionisaninexhaustiblemineofpsychologicaldocuments。Noperiodofthelifeofhumanityhaspresentedsuchamassofexperience，accumulatedinsoshortatime。

Oneachpageofthisgreatdramawehavefoundnumerousapplicationsoftheprinciplesexpoundedinmyvariousworks，concerningthetransitorymentalityofcrowdsandthepermanentsoulofthepeoples，theactionofbeliefs，theinfluenceofmystic，affective，andcollectiveelements，andtheconflictbetweenthevariousformsoflogic。

TheRevolutionaryAssembliesillustratealltheknownlawsofthepsychologyofcrowds。Impulsiveandtimid，theyaredominatedbyasmallnumberofleaders，andusuallyactinasensecontrarytothewishesoftheirindividualmembers。

TheRoyalistConstituentAssemblydestroyedanancientmonarchy；

thehumanitarianLegislativeAssemblyallowedthemassacresofSeptember。ThesamepacificbodyledFranceintothemostformidablecampaigns。

ThereweresimilarcontradictionsduringtheConvention。Theimmensemajorityofitsmembersabhorredviolence。Sentimentalphilosophers，theyexaltedequality，fraternity，andliberty，yetendedbyexertingthemostterribledespotism。

ThesamecontradictionswerevisibleduringtheDirectory。

Extremelymoderateintheirintentionsattheoutset，theAssemblieswerecontinuallyeffectingbloodthirstycoupsd’etat。Theywishedtore—establishreligiouspeace，andfinallysentthousandsofpriestsintoimprisonment。TheywishedtorepairtheruinswhichcoveredFrance，andonlysucceededinaddingtothem。

ThustherewasalwaysacompletecontradictionbetweentheindividualwillsofthemenoftherevolutionaryperiodandthedeedsoftheAssembliesofwhichtheywereunits。

Thetruthisthattheyobeyedinvisibleforcesofwhichtheywerenotthemasters。Believingthattheyactedinthenameofpurereason，theywerereallysubjecttomystic，affective，andcollectiveinfluences，incomprehensibletothem，andwhichweareonlyto—daybeginningtounderstand。

Intelligencehasprogressedinthecourseoftheages，andhasopenedamarvellousoutlooktoman，althoughhischaracter，therealfoundationofhismind，andthesuremotiveofhisactions，hasscarcelychanged。Overthrownonemoment，itreappearsthenext。Humannaturemustbeacceptedasitis。

ThefoundersoftheRevolutiondidnotresignthemselvestothefactsofhumannature。Forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofhumanitytheyattemptedtotransformmenandsocietyinthenameofreason。

Neverwasanyundertakingcommencedwithsuchchancesofsuccess。

Thetheorists，whoclaimedtoeffectit，hadapowerintheirhandsgreaterthanthatofanydespot。

Yet，despitethispower，despitethesuccessofthearmies，despiteDraconianlawsandrepeatedcoupsd’etat，theRevolutionmerelyheapedruinuponruin，andendedinadictatorship。

Suchanattemptwasnotuseless，sinceexperienceisnecessarytotheeducationofthepeoples。WithouttheRevolutionitwouldhavebeendifficulttoprovethatpurereasondoesnotenableustochangehumannature，and，consequently，thatnosocietycanberebuiltbythewilloflegislators，howeverabsolutetheirpower。