第16章

ToestablishsomesortofcompromisebetweentheancienregimeandthenewidealswasthemostdifficultoftheproblemswhichBonapartehadtoresolve。HehadtodiscoverinstitutionswhichwouldsuitthetwomentalitiesintowhichFrancewasdivided。Hesucceeded，aswehaveseen，byconciliatorymeasures，andalsobydressingveryancientthingsinnewnames。

HisreignwasoneofthoserareperiodsofFrenchhistoryduringwhichthementalunityofFrancewascomplete。

Thisunitycouldnotoutlivehim。Onthemorrowofhisfallalltheoldpartiesreappeared，andhavesurviveduntilthepresentday。Someattachthemselvestotraditionalinfluences；othersviolentlyrejectthem。

Ifthislongconflicthadbeenbetweenbelieversandtheindifferent，itcouldnothavelasted，forindifferenceisalwaystolerant；butthestrugglewasreallybetweentwodifferentbeliefs。ThelayChurchverysoonassumedareligiousaspect，anditspretendedrationalismhasbecome，especiallyinrecentyears，abarelyattenuatedformofthenarrowestclericalspirit。Now，wehaveshownthatnoconciliationispossiblebetweendissimilarreligiousbeliefs。Theclericalswheninpowercouldnotthereforeshowthemselvesmoretoleranttowardsfreethinkersthantheselatterareto—daytowardtheclericals。

Thesedivisions，determinedbydifferencesofbelief，werecomplicatedbytheadditionofthepoliticalconceptionsderivedfromthosebeliefs。

ManysimplesoulshaveforlongbelievedthattherealhistoryofFrancebeganwiththeyearI。oftheRepublic。Thisrudimentaryconceptionisatlastdyingout。Eventhemostrigidrevolutionariesrenounceit，[10]andarequitewillingtorecognisethatthepastwassomethingbetterthananepochofblackbarbarismdominatedbylowsuperstitions。

[10]WemayjudgeoftherecentevolutionofideasuponthispointbythefollowingpassagefromaspeechbyM。Jaures，deliveredintheChamberofDeputies：``Thegreatnessofto—dayisbuiltoftheeffortsofpastcenturies。Franceisnotcontainedinadaynorinanepoch，butinthesuccessionofalldays，allperiods，allhertwilightsandallherdawns。’’

ThereligiousoriginofmostofthepoliticalbeliefsheldinFranceinspirestheiradeptswithaninextinguishablehatredwhichalwaysstrikesforeignerswithamazement。

``Nothingismoreobvious，nothingismorecertain，’’writesMr。

Barret—Wendell，inhisbookonFrance，``thanthisfact：thatnotonlyhavetheroyalists，revolutionaries，andBonapartistsalwaysbeenmortallyopposedtooneanother，butthat，owingtothepassionateardouroftheFrenchcharacter，theyhavealwaysentertainedaprofoundintellectualhorrorforoneanother。Menwhobelievethemselvesinpossessionofthetruthcannotrefrainfromaffirmingthatthosewhodonotthinkwiththemareinstrumentsoferror。

``Eachpartywillgravelyinformyouthattheadvocatesoftheadversecauseareafflictedbyadensestupidityorareconsciouslydishonest。Yetwhenyoumeettheselatter，whowillsayexactlythesamethingsastheirdetractors，youcannotbutrecognise，inallgoodfaith，thattheyareneitherstupidnordishonest。’’

ThisreciprocalexecrationofthebelieversofeachpartyhasalwaysfacilitatedtheoverthrowofGovernmentsandministersinFrance。Thepartiesintheminoritywillneverrefusetoallythemselvesagainstthetriumphantparty。WeknowthatagreatnumberofrevolutionarySocialistshavebeenelectedtothepresentChamberonlybytheaidofthemonarchists，whoarestillasunintelligentastheywereatthetimeoftheRevolution。

OurreligiousandpoliticaldifferencesdonotconstitutetheonlycauseofdissensioninFrance。TheyareheldbymenpossessingthatparticularmentalitywhichIhavealreadydescribedunderthenameoftherevolutionarymentality。Wehaveseenthateachperiodalwayspresentsacertainnumberofindividualsreadytorevoltagainsttheestablishedorderofthings，whateverthatmaybe，eventhoughitmayrealisealltheirdesires。

