第7章

CHAPTERV

THEPSYCHOLOGYOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYASSEMBLIES

1。PsychologicalCharacteristicsofthegreatRevolutionaryAssemblies。

Agreatpoliticalassembly，aparliamentforexample，isacrowd，butacrowdwhichsometimesfailsineffectualactiononaccountofthecontrarysentimentsofthehostilegroupscomposingit。

Thepresenceofthesegroups，actuatedbydifferentinterests，mustmakeusconsideranassemblyasformedofsuperimposedandheterogeneouscrowds，eachobeyingitsparticularleaders。Thelawofthementalunityofcrowdsismanifestedonlyineachgroup，anditisonlyasaresultofexceptionalcircumstancesthatthedifferentgroupsactwithasingleintention。

Eachgroupinanassemblyrepresentsasinglebeing。Theindividualscontributingtotheformationofthisbeingarenolongerthemselves，andwillunhesitatinglyvoteagainsttheirconvictionsandtheirwishes。OntheeveofthedaywhenLouisXVI。wastobecondemnedVergniaudprotestedwithindignationagainstthesuggestionthatheshouldvoteforhisdeath；buthedidsovoteonthefollowingday。

Theactionofagroupconsistschieflyinfortifyinghesitatingopinions。Allfeebleindividualconvictionsbecomeconfirmeduponbecomingcollective。

Leadersofgreatreputeorunusualviolencecansometimes，byactingonallthegroupsofanassembly，makethemasinglecrowd。ThemajorityofthemembersoftheConventionenactedmeasuresentirelycontrarytotheiropinionsundertheinfluenceofaverysmallnumberofsuchleaders。

Collectivitieshavealwaysgivenwaybeforeactivesectaries。

ThehistoryoftherevolutionaryAssembliesshowshowpusillanimoustheywere，despitetheboldnessoftheirlanguagerespectingkings，beforetheleadersofthepopularriots。Theinvasionofabandofenergumenscommandedbyanimperiousleaderwasenoughtomakethemvotethenandtherethemostabsurdandcontradictorymeasures。

Anassembly，havingthecharacteristicsofacrowd，will，likeacrowd，beextremeinitssentiments。Excessiveinitsviolence，itwillbeexcessiveinitscowardice。Ingeneralitwillbeinsolenttotheweakandservilebeforethestrong。

WerememberthefearfulhumilityoftheParliamentwhentheyouthfulLouisXIV。entered，whipinhand，topronouncehisbriefspeech。WeknowwithwhatincreasingimpertinencetheConstituentAssemblytreatedLouisXVI。asitfeltthathewasbecomingdefenceless。Finally，werecalltheterroroftheConventionunderthereignofRobespierre。

Thischaracteristicofassembliesbeingagenerallaw，theconvocationofanassemblybyasovereignwhenhispowerisfailingmustberegardedasagrosserrorinpsychology。TheassemblingoftheStatesGeneralcostthelifeofLouisXVI。ItallbutlostHenryIII。histhrone，when，obligedtoleaveParis，hehadtheunhappyideaofassemblingtheEstatesatBlois。Consciousoftheweaknessoftheking，theEstatesatoncespokeasmastersofthesituation，modifyingtaxes，dismissingofficials，andclaimingthattheirdecisionsshouldhavetheforceoflaw。

ThisprogressiveexaggerationofsentimentswasplainlydemonstratedinalltheassembliesoftheRevolution。TheConstituentAssembly，atfirstextremelyrespectfultowardtheroyalauthorityanditsprerogatives，finallyproclaimeditselfasovereignAssembly，andtreatedLouisXVIasamereofficial。

TheConvention，afterrelativelymoderatebeginnings，endedwithapreliminaryformoftheTerror，whenjudgmentswerestillsurroundedbycertainlegalguarantees：then，quicklyincreasingitspowers，itenactedalawdeprivingallaccusedpersonsoftherightofdefence，permittingtheircondemnationuponthemeresuspicionofbeingsuspect。Yieldingmoreandmoretoitssanguinaryfrenzy，itfinallydecimateditself。Girondists，Hebertists，Dantonists，andRobespierristssuccessivelyendedtheircareersatthehandsoftheexecutioner。

