第4章

HowpreventIslamfromremainingtheStatereligioninacountrywherecivillawandreligiouslawarenotyetplainlyseparated，andwherefaithintheKoranistheonlytiebywhichtheideaofnationalitycanbemaintained？

Itwasdifficulttodestroysuchastateofaffairs，sothatwewereboundtoseethere—establishmentofanautocraticorganisationwithanappearanceofconstitutionalism——thatistosay，practicallytheoldsystemonceagain。Suchattemptsaffordagoodexampleofthefactthatapeoplecannotchooseitsinstitutionsuntilithastransformeditsmind。

4。SocialelementswhichsurvivethechangesofGovernmentafterRevolution。

Whatweshallsaylateronastothestablefoundationofthenationalsoulwillenableustoappreciatetheforceofsystemsofgovernmentthathavebeenlongestablished，suchasancientmonarchies。Amonarchmayeasilybeoverthrownbyconspirators，buttheselatterarepowerlessagainsttheprincipleswhichthemonarchrepresents。Napoleonathisfallwasreplacednotbyhisnaturalheir，butbytheheirofkings。Thelatterincarnatedanancientprinciple，whilethesonoftheEmperorpersonifiedideasthatwereasyetimperfectlyestablishedinmen’sminds。

Forthesamereasonaminister，howeverable，howevergreattheserviceshehasrenderedtohiscountry，canveryrarelyoverthrowhisSovereign。Bismarckhimselfcouldnothavedoneso。Thisgreatministerhadsingle—handedcreatedtheunityofGermany，yethismasterhadonlytotouchhimwithhisfingerandhevanished。Amanisasnothingbeforeaprinciplesupportedbyopinion。

Butevenwhen，forvariousreasons，theprincipleincarnatedbyagovernmentisannihilatedwiththatgovernment，ashappenedatthetimeoftheFrenchRevolution，alltheelementsofsocialorganisationdonotperishatthesametime。

IfweknewnothingofFrancebutthedisturbancesofthelasthundredyearsandmorewemightsupposethecountrytoliveinastateofprofoundanarchy。Nowhereconomic，industrial，andevenherpoliticallifemanifests，onthecontrary，acontinuitythatseemstobeindependentofallrevolutionsandgovernments。

Thefactisthatbesidethegreateventsofwhichhistorytreatsarethelittlefactsofdailylifewhichthebooksneglecttotell。Theyareruledbyimperiousnecessitieswhichhaltfornoman。Theirtotalmassformstherealframeworkofthelifeofthepeople。

WhilethestudyofgreateventsshowsusthatthenominalgovernmentofFrancehasbeenfrequentlychangedinthespaceofacentury，anexaminationofthelittledailyeventswillprove，onthecontrary，thatherrealgovernmenthasbeenlittlealtered。

Whointrutharetherealrulersofapeople？Kingsandministers，nodoubt，inthegreatcrisesofnationallife，buttheyplaynopartwhateverinthelittlerealitieswhichmakeupthelifeofeveryday。Therealdirectingforcesofacountryaretheadministrations，composedofimpersonalelementswhichareneveraffectedbythechangesofgovernment。Conservativeoftraditions，theyareanonymousandlasting，andconstituteanoccultpowerbeforewhichallothersmusteventuallybow。Theiractionhasevenincreasedtosuchadegreethat，asweshallpresentlyshow，thereisadangerthattheymayformananonymousStatemorepowerfulthantheofficialState。Francehasthuscometobegovernedbyheadsofdepartmentsandgovernmentclerks。Themorewestudythehistoryofrevolutionsthemorewediscoverthattheychangepracticallynothingbutthelabel。Tocreatearevolutioniseasy，buttochangethesoulofapeopleisdifficultindeed。