TheintoleranceofthepartiesinFrance，andtheirdesiretoseizeuponpower，arefurtherfavouredbytheconviction，soprevalentundertheRevolution，thatsocietiescanberemadebymeansoflaws。ThemodernState，whateveritsleader，hasinheritedintheeyesofthemultitudesandtheirleadersthemysticpowerattributedtotheancientkings，whentheselatterwereregardedasanincarnationoftheDivinewill。NotonlythepeopleisinspiredbythisconfidenceinthepowerofGovernment；

allourlegislatorsentertainitalso。[11]

[11]Afterthepublicationofanarticleofmineconcerninglegislativeillusions，Ireceivedfromoneofourmosteminentpoliticians，M。Boudenotthesenator，aletterfromwhichI

extractthefollowingpassage：``TwentyyearspassedintheChamberandtheSenatehaveshownmehowrightyouare。HowmanytimesIhaveheardmycolleaguessay：`TheGovernmentoughttopreventthis，orderthat，’&c。Whatwouldyouhave？therearefourteencenturiesofmonarchicalatavisminourblood。’’

Legislatingalways，politiciansneverrealisethatasinstitutionsareeffects，andnotcauses，theyhavenovirtueinthemselves。Heirstothegreatrevolutionaryillusion，theydonotseethatmaniscreatedbyapastwhosefoundationswearepowerlesstoreshape。

TheconflictbetweentheprinciplesdividingFrance，whichhaslastedmorethanacentury，willdoubtlesscontinueforalongtimeyet，andnoonecanforeseewhatfreshupheavalsitmayengender。NodoubtifbeforeoureratheAthenianscouldhavedivinedthattheirsocialdissensionswouldhaveledtotheenslavementofGreece，theywouldhaverenouncedthem；buthowcouldtheyhaveforeseenasmuch？M。Guiraudjustlywrites：``A

generationofmenveryrarelyrealisesthetaskwhichitisaccomplishing。Itispreparingforthefuture；butthisfutureisoftenthecontraryofwhatitwishes。’’

2。SummaryofaCentury’sRevolutionaryMovementinFrance。

ThepsychologicalcausesoftherevolutionarymovementswhichFrancehasseenduringthepastcenturyhavingbeenexplained，itwillnowsufficetopresentasummarypictureofthesesuccessiverevolutions。

ThesovereignsincoalitionhavingdefeatedNapoleon，theyreducedFrancetoherformerlimits，andplacedLouisXVIII。，theonlypossiblesovereign，onthethrone。

Byaspecialcharterthenewkingacceptedthepositionofaconstitutionalmonarchunderarepresentativesystemofgovernment。HerecognisedalltheconquestsoftheRevolution：

thecivilCode，equalitybeforethelaw，libertyofworship，irrevocabilityofthesaleofnationalproperty，&c。Therightofsuffrage，however，waslimitedtothosepayingacertainamountintaxes。

ThisliberalConstitutionwasopposedbytheultra—royalists。

Returnedemigres，theywantedtherestitutionofthenationalproperty，andthere—establishmentoftheirancientprivileges。

Fearingthatsuchareactionmightcauseanewrevolution，LouisXVIII。wasreducedtodissolvingtheChamber。Theelectionhavingreturnedmoderatedeputies，hewasabletocontinuetogovernwiththesameprinciples，understandingverywellthatanyattempttogoverntheFrenchbytheancienregimewouldbeenoughtoprovokeageneralrebellion。

Unfortunately，hisdeath，in1824，placedCharlesX。，formerlyComted’Artois，onthethrone。Extremelynarrow，incapableofunderstandingthenewworldwhichsurroundedhim，andboastingthathehadnotmodifiedhisideassince1789，hepreparedaseriesofreactionarylaws——alawbywhichanindemnityoffortymillionssterlingwastobepaidtoemigres；alawofsacrilege；

andlawsestablishingtherightsofprimogeniture，thepreponderanceoftheclergy，&c。

Themajorityofthedeputiesshowingthemselvesdailymoreopposedtohisprojects，in1830heenactedOrdinancesdissolvingtheChamber，suppressingthelibertyofthePress，andpreparingfortherestorationoftheancienregime。

Theeffectwasimmediate。Thisautocraticactionprovokedacoalitionoftheleadersofallparties。Republicans，Bonapartists，Liberals，Royalists——allunitedinordertoraisetheParisianpopulace。FourdaysafterthepublicationoftheOrdinancestheinsurgentsweremastersofthecapital，andCharlesX。fledtoEngland。

Theleadersofthemovement——Thiers，Casimir—Perier，LaFayette，&c。——summonedtoParisLouis—Philippe，ofwhoseexistencethepeoplewerescarcelyaware，anddeclaredhimkingoftheFrench。