Thisexaggerationofthesentimentsofassembliesexplainswhytheywerealwayssolittleabletocontroltheirowndestiniesandwhytheysooftenarrivedatconclusionsexactlycontrarytotheendsproposed。Catholicandroyalist，theConstituentAssembly，insteadoftheconstitutionalmonarchyitwishedtoestablishandthereligionitwishedtodefend，rapidlyledFrancetoaviolentrepublicandthepersecutionoftheclergy。

Politicalassembliesarecomposed，aswehaveseen，ofheterogeneousgroups，buttheyhavesometimesbeenformedofhomogeneousgroups，as，forinstance，certainoftheclubs，whichplayedsoenormousapartduringtheRevolution，andwhosepsychologydeservesaspecialexamination。

2。ThePsychologyoftheRevolutionaryClubs。

Smallassembliesofmenpossessingthesameopinions，thesamebeliefs，andthesameinterests，whicheliminatealldissentientvoices，differfromthegreatassembliesbytheunityoftheirsentimentsandthereforetheirwills。Suchwerethecommunes，thereligiouscongregations，thecorporations，andtheclubsduringtheRevolution，thesecretsocietiesduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury，andtheFreemasonsandsyndicalistsofto—day。

ThepointsofdifferencebetweenaheterogeneousassemblyandahomogeneousclubmustbethoroughlygraspedifwearetocomprehendtheprogressoftheFrenchRevolution。UntiltheDirectoryandespeciallyduringtheConventiontheRevolutionwasdirectedbytheclubs。

Despitetheunityofwillduetotheabsenceofdissidentpartiestheclubsobeythelawsofthepsychologyofcrowds。Theyareconsequentlysubjugatedbyleaders。ThisweseeespeciallyintheJacobinClub，whichwasdominatedbyRobespierre。

Thefunctionoftheleaderofaclub，ahomogeneouscrowd，isfarmoredifficultthanthatofaleaderofaheterogeneouscrowd。

Thelattermayeasilybeledbyharpingonasmallnumberofstrings，butinahomogeneousgrouplikeaclub，whosesentimentsandinterestsareidentical，theleadermustknowhowtohumourthemandisoftenhimselfled。

Partofthestrengthofhomogeneousagglomerationsresidesintheiranonymity。WeknowthatduringtheCommuneof1871afewanonymousorderssufficedtoeffecttheburningofthefinestmonumentsofParis：theHoteldeVille，theTuileries，theCourdesComptes，thebuildingsoftheLegionofHonour，&c。A

brieforderfromtheanonymouscommittees，``BurnFinances，burnTuileries，’’&c。，wasimmediatelyexecuted。Anunlooked—forchanceonlysavedtheLouvreanditscollections。Weknowtoowhatreligiousattentionisinourdaysaccordedtothemostabsurdinjunctionsoftheanonymousleadersofthetradesunions。

TheclubsofParisandtheinsurrectionaryCommunewerenotlessscrupulouslyobeyedatthetimeoftheRevolution。AnorderemanatingfromthesewassufficienttohurlupontheAssemblyapopulararmywhichdictateditswishes。

SummingupthehistoryoftheConventioninanotherchapter，weshallseehowfrequentweretheseirruptions，andwithwhatservilitytheAssembly，whichaccordingtothelegendswassopowerfulboweditselfbeforethemostimperativeinjunctionsofahandfulofrioters。Instructedbyexperience，theDirectoryclosedtheclubsandputanendtotheinvasionofthepopulacebyenergeticallyshootingthemdown。