CHAPTERIV

THEPARTPLAYEDBYTHEPEOPLEINREVOLUTIONS

1。Thestabilityandmalleabilityofthenationalmind。

Theknowledgeofapeopleatanygivenmomentofitshistoryinvolvesanunderstandingofitsenvironmentandaboveallofitspast。Theoreticallyonemaydenythatpast，asdidthemenoftheRevolution，asmanymenofthepresentdayhavedone，butitsinfluenceremainsindestructible。

Inthepast，builtupbyslowaccumulationsofcenturies，wasformedtheaggregationofthoughts，sentiments，traditions，andprejudicesconstitutingthenationalmindwhichmakesthestrengthofarace。Withoutitnoprogressispossible。Eachgenerationwouldnecessitateafreshbeginning。

Theaggregatecomposingthesoulofapeopleissolidlyestablishedonlyifitpossessesacertainrigidity，butthisrigiditymustnotpassacertainlimit，ortherewouldbenosuchthingasmalleability。

Withoutrigiditytheancestralsoulwouldhavenofixity，andwithoutmalleabilityitcouldnotadaptitselftothechangesofenvironmentresultingfromtheprogressofcivilization。

Excessivemalleabilityofthenationalmindimpelsapeopletoincessantrevolutions。Excessofrigidityleadsittodecadence。Livingspecies，liketheracesofhumanity，disappearwhen，toofixedlyestablishedbyalongpast，theybecomeincapableofadaptingthemselvestonewconditionsofexistence。

Fewpeopleshavesucceededineffectingajustequilibriumbetweenthesetwocontraryqualitiesofstabilityandmalleability。TheRomansinantiquityandtheEnglishinmoderntimesmaybecitedamongthosewhohavebestattainedit。

Thepeopleswhosemindismostfixedandestablishedofteneffectthemostviolentrevolutions。Nothavingsucceededinevolvingprogressively，inadaptingthemselvestochangesofenvironment，theyareforcedtoadaptthemselvesviolentlywhensuchadaptationbecomesindispensable。

Stabilityisonlyacquiredveryslowly。Thehistoryofaraceisaboveallthestoryofitslongeffortstoestablishitsmind。

Solongasithasnotsucceededitformsahordeofbarbarianswithoutcohesionandstrength。AftertheinvasionsoftheendoftheRomanEmpireFrancetookseveralcenturiestoformanationalsoul。

Shefinallyachievedone；butinthecourseofcenturiesthissoulfinallybecametoorigid。Withalittlemoremalleability，theancientmonarchywouldhavebeenslowlytransformedasitwaselsewhere，andweshouldhaveavoided，togetherwiththeRevolutionanditsconsequences，theheavytaskofremakinganationalsoul。

Theprecedingconsiderationsshowusthepartofraceinthegenesisofrevolutions，andexplainwhythesamerevolutionswillproducesuchdifferenteffectsindifferentcountries；why，forexample，theideasoftheFrenchRevolution，welcomedwithsuchenthusiasmbysomepeoples，wererejectedbyothers。

CertainlyEngland，althoughaverystablecountry，hassufferedtworevolutionsandslainaking；butthemouldofhermentalarmourwasatoncestableenoughtoretaintheacquisitionsofthepastandmalleableenoughtomodifythemonlywithinthenecessarylimits。NeverdidEnglanddream，asdidthemenoftheFrenchRevolution，ofdestroyingtheancestralheritageinordertoerectanewsocietyinthenameofreason。

``WhiletheFrenchman，’’writesM。A。Sorel，``despisedhisgovernment，detestedhisclergy，hatedthenobility，andrevoltedagainstthelaws，theEnglishmanwasproudofhisreligion，hisconstitution，hisaristocracy，hisHouseofLords。ThesewerelikesomanytowersoftheformidableBastilleinwhichheentrenchedhimself，undertheBritishstandard，tojudgeEuropeandcoverherwithcontempt。Headmittedthatthecommandwasdisputedinsidethefort，butnostrangermustapproach。’’

TheinfluenceofraceinthedestinyofthepeoplesappearsplainlyinthehistoryoftheperpetualrevolutionsoftheSpanishrepublicsofSouthAmerica。Composedofhalf—castes，thatistosay，ofindividualswhosediversehereditieshavedissociatedtheirancestralcharacteristics，thesepopulationshavenonationalsoulandthereforenostability。Apeopleofhalf—castesisalwaysungovernable。

Ifwewouldlearnmoreofthedifferencesofpoliticalcapacitywhichtheracialfactorcreateswemustexaminethesamenationasgovernedbytworacessuccessively。

Theeventisnotrareinhistory。IthasbeenmanifestedinastrikingmanneroflateinCubaandthePhilippines，whichpassedsuddenlyfromtheruleofSpaintothatoftheUnitedStates。

WeknowinwhatanarchyandpovertyCubaexistedunderSpanishrule；weknow，too，towhatadegreeofprosperitytheislandwasbroughtinafewyearswhenitfellintothehandsoftheUnitedStates。

ThesameexperiencewasrepeatedinthePhilippines，whichforcenturieshadbeengovernedbySpain。Finallythecountrywasnomorethanavastjungle，thehomeofepidemicsofeverykind，whereamiserablepopulationvegetatedwithoutcommerceorindustry。AfterafewyearsofAmericanrulethecountrywasentirelytransformed：malaria，yellowfever，plagueandcholerahadentirelydisappeared。Theswampsweredrained；thecountrywascoveredwithrailways，factoriesandschools。Inthirteenyearsthemortalitywasreducedbytwo—thirds。

Itistosuchexamplesthatwemustreferthetheoristwhohasnotyetgraspedtheprofoundsignificanceofthewordrace，andhowfartheancestralsoulofapeoplerulesoveritsdestiny。

2。HowthepeopleregardsRevolution。

Thepartofthepeoplehasbeenthesameinallrevolutions。Itisneverthepeoplethatconceivesthemnordirectsthem。Itsactivityisreleasedbymeansofleaders。

Onlywhenthedirectinterestsofthepeopleareinvolveddowesee，asrecentlyinChampagne，anyfractionofthepeoplerisingspontaneously。Amovementthuslocalisedconstitutesamereriot。

Revolutioniseasywhentheleadersareveryinfluential。OfthisPortugalandBrazilhaverecentlyfurnishedproofs。Butnewideaspenetratethepeopleveryslowlyindeed。Generallyitacceptsarevolutionwithoutknowingwhy，andwhenbychanceitdoessucceedinunderstandingwhy，therevolutionisoverlongago。

Thepeoplewillcreatearevolutionbecauseitispersuadedtodoso，butitdoesnotunderstandverymuchoftheideasofitsleaders；itinterpretstheminitsownfashion，andthisfashionisbynomeansthatofthetrueauthorsoftherevolution。TheFrenchRevolutionfurnishedastrikingexampleofthisfact。

TheRevolutionof1789hadasitsrealobjectthesubstitutionofthepowerofthenobilitybythatofthebourgeoisie；thatis，anoldelitewhichhadbecomeincapablewastobereplacedbyanewelitewhichdidpossesscapacity。

TherewaslittlequestionofthepeopleinthisfirstphaseoftheRevolution。Thesovereigntyofthepeoplewasproclaimed，butitamountedonlytotherightofelectingitsrepresentatives。

Extremelyilliterate，nothoping，likethemiddleclasses，toascendthesocialscale，notinanywayfeelingitselftheequalofthenobles，andnotaspiringevertobecometheirequal，thepeoplehadviewsandinterestsverydifferenttothoseoftheupperclassesofsociety。

Thestrugglesoftheassemblywiththeroyalpowerledittocallfortheinterventionofthepeopleinthesestruggles。Itintervenedmoreandmore，andthebourgeoisrevolutionrapidlybecameapopularrevolution。