Betweentheindifferenceofthepeopleandthehostilityofthenobles，whohadremainedfaithfultothelegitimatedynasty，thenewkingreliedchieflyuponthebourgeoisie。Anelectorallawhavingreducedtheelectorstolessthan200，000，thisclassplayedanexclusivepartinthegovernment。

Thesituationofthesovereignwasnoteasy。HehadtostrugglesimultaneouslyagainstthelegitimistsupportersofHenryV。thegrandsonofCharlesX。，andtheBonapartists，whorecognisedastheirheadLouis—Napoleon，theEmperor’snephew，andfinallyagainsttherepublicans。

Bymeansoftheirsecretsocieties，analogoustotheclubsoftheRevolution，thelatterprovokednumerousriotsatvariousintervalsbetween1830and1840，butthesewereeasilyrepressed。

Theclericalsandlegitimists，ontheirside，didnotceasetheirintrigues。TheDuchessdeBerry，themotherofHenryV。，triedinvaintoraisetheVendee。Astotheclergy，theirdemandsfinallymadethemsointolerablethataninsurrectionbrokeout，inthecourseofwhichthepalaceofthearchbishopofPariswassacked。

Therepublicansasapartywerenotverydangerous，astheChambersidedwiththekinginthestruggleagainstthem。TheministerGuizot，whoadvocatedastrongcentralpower，declaredthattwothingswereindispensabletogovernment——``reasonandcannon。’’Thefamousstatesmanwassurelysomewhatdeludedastothenecessityorefficacyofreason。

Despitethisstrongcentralpower，whichinrealitywasnotstrong，therepublicans，andabovealltheSocialists，continuedtoagitate。Oneofthemostinfluential，LouisBlanc，claimedthatitwasthedutyoftheGovernmenttoprocureworkforeverycitizen。TheCatholicparty，ledbyLacordaireandMontalembert，unitedwiththeSocialists——asto—dayinBelgium——toopposetheGovernment。

Acampaigninfavourofelectoralreformendedin1848inafreshriot，whichunexpectedlyoverthrewLouis—Philippe。

HisfallwasfarlessjustifiablethanthatofCharlesX。Therewaslittlewithwhichhecouldbereproached。Doubtlesshewassuspiciousofuniversalsuffrage，buttheFrenchRevolutionhadmorethanoncebeenquitesuspiciousofit。Louis—Philippenotbeing，liketheDirectory，anabsoluteruler，couldnot，asthelatterhaddone，annulunfavourableelections。

AprovisionalGovernmentwasinstalledintheHoteldeVille，toreplacethefallenmonarchy。ItproclaimedtheRepublic，establisheduniversalsuffrage，anddecreedthatthepeopleshouldproceedtotheelectionofaNationalAssemblyofninehundredmembers。

FromthefirstdaysofitsexistencethenewGovernmentfounditselfthevictimofsocialisticmanoeuvresandriots。

ThepsychologicalphenomenaobservedduringthefirstRevolutionwerenowtobewitnessedagain。Clubswereformed，whoseleaderssentthepeoplefromtimetotimeagainsttheAssembly，forreasonswhichweregenerallyquitedevoidofcommonsense——forexample，toforcetheGovernmenttosupportaninsurrectioninPoland，&c。

InthehopeofsatisfyingtheSocialists，everydaymorenoisyandexigent，theAssemblyorganisednationalworkshops，inwhichtheworkerswereoccupiedinvariousformsoflabour。Inthese100，000mencosttheStatemorethanL40，000weekly。TheirclaimtoreceivepaywithoutworkingforitforcedtheAssemblytoclosetheworkshops。

Thismeasurewastheoriginofaformidableinsurrection，50，000

workersrevolting。TheAssembly，terrified，confidedalltheexecutivepowerstoGeneralCavaignac。Therewasafour—daysbattlewiththeinsurgents，duringwhichthreegeneralsandtheArchbishopofPariswerekilled；3，000prisonersweredeportedbytheAssemblytoAlgeria，andrevolutionarySocialismwasannihilatedforaspaceoffiftyyears。

TheseeventsbroughtGovernmentstockdownfrom116to50francs。

Businesswasatastandstill。Thepeasants，whothoughtthemselvesthreatenedbytheSocialists，andthebourgeois，whosetaxestheAssemblyhadincreasedbyhalf，turnedagainsttheRepublic，andwhenLouis—Napoleonpromisedtore—establishorderhefoundhimselfwelcomedwithenthusiasm。AcandidateforthepositionofPresidentoftheRepublic，whoaccordingtothenewConstitutionmustbeelectedbythewholebodyofcitizens，hewaschosenby5，500，000votes。