TheConventionhadearlygraspedthesuperiorityofhomogeneousgroupsoverheterogeneousassembliesinmattersofgovernment，whichiswhyitsubdivideditselfintocommitteescomposedeachofalimitednumberofindividuals。Thesecommittees——ofPublicSafety，ofFinance，&c。——formedsmallsovereignassembliesinthemidstofthelargerAssembly。Theirpowerwasheldincheckonlybythatoftheclubs。

Theprecedingconsiderationsshowthepowerofgroupsoverthewillsofthememberscomposingthem。Ifthegroupishomogeneous，thisactionisconsiderable；ifitisheterogeneous，itislessconsiderablebutmaystillbecomeimportant，eitherbecausethemorepowerfulgroupsofanassemblywilldominatethosewhosecohesionisweakerorbecausecertaincontagioussentimentswilloftenextendthemselvestoallthemembersofanassembly。

AmemorableexampleofthisinfluenceofgroupsoccurredatthetimeoftheRevolution，when，onthenightofthe4thofAugust，thenoblesvoted，onthepropositionofoneoftheirmembers，theabandonmentoffeudalprivileges。YetweknowthattheRevolutionresultedinpartfromtherefusaloftheclergyandthenoblestorenouncetheirprivileges。Whydidtheyrefusetorenouncethematfirst？Simplybecausemeninacrowddonotactasthesamemensingly。Individuallynomemberofthenobilitywouldeverhaveabandonedhisrights。

OfthisinfluenceofassembliesupontheirmembersNapoleonatSt。Helenacitedsomecuriousexamples：``Nothingwasmorecommonthantomeetwithmenatthisperiodquiteunlikethereputationthattheiractsandwordswouldseemtojustify。Forinstance，onemighthavesupposedMongetobeaterriblefellow；

whenwarwasdecideduponhemountedthetribuneoftheJacobinsanddeclaredthathewouldgivehistwodaughterstothetwofirstsoldierstobewoundedbytheenemy。Hewantedthenoblestobekilled，&c。Now，Mongewasthemostgentleandfeebleofmen，andwouldn’thavehadachickenkilledifhehadhadtodoitwithhisownhands，oreventohaveitdoneinhispresence。’’

3。ASuggestedExplanationoftheProgressiveExaggerationofSentimentsinAssemblies。

Ifcollectivesentimentsweresusceptibleofexactquantitativemeasurement，wemighttranslatethembyacurvewhich，afterafirstgradualascent，runsupwardwithextremerapidityandthenfallsalmostvertically。Theequationofthiscurvemightbecalledtheequationofthevariationsofcollectivesentimentssubjectedtoaconstantexcitation。

Itisnotalwayseasytoexplaintheaccelerationofcertainsentimentsundertheinfluenceofaconstantexcitingcause。

Perhaps，however，onemaysaythatifthelawsofpsychologyarecomparabletothoseofmechanics，acauseofinvariabledimensionsactinginacontinuousfashionwillrapidlyincreasetheintensityofasentiment。Weknow，forexample，thataforcewhichisconstantindimensionanddirection，suchasgravityactinguponamass，willcauseanacceleratedmovement。Thespeedofafreeobjectfallinginspaceundertheinfluenceofgravitywillbeabout32feetduringthefirstsecond，64feetduringthenext，96feetduringthenext，&c。Itwouldbeeasy，werethemovingbodyallowedtofallfromasufficientheight，togiveitavelocitysufficienttoperforateaplateofsteel。

Butalthoughthisexplanationisapplicabletotheaccelerationofasentimentsubjectedtoaconstantexcitingcause，itdoesnottelluswhytheeffectsofaccelerationfinallyandsuddenlycease。Suchafallisonlycomprehensibleifwebringinphysiologicalfactors——thatis，ifwerememberthatpleasure，likepain，cannotexceedcertainlimits，andthatallsensations，whentooviolent，resultintheparalysisofsensation。Ourorganismcanonlysupportacertainmaximumofjoy，pain，oreffort，anditcannotsupportthatmaximumforlongtogether。