Anideahavingnoforceofitsown，andactingonlybyvirtueofpossessinganaffectiveandmysticsubstratumwhichsupportsit，thetheoreticalideasofthebourgeoisie，beforetheycouldactonthepeople，hadtobetransformedintoanewandverydefinitefaith，springingfromobviouspracticalinterests。

ThistransformationwasrapidlyeffectedwhenthepeopleheardthemenenvisagedbyitastheGovernmentassuringitthatitwastheequalofitsformermasters。Itbegantoregarditselfasavictim，andproceededtopillage，burn，andmassacre，imaginingthatinsodoingitwasexercisingaright。

Thegreatstrengthoftherevolutionaryprincipleswasthattheygaveafreecoursetotheinstinctsofprimitivebarbaritywhichhadbeenrestrainedbythesecularandinhibitoryactionofenvironment，tradition，andlaw。

Allthesocialbondsthatformerlycontainedthemultitudeweredaybydaydissolving，sothatitconceivedanotionofunlimitedpower，andthejoyofseeingitsancientmastersferretedoutanddespoiled。Havingbecomethesovereignpeople，werenotallthingspermissibletoit？

ThemottoofLiberty，Equality，Fraternity，atruemanifestationofhopeandfaithatthebeginningoftheRevolution，soonmerelyservedtocoveralegaljustificationofthesentimentsofjealousy，cupidity，andhatredofsuperiors，thetruemotivesofcrowdsunrestrainedbydiscipline。ThisiswhytheRevolutionsosoonendedindisorder，violence，andanarchy。

FromthemomentwhentheRevolutiondescendedfromthemiddletothelowerclassesofsociety，itceasedtobeadominationoftheinstinctivebytherational，andbecame，onthecontrary，theeffortoftheinstinctivetooverpowertherational。

Thislegaltriumphoftheatavisticinstinctswasterrible。Thewholeeffortofsocietiesaneffortindispensabletotheircontinuedexistence——hadalwaysbeentorestrain，thankstothepoweroftradition，customs，andcodes，certainnaturalinstinctswhichmanhasinheritedfromhisprimitiveanimality。Itispossibletodominatethem——andthemoreapeopledoesovercomethemthemoreciviliseditis——buttheycannotbedestroyed。Theinfluenceofvariousexcitingcauseswillreadilyresultintheirreappearance。

Thisiswhytheliberationofpopularpassionsissodangerous。

Thetorrent，onceescapedfromitsbed，doesnotreturnuntilithasspreaddevastationfarandwide。``Woetohimwhostirsupthedregsofanation，’’saidRivarolatthebeginningoftheRevolution。``Thereisnoageofenlightenmentforthepopulace。’’

3。ThesupposedPartofthePeopleduringRevolution。

Thelawsofthepsychologyofcrowdsshowusthatthepeopleneveractswithoutleaders，andthatalthoughitplaysaconsiderablepartinrevolutionsbyfollowingandexaggeratingtheimpulsesreceived，itneverdirectsitsownmovements。

Inallpoliticalrevolutionswediscovertheactionofleaders。

Theydonotcreatetheideaswhichserveasthebasisofrevolutions，buttheyutilisethemasameansofaction。Ideas，leaders，armies，andcrowdsconstitutefourelementswhichallhavetheirparttoplayinrevolutions。

Thecrowd，rousedbytheleaders，actsespeciallybymeansofitsmass。Itsactioniscomparabletothatoftheshellwhichperforatesanarmour—platebythemomentumofaforceitdidnotcreate。Rarelydoesthecrowdunderstandanythingoftherevolutionsaccomplishedwithitsassistance。Itobedientlyfollowsitsleaderswithouteventryingtofindoutwhattheywant。ItoverthrewCharlesX。becauseofhisOrdinanceswithouthavinganyideaofthecontentsofthelatter，andwouldhavebeengreatlyembarrassedhaditbeenaskedatalaterdatewhyitoverthrewLouis—Philippe。