VerysoonatoddswiththeChamber，theprincedecidedonacoupd’etat。TheAssemblywasdissolved；30，000personswerearrested，10，000deported，andahundreddeputieswereexiled。

Thiscoupd’etat，althoughsummary，wasveryfavourablyreceived，forwhensubmittedtoaplebisciteitreceived7，500，000votesoutof8，000，000。

Onthe2ndofNovember，1852，NapoleonhadhimselfnamedEmperorbyanevengreatermajority：ThehorrorwhichthegeneralityofFrenchmenfeltfordemagoguesandSocialistshadrestoredtheEmpire。

InthefirstpartofitsexistenceitconstitutedanabsoluteGovernment，andduringthelatterhalfaliberalGovernment。

AftereighteenyearsofruletheEmperorwasoverthrownbytherevolutionofthe4thofSeptember，1870，afterthecapitulationofSedan。

Sincethattimerevolutionarymovementshavebeenrare；theonlyoneofimportancewastherevolutionofMarch，1871，whichresultedintheburningofmanyofthemonumentsofParisandtheexecutionofabout20，000insurgents。

Afterthewarof1870theelectors，who，amidsomanydisasters，didnotknowwhichwaytoturn，sentagreatnumberofOrleanistandlegitimistdeputiestotheConstituentAssembly。Unabletoagreeupontheestablishmentofamonarchy，theyappointedM。

ThiersPresidentoftheRepublic，laterreplacinghimbyMarshalMacMahon。In1876thenewelections，likeallthosethathavefollowed，sentamajorityofrepublicanstotheChamber。

Thevariousassemblieswhichhavesucceededtothishavealwaysbeendividedintonumerousparties，whichhaveprovokedinnumerablechangesofministry。

However，thankstotheequilibriumresultingfromthisdivisionofparties，wehaveforfortyyearsenjoyedcomparativequiet。

FourPresidentsoftheRepublichavebeenoverthrownwithoutrevolution，andtheriotsthathaveoccurred，suchasthoseofChampagneandtheMidi，havenothadseriousconsequences。

Agreatpopularmovement，in1888，didnearlyoverthrowtheRepublicforthebenefitofGeneralBoulanger，butithassurvivedandtriumphedovertheattacksofallparties。

VariousreasonscontributetothemaintenanceofthepresentRepublic。Inthefirstplace，oftheconflictingfactionsnoneisstrongenoughtocrushtherest。Inthesecondplace，theheadoftheStatebeingpurelydecorative，andpossessingnopower，itisimpossibletoattributetohimtheevilsfromwhichthecountrymaysuffer，andtofeelsurethatmatterswouldbedifferentwereheoverthrown。Finally，asthesupremepowerisdistributedamongthousandsofhands，responsibilitiesaresodisseminatedthatitwouldbedifficulttoknowwheretobegin。

Atyrantcanbeoverthrown，butwhatcanbedoneagainstahostoflittleanonymoustyrannies？

IfwewishedtosumupinawordthegreattransformationswhichhavebeeneffectedinFrancebyacenturyofriotsandrevolutions，wemightsaythatindividualtyranny，whichwasweakandthereforeeasilyoverthrown，hasbeenreplacedbycollectivetyrannies，whichareverystronganddifficulttodestroy。ToapeopleavidofequalityandhabituatedtoholditsGovernmentsresponsibleforeveryeventindividualtyrannyseemedinsupportable，whileacollectivetyrannyisreadilyendured，althoughgenerallymuchmoresevere。

TheextensionofthetyrannyoftheStatehasthereforebeenthefinalresultofallourrevolutions，andthecommoncharacteristicofallsystemsofgovernmentwhichwehaveknowninFrance。Thisformoftyrannymayberegardedasaracialideal，sincesuccessiveupheavalsofFrancehaveonlyfortifiedit。StatismistherealpoliticalsystemoftheLatinpeoples，andtheonlysystemthatreceivesallsuffrages。Theotherformsofgovernment——republic，monarchy，empire——representemptylabels，powerlessshadows。

PARTIII

THERECENTEVOLUTIONOFTHEREVOLUTIONARYPRINCIPLES

CHAPTERI

THEPROGRESSOFDEMOCRATICBELIEFSSINCETHEREVOLUTION

1。GradualPropagationofDemocraticIdeasaftertheRevolution。

Ideaswhicharefirmlyestablished，incrusted，asitwere，inmen’sminds，continuetoactforseveralgenerations。ThosewhichresultedfromtheFrenchRevolutionwere，likeothers，subjecttothislaw。