Thehandwhichgraspsadynamometersoonexhaustsitseffort，andisobligedsuddenlytoletgo。

Thestudyofthecausesoftherapiddisappearanceofcertaingroupsofsentimentsinassemblieswillremindusofthefactthatbesidethepartywhichispredominantbymeansofitsstrengthorprestigethereareotherswhosesentiments，restrainedbythisforceorprestige，havenotreachedtheirfulldevelopment。Somechancecircumstancemaysomewhatweakentheprevailingparty，whenimmediatelythesuppressedsentimentsoftheadversepartiesmaybecomepreponderant。TheMountainlearnedthislessonafterThermidor。

Allanalogiesthatwemayseektoestablishbetweenthelawsofmaterialphenomenaandthosewhichconditiontheevolutionofaffectiveandmysticfactorsareevidentlyextremelyrough。Theymustbesountilthemechanismofthecerebralfunctionsisbetterunderstoodthanitisto—day。

PARTII

THEFRENCHREVOLUTION

BOOKI

THEORIGINSOFTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION

CHAPTERI

THEOPINIONSOFHISTORIANSCONCERNINGTHEFRENCHREVOLUTION

1。TheHistoriansoftheRevolution。

ThemostcontradictoryopinionshavebeenexpressedrespectingtheFrenchRevolution，andalthoughonlyacenturyseparatesusfromtheperiodinquestionitseemsimpossibleasyettojudgeitcalmly。FordeMaistreitwas``asatanicpieceofwork，’’

and``neverwastheactionofthespiritofdarknesssoevidentlymanifested。’’ForthemodernJacobinsithasregeneratedthehumanrace。

ForeignerswholiveinFrancestillregarditasasubjecttobeavoidedinconversation。

``Everywhere，’’writesBarrettWendell，``thismemoryandthesetraditionsarestillendowedwithsuchvitalitythatfewpersonsarecapableofconsideringthemdispassionately。Theystillexcitebothenthusiasmandresentment；theyarestillregardedwithaloyalandardentspiritofpartisanship。ThebetteryoucometounderstandFrancethemoreclearlyyouseethatevento—

daynostudyoftheRevolutionstrikesanyFrenchmanashavingbeenimpartial。’’

Thisobservationisperfectlycorrect。Tobeinterpretablewithequity，theeventsofthepastmustnolongerbeproductiveofresultsandmustnottouchthereligiousorpoliticalbeliefswhoseinevitableintoleranceIhavedenoted。

WemustnotthereforebesurprisedthathistoriansexpressverydifferentideasrespectingtheRevolution。Foralongtimetocomesomewillstillseeinitoneofthemostsinistereventsofhistory，whiletoothersitwillremainoneofthemostglorious。

Allwritersonthesubjecthavebelievedthattheyhaverelateditscoursewithimpartiality，butingeneraltheyhavemerelysupportedcontradictorytheoriesofpeculiarsimplicity。Thedocumentsbeinginnumerableandcontradictory，theirconsciousorunconsciouschoicehasreadilyenabledthemtojustifytheirrespectivetheories。

TheolderhistoriansoftheRevolution——Thiers，Quinet，and，despitehistalent，Michelethimself，aresomewhateclipsedto—

day。Theirdoctrineswerebynomeanscomplicated；ahistoricfatalismprevailsgenerallyintheirwork。ThiersregardedtheRevolutionastheresultofseveralcenturiesofabsolutemonarchy，andtheTerrorasthenecessaryconsequenceofforeigninvasion。Quinetdescribedtheexcessesof1793astheresultofalong—continueddespotism，butdeclaredthatthetyrannyoftheConventionwasunnecessary，andhamperedtheworkoftheRevolution。Micheletsawinthislastmerelytheworkofthepeople，whomheblindlyadmired，andcommencedtheglorificationcontinuedbyotherhistorians。

TheformerreputationofallthesehistorianshasbeentoagreatextenteffacedbythatofTaine。Althoughequallyimpassioned，hethrewabrilliantlightupontherevolutionaryperiod，anditwilldoubtlessbelongbeforehisworkissuperseded。