Deceivedbyappearances，manyauthors，fromMichelettoAulard，havesupposedthatthepeopleeffectedourgreatRevolution。

``Theprincipalactor，’’saidMichelet，``isthepeople。’’

``Itisanerrortosay，’’writesM。Aulard，``thattheFrenchRevolutionwaseffectedbyafewdistinguishedpeopleorafewheroes……Ibelievethatinthewholehistoryoftheperiodincludedbetween1789and1799notasinglepersonstandsoutwholedorshapedevents：neitherLouisXVI。norMirabeaunorDantonnorRobespierre。MustwesaythatitwastheFrenchpeoplethatwastherealherooftheFrenchRevolution？Yes——providedweseetheFrenchpeoplenotasamultitudebutasanumberoforganisedgroups。’’

AndinarecentworkM。A。Cochininsistsonthisconceptionofpopularaction。

``Andhereisthewonder：Micheletisright。Inproportionasweknowthembetterthefactsseemtoconsecratethefiction：

thiscrowd，withoutchiefsandwithoutlaws，theveryimageofchaos，didforfiveyearsgovernandcommand，speakandact，withaprecision，aconsistency，andanentiretythatweremarvellous。Anarchygavelessonsinorderanddisciplinetothedefeatedpartyoforder……twenty—fivemillionsofmen，spreadoveranareaof30，000squareleagues，actedasone。’’

Certainlyifthissimultaneousconductofthepeoplehadbeenspontaneous，astheauthorsupposes，itwouldhavebeenmarvellous。M。Aulardhimselfunderstandsverywelltheimpossibilitiesofsuchaphenomenon，forheiscareful，inspeakingofthepeople，tosaythatheisspeakingofgroups，andthatthesegroupsmayhavebeenguidedbyleaders：——

``Andwhat，then，cementedthenationalunity？Whosavedthisnation，attackedbythekingandrentbycivilwar？WasitDanton？WasitRobespierre？WasitCarnot？Certainlytheseindividualmenwereofservice：butunitywasinfactmaintainedandindependenceassuredbythegroupingoftheFrenchintocommunesandpopularsocieties——people’sclubs。ItwasthemunicipalandJacobinorganisationofFrancethatforcedthecoalitionofEuropetoretreat。Butineachgroup，ifwelookmoreclosely，thereweretwoorthreeindividualsmorecapablethantherest，who，whetherleadersorled，executeddecisionsandhadtheappearanceofleaders，butwho（if，forinstance，wereadtheproceedingsofthepeople’sclubs）seemtoustohavedrawntheirstrengthfarmorefromtheirgroupthanfromthemselves。

M。Aulard’smistakeconsistsinsupposingthatallthesegroupswerederived``fromaspontaneousmovementoffraternityandreason。’’Franceatthattimewascoveredwiththousandsoflittleclubs，receivingasingleimpulsionfromthegreatJacobinClubofParis，andobeyingitwithperfectdocility。

Thisiswhatrealityteachesus，thoughtheillusionsoftheJacobinsdonotpermitthemtoacceptthefact。[3]

[3]InthehistoricalmanualswhichM。AulardhaspreparedfortheuseofclassesincollaborationwithM。Debidourtheroleattributedtothepeopleasanentityisevenmoremarked。Weseeitinterveningcontinuallyandspontaneously；

hereareafewexamples：——

The``Day’’ofJunethe20th：``ThekingdismissedtheGirondistmembers。ThepeopleofParis，indignant，rosespontaneouslyandinvadedtheTuileries。’’

The``Day’’ofAugust10th：``TheLegislativeAssemblydarednotoverthrowit；itwasthepeopleofParis，aidedbytheFederalsoftheDepartments，whoeffectedthisrevolutionatthepriceofitsblood。’’