AlthoughthelifeoftheRevolutionasaGovernmentwasshort，theinfluenceofitsprincipleswas，onthecontrary，verylong—

lived。Becomingaformofreligiousbelief，theyprofoundlymodifiedtheorientationofthesentimentsandideasofseveralgenerations。

Despiteafewintervals，theFrenchRevolutionhascontinueduptothepresent，andstillsurvives。TheroleofNapoleonwasnotconfinedtooverturningtheworld，changingthemapofEurope，andremakingtheexploitsofAlexander。Thenewrightsofthepeople，createdbytheRevolutionandestablishedbyitsinstitutions，haveexercisedaprofoundinfluence。Themilitaryworkoftheconquerorwassoondissolved，buttherevolutionaryprincipleswhichhecontributedtopropagatehavesurvivedhim。

ThevariousrestorationswhichfollowedtheEmpirecausedmenatfirsttobecomesomewhatforgetfuloftheprinciplesoftheRevolution。Forfiftyyearsthispropagationwasfarfromrapid。

Onemightalmosthavesupposedthatthepeoplehadforgottenthem。Onlyasmallnumberoftheoristsmaintainedtheirinfluence。Heirstothe``simplicist’’spiritoftheJacobins，believing，likethem，thatsocietiescanberemadefromtoptobottombythelaws，andpersuadedthattheEmpirehadonlyinterruptedthetaskofrevolution，theywishedtoresumeit。

Whilewaitinguntiltheycouldrecommence，theyattemptedtospreadtheprinciplesoftheRevolutionbymeansoftheirwritings。FaithfulimitatorsofthemenoftheRevolution，theyneverstoppedtoaskiftheirschemesforreformwereinconformitywithhumannature。Theytoowereerectingachimericalsocietyforanidealman，andwerepersuadedthattheapplicationoftheirdreamswouldregeneratethehumanspecies。

Deprivedofallconstructivepower，thetheoristsofalltheageshavealwaysbeenveryreadytodestroy。NapoleonatSt。Helenastatedthat``ifthereexistedamonarchyofgranitetheidealistsandtheoristswouldmanagetoreduceittopowder。’’

AmongthegalaxyofdreamerssuchasSaint—Simon，Fourier，PierreLeroux，LouisBlanc，Quinet，&c。，wefindthatonlyAugusteComteunderstoodthatatransformationofmannersandideasmustprecedepoliticalreorganisation。

Farfromfavouringthediffusionofdemocraticideas，theprojectsofreformofthetheoristsofthisperiodmerelyimpededtheirprogress。CommunisticSocialism，whichseveralofthemprofessedwouldrestoretheRevolution，finallyalarmedthebourgeoisieandeventheworking—classes。WehavealreadyseenthatthefearoftheirideaswasoneoftheprincipalcausesoftherestorationoftheEmpire。

Ifnoneofthechimericallucubrationsofthewritersofthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturydeservetobediscussed，itisnonethelessinterestingtoexaminetheminordertoobservethepartplayedbyreligiousandmoralideaswhichto—dayareregardedwithcontempt。Persuadedthatanewsocietycouldnot，anymorethanthesocietiesofold，bebuiltupwithoutreligiousandmoralbeliefs，thereformerswerealwaysendeavouringtofoundsuchbeliefs。

Butonwhatcouldtheybebased？Evidentlyonreason。Bymeansofreasonmencreatecomplicatedmachines：whynotthereforeareligionandamorality，thingswhichareapparentlysosimple？

Notoneofthemsuspectedthefactthatnoreligiousormoralbeliefeverhadrationallogicasitsbasis。AugusteComtesawnomoreclearly。Weknowthathefoundedaso—calledpositivistreligion，whichstillhasafewfollowers。ScientistsweretoformaclergydirectedbyanewPope，whowastoreplacetheCatholicPope。

Alltheseconceptions——political，religious，ormoral——had，I

repeat，nootherresultsforalongtimethantoturnthemultitudeawayfromdemocraticprinciples。

Iftheseprinciplesdidfinallybecomewidespread，itwasnotonaccountofthetheorists，butbecausenewconditionsoflifehadarisen。Thankstothediscoveriesofscience，industrydevelopedandledtotheerectionofimmensefactories。EconomicnecessitiesincreasinglydominatedthewillsofGovernmentsandthepeopleandfinallycreatedafavourablesoilfortheextensionofSocialism，andaboveallofSyndicalism，themodernformsofdemocraticideas。