Worksoimportantisboundtoshowfaults。Taineisadmirableintherepresentationoffactsandpersons，butheattemptstojudgebythestandardofrationallogiceventswhichwerenotdictatedbyreason，andwhich，therefore，hecannotinterpret。Hispsychology，excellentwhenitismerelydescriptive，isveryweakassoonasitbecomesexplanatory。ToaffirmthatRobespierrewasapedantic``swotter’’isnottorevealthecausesofhisabsolutepowerovertheConvention，atatimewhenhehadspentseveralmonthsindecimatingitwithperfectimpunity。IthasveryjustlybeensaidofTainethathesawwellandunderstoodlittle。

Despitetheserestrictionshisworkishighlyremarkableandhasnotbeenequalled。WemayjudgeofhisimmenseinfluencebytheexasperationwhichhecausesamongthefaithfuldefendersofJacobinorthodoxy，ofwhichM。Aulard，professorattheSorbonne，isto—daythehighpriest。ThelatterhasdevotedtwoyearstowritingapamphletagainstTaine，everylineofwhichissteepedinpassion。Allthistimespentinrectifyingafewmaterialerrorswhicharenotreallysignificanthasonlyresultedintheperpetrationoftheverysameerrors。

Reviewinghiswork，M。A。CochinshowsthatM。Aulardhasatleastoneveryotheroccasionbeendeceivedbyhisquotations，whereasTaineerredfarmorerarely。ThesamehistorianshowsalsothatwemustnottrustM。Aulard’ssources。

``Thesesources——proceedings，pamphlets，journals，andthespeechesandwritingsofpatriots——arepreciselytheauthenticpublicationsofpatriotism，editedbypatriots，andedited，asarule，forthebenefitofthepublic。Heoughttohaveseeninallthissimplythespecialpleadingofthedefendant：hehad，beforehiseyes，aready—madehistoryoftheRevolution，whichpresents，sidebysidewitheachoftheactsofthe`People，’

fromthemassacresofSeptembertothelawofPrairial，aready—

madeexplanationaccordingtotherepublicansystemofdefence。’’

PerhapsthefairestcriticismthatonecanmakeoftheworkofTaineisthatitwasleftincomplete。Hestudiedmoreespeciallytheroleofthepopulaceanditsleadersduringtherevolutionaryperiod。Thisinspiredhimwithpagesvibratingwithanindignationwhichwecanstilladmire，butseveralimportantaspectsoftheRevolutionescapedhim。

WhateveronemaythinkoftheRevolution，anirreducibledifferencewillalwaysexistbetweenhistoriansoftheschoolofTaineandthoseoftheschoolofM。Aulard。Thelatterregardsthesovereignpeopleasadmirable，whiletheformershowsusthatwhenabandonedtoitsinstinctsandliberatedfromallsocialrestraintitrelapsesintoprimitivesavagery。TheconceptionofM。Aulard，entirelycontrarytothelessonsofthepsychologyofcrowds，isnonethelessareligiousdogmaintheeyesofmodernJacobins。TheywriteoftheRevolutionaccordingtothemethodsofbelievers，andtakeforlearnedworkstheargumentsofvirtualtheologians。

2。TheTheoryofFatalisminrespectoftheRevolution。

AdvocatesanddetractorsoftheRevolutionoftenadmitthefatalityofrevolutionaryevents。ThistheoryiswellsynthetisedinthefollowingpassagefromtheHistoryoftheRevolution，byEmileOlivier：——

``Nomancouldopposeit。Theblamebelongsneithertothosewhoperishednortothosewhosurvived；therewasnoindividualforcecapableofchangingtheelementsandofforeseeingtheeventswhichwerebornofthenatureofthingsandcircumstances。’’