TheconflictoftheGirondistsandtheMountain：``Thisdiscordinthefaceoftheenemywasdangerous。Thepeopleputanendtoitonthedaysofthe31stofMayandthe2ndofJune，1793，whenitforcedtheConventiontoexpeltheleadersoftheGirondefromitsmidstandtodecreetheirarrest。’’

4。ThePopularEntityanditsConstituentElements。

Inordertoanswertocertaintheoreticalconceptionsthepeoplewaserectedintoamysticentity，endowedwithallthepowersandallthevirtues，incessantlypraisedbythepoliticians，andoverwhelmedwithflattery。WeshallseewhatwearetomakeofthisconceptionofthepartplayedbythepeopleintheFrenchRevolution。

TotheJacobinsofthisepoch，astothoseofourowndays，thispopularentityconstitutesasuperiorpersonalitypossessingtheattributes，peculiartodivinities，ofneverhavingtoanswerforitsactionsandnevermakingamistake。Itswishesmustbehumblyacceded。Thepeoplemaykill，burn，ravage，committhemostfrightfulcruelties，glorifyitsheroto—dayandthrowhimintothegutterto—morrow；itisallone；thepoliticianswillnotceasetovauntitsvirtues，itshighwisdom，andtobowtoitseverydecision。[4]

[4]Thesepretensionsdoatleastseemtobegrowinguntenabletothemoreadvancedrepublicans。

``Theragewiththesocialists’’writesM。Clemenceau，``istoendowwithallthevirtues，asthoughbyasuperhumanreason，thecrowdwhosereasoncannotbemuchtoboastof。’’Thefamousstatesmanmightsaymorecorrectlythatreasonnotonlycannotbeprominentinthecrowdbutispracticallynonexistent。

Nowinwhatdoesthisentityreallyconsist，thismysteriousfetichwhichrevolutionistshavereveredformorethanacentury？

Itmaybedecomposedintotwodistinctcategories。Thefirstincludesthepeasants，traders，andworkersofallsortswhoneedtranquillityandorderthattheymayexercisetheircalling。

Thispeopleformsthemajority，butamajoritywhichnevercausedarevolution。Livinginlaborioussilence，itisignoredbythehistorians。

Thesecondcategory，whichplaysacapitalpartinallnationaldisturbances，consistsofasubversivesocialresiduedominatedbyacriminalmentality。Degeneratesofalcoholismandpoverty，thieves，beggars，destitute``casuals，’’indifferentworkerswithoutemployment——theseconstitutethedangerousbulkofthearmiesofinsurrection。

Thefearofpunishmentpreventsmanyofthemfrombecomingcriminalsatordinarytimes，buttheydobecomecriminalsassoonastheycanexercisetheirevilinstinctswithoutdanger。

Tothissinistersubstratumareduethemassacreswhichstainallrevolutions。

Itwasthisclasswhich，guidedbyitsleaders，continuallyinvadedthegreatrevolutionaryAssemblies。Theseregimentsofdisorderhadnootheridealthanthatofmassacre，pillage，andincendiarism。Theirindifferencetotheoriesandprincipleswascomplete。

Totheelementsrecruitedfromthelowestdregsofthepopulaceareadded，bywayofcontagion，ahostofidleandindifferentpersonswhoaresimplydrawnintothemovement。Theyshoutbecausetherearemenshouting，andrevoltbecausethereisarevolt，withouthavingthevaguestideaofthecauseofshoutingorrevolution。Thesuggestivepoweroftheirenvironmentabsolutelyhypnotisesthem，andimpelsthemtoaction。

Thesenoisyandmaleficentcrowds，thekernelofallinsurrections，fromantiquitytoourowntimes，aretheonlycrowdsknowntotheorator。Totheoratortheyarethesovereignpeople。AsamatteroffactthissovereignpeopleisprincipallycomposedofthelowerpopulaceofwhomThierssaid：——

``SincethetimewhenTacitussawitapplaudthecrimesoftheemperorsthevilepopulacehasnotchanged。Thesebarbarianswhoswarmatthebottomofsocietiesarealwaysreadytostainthepeoplewitheverycrime，atthebeckofeverypower，andtothedishonourofeverycause。’’