2。TheUnequalInfluenceoftheThreeFundamentalPrinciplesoftheRevolution。

TheheritageoftheRevolutionissummedupinitsentiretyintheonephrase——Liberty，equality，andFraternity。Theprincipleofequality，aswehaveseen，hasexertedapowerfulinfluence，butthetwoothersdidnotshareitslot。

Althoughthesenseofthesetermsseemsclearenough，theywerecomprehendedinverydifferentfashionsaccordingtomenandtimes。Weknowthatthevariousinterpretationofthesamewordsbypersonsofdifferentmentalityhasbeenoneofthemostfrequentcausesoftheconflictsofhistory。

TothememberoftheConventionlibertysignifiedmerelytheexerciseofitsunlimiteddespotism。Toayoungmodern``intellectual’’thesamewordmeansageneralreleasefromeverythingirksome：tradition，law，superiority，&c。TothemodernJacobinlibertyconsistsespeciallyintherighttopersecutehisadversaries。

Althoughpoliticaloratorsstilloccasionallymentionlibertyintheirspeeches，theyhavegenerallyceasedtoevokefraternity。

Itistheconflictofthedifferentclassesandnottheiralliancethattheyteachto—day。Neverdidamoreprofoundhatreddividethevariousstrataofsocietyandthepoliticalpartieswhichleadthem。

Butwhilelibertyhasbecomeverydoubtfulandfraternityhascompletelyvanished，theprincipleofequalityhasgrownunchecked。IthasbeensupremeinallthepoliticalupheavalsofwhichFrancehasbeenthestageduringthelastcentury，andhasreachedsuchadevelopmentthatourpoliticalandsociallife，ourlaws，manners，andcustomsareatleastintheorybasedonthisprinciple。ItconstitutesthereallegacyoftheRevolution。Thecravingforequality，notonlybeforethelaw，butinpositionandfortune，istheverypivotofthelastproductofdemocracy：Socialism。Thiscravingissopowerfulthatitisspreadinginalldirections，althoughincontradictionwithallbiologicalandeconomiclaws。Itisanewphaseoftheinterruptedstruggleofthesentimentsagainstreason，inwhichreasonsorarelytriumphs。

2。TheDemocracyofthe``Intellectuals’’andPopularDemocracy。

Allideasthathavehithertocausedanupheavaloftheworldofmenhavebeensubjecttotwolaws：theyevolveslowly，andtheycompletelychangetheirsenseaccordingtothementalitiesinwhichtheyfindreception。

Adoctrinemaybecomparedtoalivingbeing。Itsubsistsonlybyprocessoftransformation。Thebooksarenecessarilysilentuponthesevariations，sothatthephaseofthingswhichtheyestablishbelongsonlytothepast。Theydonotreflecttheimageoftheliving，butofthedead。Thewrittenstatementofadoctrineoftenrepresentsthemostnegligiblesideofthatdoctrine。

Ihaveshowninanotherworkhowinstitutions，arts，andlanguagesaremodifiedinpassingfromonepeopletoanother，andhowthelawsofthesetransformationsdifferfromthetruthasstatedinbooks。Ialludetothismatternowmerelytoshowwhy，inexaminingthesubjectofdemocraticideas，weoccupyourselvessolittlewiththetextofdoctrines，andseekonlyforthepsychologicalelementsofwhichtheyconstitutethevestment，andthereactionswhichtheyprovokeinthevariouscategoriesofmenwhohaveacceptedthem。

Modifiedrapidlybymenofdifferentmentalities，theoriginaltheoryissoonnomorethanalabelwhichdenotessomethingquiteunlikeitself。

Applicabletoreligiousbeliefs，theseprinciplesareequallysotopoliticalbeliefs。Whenamanspeaksofdemocracy，forexample，mustweinquirewhatthiswordmeanstovariouspeoples，andalsowhetherinthesamepeoplethereisnotagreatdifferencebetweenthedemocracyofthe``intellectuals’’andpopulardemocracy。

Inconfiningourselvesnowtotheconsiderationofthislatterpointweshallreadilyperceivethatthedemocraticideastobefoundinbooksandjournalsarepurelythetheoriesofliterarypeople，ofwhichthepeopleknownothing，andbytheapplicationofwhichtheywouldhavenothingtogain。Althoughtheworking—