Tainehimselfinclinestothisidea：——

``AtthemomentwhentheStatesGeneralwereopenedthecourseofideasandeventswasnotonlydeterminedbutevenvisible。Eachgenerationunwittinglybearswithinitselfitsfutureanditspast；fromthelatteritsdestiniesmighthavebeenforetoldlongbeforetheissue。’’

Othermodernauthors，whoprofessnomoreindulgencefortheviolenceoftherevolutionariesthandidTaine，areequallyconvincedofthisfatality。M。Sorel，afterrecallingthesayingofBossuetconcerningtherevolutionsofantiquity：``Everythingissurprisingifweonlyconsiderparticularcauses，andyeteverythinggoesforwardinregularsequence，’’expressesanintentionwhichheveryimperfectlyrealises：``toshowintheRevolution，whichseemstosomethesubversionandtootherstheregenerationoftheoldEuropeanworld，thenaturalandnecessaryresultofthehistoryofEurope，andtoshow，moreover，thatthisrevolutionhadnoresult——noteventhemostunexpected——thatdidnotensuefromthishistory，andwasnotexplainedbytheprecedentsoftheancienregime。’’

GuizotalsohadformerlyattemptedtoprovethatourRevolution，whichhequitewronglycomparedtothatofEngland，wasperfectlynaturalandeffectednoinnovations：——

``FarfromhavingbrokenwiththenaturalcourseofeventsinEurope，neithertheEnglishrevolutionnorourowndid，intended，orsaidanythingthathadnotbeensaid，intended，anddoneahundredyearsbeforeitsoutbreak。

``……Whetherweregardthegeneraldoctrinesofthetworevolutionsortheapplicationmadeofthem——whetherwedealwiththegovernmentoftheStateorwiththecivillegislation，withpropertyorwithpersons，withlibertyorwithpower，weshallfindnothingofwhichtheinventioncanbeattributedtothem，nothingthatwillnotbeencounteredelsewhere，orthatwasnotatleastoriginatedintimeswhichwequalifyasnormal。’’

Alltheseassertionsmerelyrecallthebanallawthataphenomenonissimplytheconsequenceofpreviousphenomena。Suchverygeneralpropositionsdonotteachusmuch。

Wemustnottrytoexplaintoomanyeventsbytheprincipleoffatalityadoptedbysomanyhistorians。Ihaveelsewherediscussedthesignificanceofsuchfatalities，andhaveshownthatthewholeeffortofcivilisationconsistsintryingtoescapetherefrom。Certainlyhistoryisfullofnecessities，butitisalsofullofcontingentfactswhichwere，andmightnothavebeen。Napoleonhimself，onSt。Helena，enumeratedsixcircumstanceswhichmighthavecheckedhisprodigiouscareer。Herelated，notably，thatontakingabathatAuxonne，in1786，heonlyescapeddeathbythefortuitouspresenceofasandbank。IfBonapartehaddied，thenwemayadmitthatanothergeneralwouldhavearisen，andmighthavebecomedictator。ButwhatwouldhavebecomeoftheImperialepicanditsconsequenceswithoutthemanofgeniuswholedourvictoriousarmiesintoallthecapitalsofEurope？

ItispermissibletoconsidertheRevolutionasbeingpartlyanecessity，butitwasaboveall——whichiswhatthefatalisticwritersalreadyciteddonotshowus——apermanentstrugglebetweentheoristswhowereimbuedwithanewideal，andtheeconomic，social，andpoliticallawswhichruledmankind，andwhichtheydidnotunderstand。Notunderstandingthem，theysoughtinvaintodirectthecourseofevents，wereexasperatedattheirfailure，andfinallycommittedeveryspeciesofviolence。Theydecreedthatthepapermoneyknownasassignatsshouldbeacceptedastheequivalentofgold，andalltheirthreatscouldnotpreventthefictitiousvalueofsuchmoneyfallingalmosttonothing。Theydecreedthelawofthemaximum，anditmerelyincreasedtheevilsitwasintendedtoremedy。