AtnoperiodofhistorywastheroleofthelowestelementsofthepopulationexercisedinsuchalastingfashionasintheFrenchRevolution。

Themassacresbeganassoonasthebeastwasunchained——thatis，from1789，longbeforetheConvention。Theywerecarriedoutwithallpossiblerefinementsofcruelty。DuringthekillingofSeptembertheprisonerswereslowlychoppedtobitsbysabre—

cutsinordertoprolongtheiragoniesandamusethespectators，whoexperiencedthegreatestdelightbeforethespectacleoftheconvulsionsofthevictimsandtheirshrieksofagony。

SimilarsceneswereobservedalloverFrance，evenintheearlydaysoftheRevolution，althoughtheforeignwardidnotexcusethemthen，noranyotherpretext。

FromMarchtoSeptemberawholeseriesofburnings，killings，andpillagingsdrenchedallFranceinblood。Tainecitesonehundredandtwentysuchcases。Rouen，Lyons，Strasbourg，&c。，fellintothepowerofthepopulace。

TheMayorofTroyes，hiseyesdestroyedbyblowsofscissors，wasmurderedafterhoursofsuffering。TheColonelofDragoonsBelzucewascuttopieceswhileliving。Inmanyplacestheheartsofthevictimsweretornoutandcarriedaboutthecitiesonthepointofapike。

Suchisthebehaviourofthebasepopulacesosoonasimprudenthandshavebrokenthenetworkofconstraintswhichbindsitsancestralsavagery。Itmeetswitheveryindulgencebecauseitisintheinterestsofthepoliticianstoflatterit。Butletusforamomentsupposethethousandsofbeingswhoconstituteitcondensedintoonesinglebeing。Thepersonalitythusformedwouldappearasacruelandnarrowandabominablemonster，morehorriblethanthebloodiesttyrantsofhistory。

Thisimpulsiveandferociouspeoplehasalwaysbeeneasilydominatedsosoonasastrongpowerhasopposedit。Ifitsviolenceisunlimited，soisitsservility。Allthedespotismshavehaditfortheirservant。TheCaesarsarecertainofbeingacclaimedbyit，whethertheyarenamedCaligula，Nero，Marat，Robespierre，orBoulanger。

Besidethesedestructivehordeswhoseactionduringrevolutioniscapital，thereexists，aswehavealreadyremarked，themassofthetruepeople，whichasksonlytherighttolabour。Itsometimesbenefitsbyrevolutions，butnevercausesthem。Therevolutionarytheoristsknowlittleofitanddistrustit，awareofitstraditionalandconservativebasis。Theresistantnucleusofacountry，itmakesthestrengthandcontinuityofthelatter。

Extremelydocilethroughfear，easilyinfluencedbyitsleaders，itwillmomentarilycommiteveryexcesswhileundertheirinfluence，buttheancestralinertiaoftheracewillsoontakechargeagain，whichisthereasonwhyitsoquicklytiresofrevolution。Itstraditionalsoulquicklyincitesittoopposeitselftoanarchywhenthelattergoestoofar。Atsuchtimesitseekstheleaderwhowillrestoreorder。

Thispeople，resignedandpeaceable，hasevidentlynoveryloftynorcomplicatedpoliticalconceptions。Itsgovernmentalidealisalwaysverysimple，issomethingverylikedictatorship。Thisiswhy，fromthetimesoftheGreekstoourown，dictatorshiphasalwaysfollowedanarchy。ItfolloweditafterthefirstRevolution，whenBonapartewasacclaimed，andagainwhen，despiteopposition，foursuccessiveplebiscitesraisedLouisNapoleontotheheadoftherepublic，ratifiedhiscoupd’etat，re—establishedtheEmpire，andin1870，beforethewar，approvedofhisrule。