RobespierredeclaredbeforetheConvention``thatallthesans—

culotteswillbepaidattheexpenseofthepublictreasury，whichwillbefedbytherich，’’andinspiteofrequisitionsandtheguillotinethetreasuryremainedempty。

Havingbrokenallhumanrestraints，themenoftheRevolutionfinallydiscoveredthatasocietycannotlivewithoutthem；butwhentheysoughttocreatethemanewtheysawthateventhestrongestsociety，thoughsupportedbythefearoftheguillotine，couldnotreplacethedisciplinewhichthepasthadslowlybuiltupinthemindsofmen。Asforunderstandingtheevolutionofsociety，orjudgingmen’sheartsandminds，orforeseeingtheconsequencesofthelawstheyenacted，theyscarcelyattemptedtodoso。

TheeventsoftheRevolutiondidnotensuefromirreduciblenecessities。TheywerefarmoretheconsequenceofJacobinprinciplesthanofcircumstances，andmighthavebeenquiteotherthantheywere。WouldtheRevolutionhavefollowedthesamepathifLouisXVI。hadbeenbetteradvised，oriftheConstituentAssemblyhadbeenlesscowardlyintimesofpopularinsurrection？Thetheoryofrevolutionaryfatalityisonlyusefultojustifyviolencebypresentingitasinevitable。

WhetherwearedealingwithscienceorwithhistorywemustbewareoftheignorancewhichtakesshelterundertheshibbolethoffatalismNaturewasformerlyfullofahostoffatalitieswhichscienceisslowlycontrivingtoavoid。Thefunctionofthesuperiormanis，asIhaveshownelsewhere，toavertsuchfatalities。

3。TheHesitationsofrecentHistoriansoftheRevolution。

Thehistorianswhoseideaswehaveexaminedintheprecedingchapterwereextremelypositiveintheirspecialpleading。

Confinedwithinthelimitsofbelief，theydidnotattempttopenetratethedomainofknowledge。AmonarchicalwriterwasviolentlyhostiletotheRevolution，andaliberalwriterwasitsviolentapologist。

AtthepresenttimewecanseethecommencementofamovementwhichwillsurelyleadtothestudyoftheRevolutionasoneofthosescientificphenomenaintowhichtheopinionsandbeliefsofawriterentersolittlethatthereaderdoesnotevensuspectthem。

Thisperiodhasnotyetcomeintobeing；wearestillintheperiodofdoubt。Theliberalwriterswhousedtobesopositivearenowsonolonger。Onemayjudgeofthisnewstateofmindbythefollowingextractsfromrecentauthors：——

M。Hanotaux，havingvauntedtheutilityoftheRevolution，askswhetheritsresultswerenotboughttoodearly，andadds：——

``Historyhesitates，andwill，foralongtimeyet，hesitatetoanswer。’’

M。Madelinisequallydubiousinthebookhehasrecentlypublished：——

``Ihaveneverfeltsufficientauthoritytoform，eveninmyinmostconscience，acategoricaljudgmentonsocomplexaphenomenonastheFrenchRevolution。To—dayIfinditevenmoredifficulttoformabriefjudgement。Causes，facts，andconsequencesseemtometobestillextremelydebatablesubjects。’’

OnemayobtainastillbetterideaofthetransformationoftheoldideasconcerningtheRevolutionbyperusingthelatestwritingsofitsofficialdefenders。Whiletheyprofessedformerlytojustifyeveryactofviolencebyrepresentingitasasimpleactofdefence，theynowconfinethemselvestopleadingextenuatingcircumstances。IfindastrikingproofofthisnewframeofmindinthehistoryofFrancefortheuseofschools，publishedbyMM。AulardandDebidour。ConcerningtheTerrorwereadthefollowinglines：——

``Bloodflowedinwaves；therewereactsofinjusticeandcrimeswhichwereuselessfromthepointofviewofnationaldefence，andodious。Butmenhadlosttheirheadsinthetempest，and，harassedbyathousanddangers，thepatriotsstruckoutintheirrage。’’